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The method of connecting a capacitor in parallel with an inductive load is known as power
factor correction. The effect of the capacitor is to increase the power factor of the source that
delivers power to the load. Also the source apparent power decreases with the connection of
the capacitor in parallel to the inductive load accompanied by decrease in the source current.
When line impedance between the source and load is included, decrease in source current
results in lower line losses and lower voltage-drops. The end result of power factor correction
is improved efficiency and improved voltage regulation.
𝑆 = √3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿
𝑆 584.2 × 103
𝐼𝐿 = = = 81.1 𝐴 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
√3𝑉𝐿 1.732 × 4160
(d) A delta-connected capacitor bank is now installed in parallel with the combined-motor load.
What value of capacitive reactance is required in each leg of the capacitor bank to make the
source power unity?
𝑄𝐶 = 234.6 𝑘𝑣𝑎𝑟
3𝑉 2
𝑄𝐶 =
𝑋∆
3𝑉 2 3(41602 )
𝑋∆ = = = 221.3 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑄𝐶 234.6 × 103
(e) Determine the magnitude of the line current delivered by the source when the capacitor
bank is installed.
𝑃 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 00 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿
535 × 103
𝐼𝐿 = = 74.25 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
1.732 × 4160
In this example, the source voltage of 4160 V is not specified as a line-to-line voltage or line-
to-neutral voltage, rms, or peak. Therefore, it is assumed to be an rms line-to-line voltage,
which is the convention throughout this text and a standard practice in the electric power
industry.
2.51. A three-phase line with an impedance of (0.2 + 𝑗1.0)Ω/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 feeds three balanced
three-phase loads connected in parallel.
Load 1: Absorbs a total of 150 kW and 120 kvar; Load 2: Delta connected with an impedance of
(150 − 𝑗48)Ω/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒; Load 3: 120 kVA at 0.6 p.f. leading. If the line to neutral voltage at the
load end of the line is 2000 V (rms), determine the magnitude of the line-to-line voltage at the
source end of the line.
SECTION 2.3
2.21. An industrial plant consisting primarily of induction motor loads absorbs 500 kW at 0.6
power factor lagging.
(a) Compute the required kVA rating of a shunt capacitor to improve the power factor to 0.9
lagging.
For the induction motor loads:
𝑃 = 500 𝑘𝑊
𝑃 500
𝑆= = = 833.3 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑝. 𝑓. 0.6
(b) Calculate the resulting power factor if a synchronous motor rated 500 hp with 90%
efficiency operating at rated load and at unity power factor is added to the plant instead of the
capacitor. Assume constant voltage (1 hp = 0.746 kW).
500 ℎ𝑝 = 500(0.746) = 373 𝑘𝑊
373
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = = 414.4 𝑘𝑊
0.9
𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑛ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 787.4
2 2
𝑆 = √𝑃𝑖𝑚+𝑠𝑚 + 𝑄𝑖𝑚 = 932.74 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 787.4
𝑝. 𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = = = 0.84
𝑆 932.74
2.20. A circuit consists of two impedances, 𝑍1 = 20∠300 ohms and 𝑍2 = 25∠600 ohms, in
parallel, supplied by a source voltage 𝑉 = 100∠600 volts. Determine the power triangle for
each of the impedances and for the source.
Solution:
(a) Power Triangle for 𝑍1
𝑉
𝐼1 = 𝑍
1
100∠00
= 20∠300 = 5∠ − 300
𝑆1 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 ∗
= (100∠00 )(5∠ − 300 )∗
= 500∠300 𝑉𝐴
𝑃1 = 500 cos 300 = 433.012 𝑊 & 𝑄1 = 500 sin 300 = 250 𝑉𝐴𝑅𝑆
(b) Power Triangle for 𝑍2
𝑉
𝐼2 = 𝑍
2
100∠00
𝐼2 = 25∠600 = 4∠ − 600
𝑆2 = 𝑉2 𝐼2∗
𝑆2 = (100∠00 )(4∠600 ) = 400∠600 𝑉𝐴
𝑃2 = 400 cos 600 = 200 𝑊
𝑄2 = 40 sin 600 = 346.41 𝑊
(c) Power triangle for the source
𝑍1 𝑍2
𝑍𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
(20∠300 )(25∠600 )
=
20∠300 + 25∠600
500∠900
=
(20 cos 300 + 𝑗20 sin 300 + 25 cos 600 + 𝑗25 sin 600 )
500∠900
=
17.321 + 𝑗10 + 12.500 + 𝑗21.651
500∠900
=
29.821 + 𝑗31.651
500∠900
=
43.487∠46.710
= 11.498∠43.290 ohms
𝑉
𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑍𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
100∠00
=
11.498∠43.290
= 8.697∠ − 43.290 𝐴
𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗
= (100∠00 )(8.697∠43.290 ) = 869.7∠43.290
𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 869.7 cos 43.290 = 633.048 𝑊
𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 869.7 sin 43.290 = 596.346 𝑉𝐴𝑅𝑆
2.19. Consider a single-phase load with applied voltage 𝑣(𝑡) = 150 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 100 ) volts and
load current 𝑖(𝑡) = 5 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 500 ).
(a) Determine the power triangle.
150∠100
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 106.066∠100
√2
5∠ − 500
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 3.536∠ − 500
√2
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗
𝑆 = (106.066∠100 )(3.536∠ − 500 )∗
𝑆 = (106.066∠100 )(3.536∠500 )
𝑆 = 375.049∠600
𝑃 = 375.049 cos 600 = 187.525 𝑊
𝑄 = 375.049 sin 600 = 324.802 𝑉𝐴𝑅𝑆
(b) Find the power factor and specify whether it is lagging or leading.
𝑝. 𝑓. = cos 600 = 0.5 (𝐿𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)
(c) Calculate the reactive power supplied by capacitors in parallel with the load and correct the
power factor to 0.9 lagging.
2.18. Let a series R-L-C network be connected to a source voltage V, drawing a current I.
(a) In terms of the load impedance 𝑍 = 𝑍∠𝑍, find expressions for 𝑃, 𝑄𝐿 , and 𝑄𝑐 , from complex
power considerations.
2.17. Consider a load impedance of 𝑍 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 connected to a voltage 𝑉 and let the current
drawn be 𝐼.
(a) Develop an expression for the reactive power 𝑄 in terms of 𝜔, 𝐿, & 𝐼, from complex power
considerations.
(b) Let the instantaneous current be 𝑖(𝑡) = √2𝐼 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃). Obtain an expression for the
instantaneous power 𝑝(𝑡) into 𝐿, and express it in terms of Q.
(c) Comment on the average real power 𝑃 supplied to the inductor and the instantaneous
power supplied.
2.1. Given the complex numbers 𝐴1 = 5∠300 and 𝐴2 = −3 + 𝑗4, answer the following
questions:
(a) Convert 𝐴1 to rectangular form.
𝐴1 = 5∠300 (polar form)
= 5 cos(300 ) + j5 sin(300 )
= 5(0.866) + 𝑗2.5
= 𝟒. 𝟑𝟑 + 𝒋𝟐. 𝟓 (rectangular form)
2.2. Convert the following instantaneous currents to phasors, using cos(𝜔𝑡) as the reference.
Give your answers both in the rectangular and polar form.
Current
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍𝑒𝑞
𝑉 75∠ − 53.130
𝐼1 = = = 7.5∠ − 900
𝑍1 10∠36.870
𝑉 75∠ − 53.130
𝐼2 = = = 12.5∠36.870
𝑍2 6∠ − 90
2.5. A 60-Hz, single-phase source with 𝑉 = 277∠300 volts is applied to a circuit element. (a)
Determine the instantaneous source voltage. Also determine the phasor and instantaneous
currents entering the positive terminal if the circuit element is (b) a 20 ohms resistor, (c) a 10-
mH inductor, and (d) a capacitor with 25-ohms reactance.
Solution:
(a) Instantaneous voltage
𝑉 277∠300
𝐼𝑅 = = = 13.85∠300 = 13.85√2 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 300 )
𝑅 20
(c) 10-mH inductor
𝑉 277∠300
𝐼𝐿 = = = 73.49∠ − 600 = 73.49√2 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 600 )
𝑋𝐿 3.769∠900
(d) Capacitor with 25-ohms reactance
𝐶 =𝐴+𝐵
|𝐶| = √A2 cos 2 𝛼 + 𝐵 2 cos2 𝛽 + 2 ABcos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + Asin2 𝛼 + Bsin2 𝛽 + 2ABsin 𝛼sin 𝛽
Given 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝛼 and β the resultant of 𝐶 can be obtained from the following formula:
Asinβ + Bsinβ
𝐶 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2ABcos(𝛼 − 𝛽) tan−1[ ]
Acosα + Bcosβ
Asinβ+Bsinβ
And 𝑐(𝑡) = √2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2ABcos(𝛼 − 𝛽)cos(𝜔𝑡 + tan−1 [Acosα+Bcosβ]
Yes, the resultant 𝑐(𝑡) has the same frequency 𝜔 as that of 𝑎(𝑡) and 𝑏(𝑡)
2.7. Let a 100-V sinusoidal source be connected to a series combination of a 3-ohms resistor, an
8-ohms inductor, and 4-ohms capacitor. (a) Draw a circuit diagram. (b) Compute the series
impedance. (c) Determine the current I delivered by the source. Is the current lagging or leading
the source voltage? What is the power factor of this circuit?
Solution:
(b) Series impedance
𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐶 ) ohms
4
= 3 + 𝑗8 − 𝑗4) ohms = (3 + j4)ohms = √32 + 42 ∠ tan−1 ( ) ohms = 5∠53.130 ohms
3
(c) Source current
100∠00
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = = 20∠ − 53.130 A
5∠53.130
The current is lagging the source voltage.
𝑝. 𝑓. = cos(−53.130 ) = 0.6
2.8. Convert the following circuit parameters into its corresponding phasor domain:
2.9. Given the following circuit parameters, compute the voltage across the load terminals:
Source voltage (𝑉𝑠 ) = 120∠00 volts
Series source impedance (Zs ) = (0.1 + j0.5)ohms = 0.51∠78.690 ohms
Load current (𝐼𝐿 ) = 60∠00
Voltage across load terminal (𝑉𝐿 ) = 120∠00 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝑠
𝑉𝐿 = 120∠00 − (60∠00 )(0.51∠78.690 ) = 120∠00 − 30.6∠78.690
= 120 − (30.6cos78.690 − 𝑗30.6 sin 78.690 )
= 120 − 6.001 + 𝑗30.006 = 113.999 + 𝑗30.006 = 117.88∠14.750
2.10. The instantaneous voltage across a circuit element is 𝑣(𝑡) = 359.3 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 150 ) volts,
and the instantaneous current entering the positive terminal of the circuit element is 𝑖(𝑡) =
100 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 50 ) A. Calculate (a) the instantaneous power absorbed, (b) the real power (state
whether it is delivered or absorbed), (c) the reactive power (state whether delivered or
absorbed), (d) the power factor (state whether lagging or leading).
Solution:
(a) Instantaneous power 𝑝(𝑡)
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)𝑖(𝑡)
= [359.3 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 150 )][100 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 50 )]
= (359.3)(100) cos(ωt + 150 − 900 ) cos(𝜔𝑡 + 50 )
= (359.3)(100)cos(𝜔𝑡 − 750 ) cos(𝜔𝑡 + 50 )
(359.3)(100)
= [cos(ωt − 750 − 𝜔𝑡 − 50 ) + cos(𝜔𝑡 − 750 + 𝜔𝑡 + 50 )]
2
359.3 100
=( )( ) [cos(−800 ) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 700 )]
√2 √2
= (254.06)(70.71)[0.1736 + cos(2ωt − 700 )]
= 3,119.52 + 1.797 × 104 [cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 700 )]
= 3,119.52 + 1.797 × 104 [cos(2𝜔𝑡) cos(−700 ) + sin(2𝜔𝑡) sin(−700 )]
= 3,119.52 + 1.797 × 104 [0.3420 cos(2𝜔𝑡) − 0.9397 sin(2𝜔𝑡)]
= 3,119.52 + 1.797 × 103 (0.4420) cos(2𝜔𝑡) − 1.797 × 104 (0.9397)sin(2𝜔𝑡)
2.11. A 60-Hz, single phase source with 𝑉 = 277∠300 volts is applied to a circuit element.
Determine the instantaneous power, real power, and reactive power absorbed by: (a) the 20-
ohms resistor, (b) the 10-mH inductor, (c) the capacitor with 25-ohms reactance. Also
determine the source power factor and state whether lagging or leading.
Solution:
(a) 20-ohms resistor
277
𝑃𝑅 = VIcos(δ − β) = (277) ( ) cos(300 − 300 ) = 3,836.45 watts
20
277
𝑄𝑅 = VIsin(𝛿 − 𝛽) = (277) ( ) sin(300 − 300 ) = 0 watts
10
Source power factor (p. f. ) = cos(𝛿 − 𝛽) = cos 00 = 1
(b) 10-mH inductor
𝑝𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡)𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
277√2
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = [cos(𝜔𝑡 + 300 − 900 ]
𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2 × 𝜋 × 60 × 10 × 10−3 = 3.7699 ohms
277√2
𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) = [cos(𝜔𝑡 + 300 + 900 )] = 11.08√2 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 1200 )
25
2
𝑝𝐶 (𝑡) = (277)(11.08) cos(𝜔𝑡 + 300 ) cos(𝜔𝑡 + 1200 )
2
𝑝𝐶 (𝑡) = (277)(11.08)[cos(−900 ) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 1500 )]
𝑝𝐶 (𝑡) = 3,069.16 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 1500 ) 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝛿 − 𝛽) = VIcos(−900 ) = 0 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑄𝐿 = VIsin(𝛿 − 𝛽) = 3,069.16 sin(−900 ) = −3,069.16 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑝. 𝑓. = cos(−900 ) = 0 Leading
2.12. The voltage 𝑣(𝑡) = 359.3 cos(𝜔𝑡)volts is applied to a load consisting of a 10-ohms
resistor in parallel with a capacitive reactance 𝑋𝐶 = 25 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠. Calculate (a) the instantaneous
power absorbed by the resistor, (b) the instantaneous power absorbed by the capacitor, (c) the
real power absorbed by the resistor, (d) the reactive power delivered by the capacitor, (e) the
load power factor.
Solution:
(a) The instantaneous power absorbed the resistor:
𝑣𝑅 (𝑡) = 359.3 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) = 35.93 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝑝𝑅 (𝑡) = (359.3)(35.93) cos 2 (𝜔𝑡)
1
𝑝𝑅 (𝑡) = ( ) (12,909.649)[1 + cos(2𝜔𝑡)] = 6,454.8245[1 + cos(2𝜔𝑡)] 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
2
(b) The instantaneous power absorbed by the capacitor:
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 359.3 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) = 14.372 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 900 )
𝑝𝐶 (𝑡) = (359.3)(14.372) cos(𝜔𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑡 + 900 )
1
𝑝𝐶 (𝑡) = ( ) (5,163.85)[cos(−900 ) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 900 )
2
= 2,581.925 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 900 ) watts
= −2,581.925 sin(2𝜔𝑡) watts
(c) The real power absorbed by the resistor:
359.3 35.93
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) = VIcos(00 ) = ( )( ) = 6,454.8245 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
2 2
𝑉 2 254.062
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼 = = = 6,454.8245 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑅 10
(d) The reactive power delivered by the capacitor:
2
13.34 2
𝑄𝐶 = 𝐼 𝑋𝐶 = ( ) (25) = −2,224.445 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑠 (𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑)
√2
(e) The load power factor:
−𝑄𝐶
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝜃𝐿 ) = tan−1 ( ) = −68.19850
𝑃𝑅
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝. 𝑓. = cos(−68.19850 ) = 0.3714 (𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
2.16. A single-phase, 120-V (rms), 60-Hz source supplies power to the series R-L circuit
consisting of 𝑅 = 10 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 and 𝐿 = 40 𝑚𝐻. (a) Determine the power factor of the circuit and
state whether it is lagging or leading. (b) Determine the real and reactive power absorbed by
the load. (c) Calculate the peak magnetic energy 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 stored in the inductor by using the
expression 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐿(𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2 and check whether the reactive power is satisfied.
Solution:
(a) Power factor of the circuit:
Load impedance = 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 10 + 𝑗(2 × 𝜋 × 50 × 40 × 10−3 ) = 10 + 𝑗15.08
𝑍𝐿 = 18.09∠56.450
𝑃. 𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = cos(56.450 ) = 0.5527 (𝐿𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)
120∠00
𝐼𝐿 =
18.09∠56.450
𝐼𝐿 = 6.633∠ − 56.450
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) = (120)(6.633) cos(−56.450 ) = 439.8988 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑉𝐼 sin(𝛿 − 𝛽) = (120)(6.633) sin(−56.450 ) = −663.356 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑠
(c) Peak magnetic energy stored in the inductor:
2.40 A balanced three-phase 240-V source supplies a balanced three-phase load. If the line
current 𝐼𝐴 is measured to be 15 A and is in phase with the line to line-to-line voltage, 𝑉𝐵𝐶 , find
the per phase load impedance if the load is (a) Y-connected , (b) Δ-connected.
Solution:
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 240∠00 𝑉
240∠−300
𝑉𝐴𝑁 = = 138.56∠−300 𝑉
√3
𝐼𝐿 = 15∠−900 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑃
138.56∠−300
𝑍𝑌 = = 9.24∠600 = 4.62 + 𝑗8.00
15∠ − 900
𝑍Δ = 3𝑍𝑌 = 𝑗27.72 Ω
2.42 A balanced Δ-connected impedance load with (12 + 𝑗9)Ω per-phase is supplied by a
balanced three-phase 60-Hz, 208-V source, (a) Calculate the line current, the total real and
reactive power absorbed by the load, the load power factor, and the apparent load power. (b)
Sketch a phasor diagram showing the line currents, the line-to-line source voltages, and the Δ-
load currents. Use 𝑉𝑎𝑏 as the reference.
Solution:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 208∠300 𝑉
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 208∠ − 900 𝑉
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 208∠1500 𝑉
9
𝑍Δ = √122 + 92 ∠ tan−1 ( ) = 15∠36.870 Ω
12
𝑉𝑎𝑏 208∠300
𝐼𝑎𝑏 = = = 13.87∠−6.870 𝐴
𝑍Δ 15∠36.870
𝐼𝑏𝑐 = 13.87∠ − 126.870 𝐴
𝐼𝑐𝑎 = 13.87∠113.130 𝐴
𝐼𝑎 = 13.87√3∠ − 36.870 𝐴
𝐼𝑏 = 13.87∠ − 156.870 𝐴
𝐼𝑐 = 13.87∠83.130 𝐴