Power Plant Technology Course

Yokogawa Simulation (TechComm)
Power Plant Technology

Course
Power Plant Technology Module Version (5) March 2011

© TechComm, a Division of Yokogawa Aust P/L
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 13
Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................ 13
Disclaimer................................................................................................................ 13
Assessment: Evaluation, Recording and Reporting............................................ 13
1. A Theoretical overview of Steam Generation .............................................. 14
1.1 Advantages of water/steam as a working medium.................................................. 14
1.2 The Generation of Steam from Water ....................................................................... 14
1.3 The Nature of Steam ................................................................................................... 15
1.4 Heat Transfer............................................................................................................... 20
1.5 Obstacles to transfer of heat ..................................................................................... 23
2. Boiler Construction ........................................................................................ 25
2.1 Furnace ........................................................................................................................ 27
2.2 Economiser ................................................................................................................. 31
2.2.1 Economiser fittings ......................................................................................... 35
2.2.1.1 Feed check valve(s) .............................................................................. 35
2.2.1.2 Economiser recirculation valve ............................................................... 35
2.2.1.3 Drain valves......................................................................................... 35
2.2.1.4 Vent valves (air releases) ...................................................................... 35
2.3 Boiler drum.................................................................................................................. 36
2.3.1 Boiler drum fittings (external) ........................................................................... 39
2.3.1.1 Boiler drum gauge glass ........................................................................ 39
2.3.1.2 Downcomer pipework............................................................................ 39
2.3.1.3 Feedwater inlet pipework ....................................................................... 39
2.3.1.4 Saturated steam outlet pipework ............................................................. 39
2.3.1.5 Waterwall return pipework ..................................................................... 40
2.3.1.6 Boiler drum safety valves ....................................................................... 40
2.3.1.7 Access holes ....................................................................................... 40
2.3.1.8 Boiler drum blowdown valves ................................................................. 40
2.3.1.9 Vent valves (air releases) ...................................................................... 40
2.3.1.10 Pressure tapping lines ........................................................................... 41
2.3.1.11 Steam and water sampling lines ............................................................. 41
2.3.1.12 Chemical injection lines ......................................................................... 41
2.3.2 Internal boiler drum fittings .............................................................................. 41
2.3.2.1 Steam washers .................................................................................... 41
2.3.2.2 Steam baffles, cyclones and scrubbers .................................................... 41
2.4 Boiler water circulatory system ................................................................................ 42
2.4.1 Natural circulation .......................................................................................... 43
2.4.2 Forced circulation........................................................................................... 46
2.4.3 Super- Critical boilers ..................................................................................... 49
2.5 Boiler Circulatory System Fittings (sub-critical boilers) ........................................ 50
2.5.1 Downcomers ................................................................................................. 50
2.5.2 Forced circulation equipment ........................................................................... 50
2.5.3 Bottom distribution and interconnecting headers ................................................. 50
2.5.4 Waterwall riser tubes ...................................................................................... 52
2.5.5 Chemical injection pipework ............................................................................ 52
2.5.6 Bottom distribution header drains ..................................................................... 52
2.5.7 Waterwall riser tubes vent valves ..................................................................... 52
2.6 Superheaters ............................................................................................................... 52
Page 2 of 436 Version (5) March 2011 Power Plant Technology Module
2.6.1 Temperature control of superheater steam outlet temperature .............................. 56

2.6.2 Superheater fittings ........................................................................................ 59
2.6.2.1 Boiler stop valve(s) ............................................................................... 59
2.6.2.2 Superheater desuperheater ................................................................... 59
2.6.2.3 Inlet and outlet headers ......................................................................... 60
2.6.2.4 Safety valve(s) ..................................................................................... 60
2.6.2.5 Header drain and vent valves ................................................................. 60
2.6.2.6 Superheater starting up valve ................................................................. 60
2.6.2.7 Thermocouples .................................................................................... 61
2.7 Reheater ...................................................................................................................... 61
2.7.1 Reheater fittings ............................................................................................ 61
2.7.1.1 Reheater desuperheater ........................................................................ 63
2.7.1.2 Inlet and outlet headers ......................................................................... 63
2.7.1.3 Safety valve(s) ..................................................................................... 63
2.7.1.4 Hot and cold reheat line drains ............................................................... 63
2.7.1.5 Thermocouples .................................................................................... 63
3. Boiler Draft System ........................................................................................ 64
3.1 Air and Flue Gas Path ................................................................................................ 66
3.2 Boiler Draught Fans ................................................................................................... 67
3.2.1 Control of fan output ....................................................................................... 67
3.2.1.1 Damper control .................................................................................... 68
3.2.1.2 Inlet vane control .................................................................................. 69
3.2.1.3 Inlet louvre control ................................................................................ 70
3.2.1.4 Variable speed control........................................................................... 71
3.2.1.5 Variable pitched blades ......................................................................... 71
3.2.2 Forced draft (FD) fans .................................................................................... 71
3.2.3 Induced draft (ID) fans .................................................................................... 72
3.2.4 Primary air (PA) fans (for pressure type mills) .................................................... 72
3.2.5 Exhausters (for suction type mills) .................................................................... 72
3.3 Air heaters ................................................................................................................... 73
3.3.1 Recuperative multi-pass tubular air heater ......................................................... 73
3.3.2 Plate type recuperative air heater ..................................................................... 75
3.3.3 Regenerative type air heater ............................................................................ 76
3.3.4 Twin-flow regenerative air heaters .................................................................... 76
3.3.5 Sootblowers .................................................................................................. 77
3.3.6 Air heater fires ............................................................................................... 77
3.4 Boiler Casings, Ducting, Dampers and Vanes ......................................................... 81
3.4.1 Boiler Casings ............................................................................................... 81
3.4.2 Air Ducts 81
3.4.3 Dampers and Vanes ....................................................................................... 81
4. The Boiler as a Heat Exchanger .................................................................... 82
4.1 Factors Effecting Boiler Heat Exchange Rate.......................................................... 85
4.1.1 Fouling of the Furnace Water Wall Tubes .......................................................... 85
4.1.2 Fouling of the Superheater-Reheater ................................................................ 86
4.1.3 Internal Fouling of Superheater – Reheater Tubes .............................................. 87
4.1.4 Fouling of the Economiser ............................................................................... 87
4.1.5 Air Heater Fouling .......................................................................................... 87
4.1.6 Sootblowers .................................................................................................. 88
4.1.6.1 Short Retractable Blowers ..................................................................... 88
4.1.6.2 Long Retractable (Lance) Blowers .......................................................... 88
4.1.6.3 Swinging or Fixed Arm Blowers .............................................................. 89
4.1.7 Air Leakage through Air Heaters ...................................................................... 89
4.1.8 Boiler Tube Leakage ...................................................................................... 89
4.1.8.1 Economiser Tube Leak ......................................................................... 89
4.1.8.2 Water Wall Tube Leak ........................................................................... 90
4.1.8.3 Superheater Tube Leak ......................................................................... 91
Power Plant Technology Module Version (2) May 2008 Page 3 of 436
TSQS/COUR/091 © TechComm Simulation, a Division of Yokogawa Aust P/L
5. Combustion Theory ....................................................................................... 92

5.1 Fundamentals of combustion.................................................................................... 92
5.2 Fuels and their Constituents ..................................................................................... 93
5.3 Combustion Reactions for Fuel Constituents ......................................................... 94
5.4 The Provision of Air to Support Combustion .......................................................... 94
5.4.1 Air: Fuel Ratio and the Provision of Excess Air ................................................... 95
5.5 Factors Contributing to Complete Combustion of a Fuel Particle ......................... 97
6. Boiler Firing Equipment ................................................................................. 97
6.1 Oil Burning Equipment............................................................................................... 97
6.1.1 Oil Burner Operation....................................................................................... 98
6.1.2 Emission Control ............................................................................................ 99
6.1.2.1 Causes of Incomplete Combustion (black smoke) ..................................... 99
6.2 Pulverising Fuel Equipment (PF) ............................................................................ 101
6.2.1 Operating Pinciple of a PF Combustion Group ................................................. 101
6.2.2 Components of a PF Combustion Group ......................................................... 101
6.2.2.1 Coal bunker ....................................................................................... 103
6.2.2.2 Coal chute gate valve.......................................................................... 103
6.2.2.3 Coal feeder........................................................................................ 103
6.2.2.4 Rotary star feeder ............................................................................... 103
6.2.2.5 Table type feeder ............................................................................... 103
6.2.2.6 Belt type gravimetric feeder.................................................................. 105
6.2.2.7 Belt type volumetric feeder................................................................... 106
6.2.2.8 Problems associated with coal feeders .................................................. 106
6.2.3 Pulverised fuel mills...................................................................................... 106
6.2.3.1 Tube-ball Mill ..................................................................................... 107
6.2.3.2 Ring-roll type mill ................................................................................ 109
6.2.3.3 Roll-table type mill .............................................................................. 111
6.2.3.4 Ball-race mill ...................................................................................... 113
6.3 Factors Affecting Mill Output .................................................................................. 114
6.4 Mill primary air system ............................................................................................. 114
6.4.1 Sealing air................................................................................................... 122
6.4.2 Classifier (or separator)................................................................................. 122
6.4.2.1 Rotary classifier ................................................................................. 122
6.4.2.2 Stationary classifier............................................................................. 123
6.4.3 Hot and cold air duct isolating dampers ........................................................... 123
6.4.4 Pulverised fuel and air piping, line isolating dampers or valves and non-return valves123
6.4.5 Riffle boxes ................................................................................................. 124
7. Types of Pulverised Coal Burners .............................................................. 127
7.1 Long Flame, Pulverised Fuel Jet Burner ................................................................ 127
7.2 The Short Flame, Turbulent Burner ........................................................................ 129
7.2.1 Tilting burners ............................................................................................. 130
8. Loss of Ignition and Boiler Explosions ...................................................... 131
9. Coal Supply and Ash and Dust Removal ................................................... 132
9.1 Coal Plants and Bunkering ...................................................................................... 132
9.1.1 Belt Conveyors Direct from the Mines ............................................................. 132
9.1.2 Rail Trucks .................................................................................................. 132
9.1.3 Road Trucks................................................................................................ 132
9.2 Stacking Out and Reclaiming Systems .................................................................. 133
9.3 Bunkering .................................................................................................................. 133
9.4 Chute Gates............................................................................................................... 134
9.5 Feeders ...................................................................................................................... 134
9.5.1 Plough Feeders ........................................................................................... 134

9.6 Conveyor Protection ................................................................................................ 135
9.6.1 Underspeed Switches ................................................................................... 135
9.6.2 Belt Brakes ................................................................................................. 135
9.6.3 Belt Tracking Protection ................................................................................ 135
9.6.4 Conveyor Emergency Trip Wires and Switches ................................................ 135
9.6.5 Conveyor Drive Motor Protection .................................................................... 135
9.6.6 Conveyor Warning Siren and Beacons ............................................................ 136
9.6.7 Over Magnets .............................................................................................. 136
9.7 Start, Stop and Trip Interlocks ................................................................................ 136
9.7.1 Start Sequence ............................................................................................ 136
9.7.2 Stop Sequence ............................................................................................ 137
9.7.3 Trip 137
9.8 Start Interlocks and Typical Bunkering Sequence ................................................ 137
9.8.1 Bunkering Stop Sequence ............................................................................. 137
9.9 Operation ................................................................................................................... 138
9.9.1 Operator Responsibilities .............................................................................. 138
9.9.2 Fire Hazards ............................................................................................... 138
10. Ash and Dust Removal ................................................................................ 139
10.1 Introduction to Ash and Dust Handling Plant ........................................................ 139
10.2 General Overview of System ................................................................................... 140
10.2.1 Ash Hopper ................................................................................................. 140
10.2.2 Back Pass Hopper ....................................................................................... 140
10.2.3 Precipitator (or Fabric Filter) .......................................................................... 140
10.3 Bottom Ash ............................................................................................................... 142
10.3.1 Bottom Ash Removal .................................................................................... 142
10.3.2 Sluice Water Transport Removal .................................................................... 142
10.3.3 Chain Grate Bottom Ash Transport Systems .................................................... 143
10.3.4 Fluidised Bed Furnace Bottom Ash Removal.................................................... 143
10.4 Intermediate Ash....................................................................................................... 144
10.5 Fly Ash ....................................................................................................................... 144
10.6 Precipitators .............................................................................................................. 145
10.6.1 Principle of Operation of Electrostatic precipitator ............................................. 145
10.6.2 Collector Plates and Discharge Electrodes ...................................................... 147
10.6.3 Rapping 148
10.6.3.1 Motor Driven Rotating Shaft Operated Falling Hammers .......................... 149
10.6.3.2 Shaft Driven Cams ............................................................................. 149
10.6.3.3 Solenoid Type Rappers ....................................................................... 149
10.6.3.4 Vibrators ........................................................................................... 149
10.6.3.5 High Voltage Hazard ........................................................................... 150
10.6.3.6 Hopper Heaters .................................................................................. 150
10.6.4 Dew Point Problems ..................................................................................... 151
10.6.4.1 Ammonia Gas Injection ....................................................................... 151
10.6.4.2 Ammonia Gas Hazard ......................................................................... 151
10.7 Fabric Filters ............................................................................................................. 154
10.7.1 Pulse Air Type Fabric Filter ........................................................................... 155
10.7.2 Principle of Fabric Filter Bag Pulsing (Cleaning) ............................................... 156
10.7.3 Pulse Valve Operation .................................................................................. 158
10.7.4 Hopper Heaters ........................................................................................... 158
10.7.5 Shaker Type Fabric Filter .............................................................................. 160
10.8 Ash Removal and Transport .................................................................................... 160
10.8.1 Vacuum Removal (Ejectors) .......................................................................... 160
10.8.2 Air Slide Removal ........................................................................................ 161
10.8.3 Collection Vessels (or DEPACS) .................................................................... 161
10.8.3.1 Sequence of Operation ....................................................................... 161
10.9 Dry Ash Handling...................................................................................................... 165

10.9.1 Ash Silos 166
10.9.2 Vacuum Fans .............................................................................................. 166
10.9.3 Rotary Valves .............................................................................................. 166
10.9.4 Conditioners (or Humidifiers) ......................................................................... 167
10.9.5 Ash Mixing Tank .......................................................................................... 168
10.9.6 Pumping Systems ........................................................................................ 168
11. Overview of a Steam Turbine ...................................................................... 170
11.1 History of the Steam Turbine................................................................................... 170
11.2 Early Applications .................................................................................................... 170
11.3 Benefits of Steam Turbines ..................................................................................... 170
11.4 Basic Construction of a Steam Turbine ................................................................. 171
11.5 Principles of operation of a steam turbine ............................................................. 171
12. Components of a Turbine ............................................................................ 171
12.1 Turbine cylinder(s) ................................................................................................... 173
12.1.1 Casing flanges............................................................................................. 177
12.1.2 Flange warming ........................................................................................... 178
12.2 Turbine rotor ............................................................................................................. 181
12.2.1 Forged steel drum rotor................................................................................. 181
12.2.2 Solid forged rotor ......................................................................................... 182
12.2.3 Disc rotor .................................................................................................... 183
12.3 Turbine blade fixing.................................................................................................. 186
12.3.1 Groove construction ..................................................................................... 186
12.3.2 Straddle construction .................................................................................... 187
12.3.3 Riveted construction ..................................................................................... 188
12.3.4 Peripheral blade fixing .................................................................................. 188
12.4 Couplings .................................................................................................................. 191
12.4.1 Flexible couplings ........................................................................................ 191
12.4.2 Solid shaft coupling ...................................................................................... 193
12.5 Classification of turbines ......................................................................................... 195
12.5.1 Type of flow ................................................................................................ 195
12.5.2 Cylinder arrangement ................................................................................... 197
12.5.2.1 Single cylinder construction.................................................................. 197
12.5.2.2 Tandem construction .......................................................................... 197
12.5.3 Types of blading .......................................................................................... 203
12.5.3.1 Impulse Blading ................................................................................. 203
12.5.4 Reaction Blading.......................................................................................... 204
12.5.5 Nozzle Plates .............................................................................................. 206
12.5.5.1 Nozzle segments ................................................................................ 206
12.5.5.2 Centre ring(s) or diaphragm ................................................................. 206
12.5.5.3 Baffle strip gland ................................................................................ 206
12.5.6 Diaphragms ................................................................................................ 208
12.5.6.1 Nozzle segments ................................................................................ 208
12.5.6.2 Centre ring(s) or diaphragm ................................................................. 208
12.5.6.3 Baffle strip gland ................................................................................ 208
13. Turbine Supervisory Equipment ................................................................. 210
13.1 Turbine Speed ........................................................................................................... 212
13.1.1 Typical Electrical Speed Detector ................................................................... 213
13.1.2 Mechanical Over-Speed Device ..................................................................... 214
13.1.3 Electrical Over-Speed ................................................................................... 214
13.1.4 Poisson’s Effect ........................................................................................... 215
13.2 HP Rotor Differential Expansion ............................................................................. 215
13.2.1 Possible Causes of Differential Expansion ....................................................... 216
13.2.2 Actions in Response to Differential Expansion Excursions ................................. 216
13.2.3 Detection of Differential expansion ................................................................. 216

13.2.3.1 Shaft Collar ....................................................................................... 216
13.2.3.2 Detector Heads .................................................................................. 216
13.2.4 Typical Values for HP and LP Differential Expansion ......................................... 218
13.3 HP Rotor Eccentricity ............................................................................................... 219
13.3.1 Measurement of Turbine Eccentricity .............................................................. 219
13.4 HP Pedestal Displacement....................................................................................... 220
13.5 Turbine Casing Top to Bottom Temperature Differential ..................................... 221
13.5.1 Typical Casing Top to Bottom Temperature Differential Limits ............................ 221
13.6 Bearing Vibration ...................................................................................................... 222
13.6.1 Typical Turbine Vibration Limits...................................................................... 223
13.7 Thrust Bearing Failure Protection........................................................................... 224
13.7.1 Typical Thrust Bearing Shaft Position Limits..................................................... 224
13.8 Condenser Vacuum .................................................................................................. 225
13.8.1 Typical Condenser Pressure Limits ................................................................. 225
13.9 LP Turbine Exhaust Hood Temperature ................................................................. 225
13.9.1 LP Turbine Exhaust Hood Spray System ......................................................... 226
13.10 STEAM TURBINE SPEED CONTROL ...................................................................... 226
13.10.1 The Principles of Governing........................................................................... 226
13.10.2 The Speeder Gear of a Turbine Governor ........................................................ 226
13.10.3 Over-speed Control of a Turbine .................................................................... 227
13.10.4 Summary of Speed Control Systems............................................................... 228
13.10.5 Governor Control Valves ............................................................................... 228
13.10.5.1 Throttle Control .................................................................................. 228
13.10.5.2 Nozzle Control ................................................................................... 228
13.10.6 HP Emergency Stop Valves........................................................................... 229
13.10.7 Load Pay Off or Unloading Gear .................................................................... 229
13.10.8 Summary of Functions Performed by a Speed Control System ........................... 230
14. Basic Steam Cycle ....................................................................................... 233
15. Turbine Gland Sealing System.................................................................... 236
15.1 Function of the Gland Seal System ........................................................................ 236
15.2 Components of the Gland Seal System.................................................................. 236
15.3 Operation of the Gland Seal System....................................................................... 236
15.3.1 Typical Gland Steam System Alarms. ............................................................. 238
15.4 Turbine Bearings and Lubricating Oil System....................................................... 239
15.4.1 Journal Bearings .......................................................................................... 239
15.4.2 Journal Bearing Vibration Monitoring............................................................... 241
15.4.3 Thrust Bearings ........................................................................................... 242
15.5 Turbine Lubrication .................................................................................................. 244
15.6 Function of a Lubricant ............................................................................................ 244
15.7 Establishment of Oil Film......................................................................................... 244
15.7.1 Boundary Lubrication .................................................................................... 245
15.7.2 Hydrostatic Lubrication ................................................................................. 245
15.7.3 Hydrodynamic Lubrication ............................................................................. 246
15.8 Components of a Turbine Lubricating Oil System ................................................ 246
15.9 Main Oil Tank ............................................................................................................ 247
15.10 Vapour Extraction Fans ........................................................................................... 247
15.11 Oil Pumps .................................................................................................................. 249
15.11.1 Typical Oil Pressure Settings ......................................................................... 249
15.12 Oil Pressure Accumulators...................................................................................... 250
15.13 Jacking Oil Pump...................................................................................................... 250
15.14 Lubricating Oil Coolers ............................................................................................ 252
15.14.1 Preparation of Oil Coolers for Service ............................................................. 252

15.15 Lubricating Oil Filters and Strainers....................................................................... 253
15.15.1 Duplex Filters .............................................................................................. 253
15.15.2 Auto-Klean Strainers .................................................................................... 254
15.15.3 Bearing In-line Strainers ................................................................................ 255
15.16 Side-stream Oil Purification System ....................................................................... 256
15.16.1 Oil Centrifuge .............................................................................................. 256
15.16.2 Turbine Oil Filter/ Coalescing System ............................................................. 258
15.17 Supply and Return Pipework, Valving and Fittings............................................... 259
15.18 Monitoring and Protection Instrumentation ........................................................... 260
15.18.1 Nominal Turbine Oil Operating Temperatures .................................................. 261
15.19 Removal of the Steam Turbine Lubricating Oil System from Service ................. 261
16. Condenser..................................................................................................... 262
16.1 Function of the Condenser ...................................................................................... 262
16.2 The Condenser as a Deaerator ................................................................................ 263
16.3 Condenser Air Extraction system ........................................................................... 265
16.4 Types of Air Extraction Unit. ................................................................................... 266
16.4.1 The Steam Jet Air Ejector.............................................................................. 266
16.5 Condenser Construction.......................................................................................... 269
16.5.1 Condenser Tubes ........................................................................................ 269
16.5.2 Condenser Tube Supports............................................................................. 270
16.5.3 Explosion Diaphragms .................................................................................. 270
16.5.4 Flexible Connections .................................................................................... 271
16.5.5 Condenser Cooling Water Flow ...................................................................... 271
16.6 Water-Box Fouling and Use of Ball Cleaning Systems ......................................... 272
16.7 Access to Condenser ............................................................................................... 273
16.8 LP Turbine Exhaust Spray Cooling System ........................................................... 273
17. Condensate System ..................................................................................... 274
17.1 Condensate Extraction Pumps................................................................................ 275
17.2 Condenser Level Control ......................................................................................... 275
17.2.1 Minimum Condensate Flow Control System ..................................................... 275
17.3 Low Pressure Regenerative Heat Exchangers ...................................................... 276
17.3.1 Moisture Extractors ...................................................................................... 276
17.3.2 Steam Jet Air Ejector Surface Condensers ...................................................... 276
17.3.3 Gland Steam Condensers ............................................................................. 277
17.3.4 Low Pressure Feedwater Heaters................................................................... 277
17.3.5 Deaerators .................................................................................................. 277
17.4 Reserve feedwater Tanks (surge tank) ................................................................... 278
17.5 Chemical Dosing and Water Quality Sampling ...................................................... 278
18. Main Cooling Water Systems ...................................................................... 278
18.1 Types of Main Cooling Water System..................................................................... 279
18.1.1 Open (or Once Through) Cooling Water System ............................................... 279
18.1.2 Closed Cooling Water System ....................................................................... 280
18.1.3 Combined Cooling Water System ................................................................... 281
18.2 Components of the System ..................................................................................... 283
18.2.1 The Cooling Water Source ............................................................................ 283
18.2.2 Cooling Towers............................................................................................ 284
18.2.3 Natural Draft Cooling Towers ......................................................................... 284
18.2.4 Fan Assisted Cooling Towers ........................................................................ 286
18.2.5 Forced Draft Cooling Towers ......................................................................... 287
18.2.6 Induced Draft Cooling Towers. ....................................................................... 287
18.2.7 Hot Water Distribution Systems ...................................................................... 289
18.2.8 Cooling Tower Fans ..................................................................................... 290

18.2.9 Air Flow and Water Temperature Control ......................................................... 290
18.2.10 Cooling Tower Basin .................................................................................... 290
18.2.11 Cooling Tower Makeup ................................................................................. 291
18.2.12 Blowdown and Chemical Dosing .................................................................... 291
18.2.13 Cooling Tower Wet-down System ................................................................... 292
18.2.14 Circulating Water Pumps............................................................................... 293
18.2.15 Debris Screens ............................................................................................ 293
18.3 Auxiliary Cooling Water Systems ........................................................................... 293
19. Water Treatment and Water Systems ......................................................... 296
19.1 Impurities and Contaminants in Water ................................................................... 296
19.2 Turbidity .................................................................................................................... 298
19.2.1 Impact of Turbidity on Humans....................................................................... 298
19.3 Water Borne Solids................................................................................................... 299
19.3.1 Organic Solids ............................................................................................. 299
19.3.2 Inorganic Solids ........................................................................................... 299
19.3.3 Suspended Solids ........................................................................................ 299
19.3.4 Settle-able Solids ......................................................................................... 299
19.3.5 Colloidal Solids ............................................................................................ 300
19.3.6 Measurement of Total Suspended Solids......................................................... 300
19.3.7 Dissolved Solids .......................................................................................... 300
19.3.8 Measurement of Total Dissolved Solids ........................................................... 301
19.3.9 Total Solids ................................................................................................. 301
19.4 Hardness ................................................................................................................... 301
19.4.1 Effects of Water Hardness ............................................................................. 301
19.4.2 Measurement of Hardness ............................................................................ 302
19.5 Conductivity .............................................................................................................. 302
19.5.1 Method of Measuring Conductivity .................................................................. 302
19.6 Dissolved Oxygen..................................................................................................... 303
19.6.1 Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen ................................................................ 304
19.7 Water Treatment Processes .................................................................................... 304
19.7.1 Pre-Filtering ................................................................................................ 305
19.8 Clarification ............................................................................................................... 306
19.8.1 The Coagulation Process .............................................................................. 306
19.8.2 Flocculation and Sedimentation ..................................................................... 306
19.9 Filtration .................................................................................................................... 307
19.9.1 Gravity Fed Sand Filters ............................................................................... 307
19.10 Pressure Filters......................................................................................................... 311
19.10.1 Sand and Multi-media Filters ......................................................................... 311
19.10.2 Activated Carbon Filters ................................................................................ 311
19.11 Demineralisation ....................................................................................................... 312
19.11.1 Degasification .............................................................................................. 313
19.11.2 Addition of a Mixed Bed Polishing Vessel to the Demineralised Water Train ......... 314
19.11.3 Monitoring Water Quality ............................................................................... 315
19.11.4 Single Pass Demineralisation ........................................................................ 316
19.11.5 Regeneration of a Demineraliser Train ............................................................ 316
19.11.6 Regeneration of a Mixed Bed Polishing Vessel ................................................. 317
19.12 Feedwater and Condensate Polishing .................................................................... 318
19.13 Osmosis..................................................................................................................... 318
19.13.1 Reverse Osmosis......................................................................................... 320
19.14 Effects of Water Borne Contaminants on Condensate, Feedwater and Boiler
components........................................................................................................................ 323
19.14.1 Carbon Dioxide ............................................................................................ 323
19.14.2 Oxygen 323
19.14.3 Pitting 323

19.14.4 Crevice Corrosion ........................................................................................ 324
19.14.5 Acid Attack .................................................................................................. 324
19.14.6 Ammonia Corrosion...................................................................................... 325
19.15 Scale Formation ........................................................................................................ 325
19.16 Oil Contamination ..................................................................................................... 325
19.17 Resin Carry-over ....................................................................................................... 326
19.18 Sodium Slip ............................................................................................................... 327
19.19 Flow Assisted Corrosion ......................................................................................... 327
19.20 Control of Corrosion ................................................................................................ 328
19.21 Chemical Inhibitors .................................................................................................. 328
19.22 Deaeration ................................................................................................................. 328
19.22.1 Surface Condensers and Deaerating Condensers............................................. 329
19.22.2 Deaerator ................................................................................................... 331
19.22.3 Chemical Deaeration using Oxygen Scavengers .............................................. 333
19.22.4 Blowdown ................................................................................................... 333
19.23 Steam and Water Sampling and Analysis .............................................................. 334
19.23.1 Sample Cooling ........................................................................................... 338
19.23.2 Samples Taken for Analysis .......................................................................... 338
19.23.3 Specific and Cation Conductivity Analysis ........................................................ 339
19.23.4 Dissolved Oxygen Analysis ........................................................................... 340
19.23.5 Condensate and Feedwater pH Analysis ......................................................... 340
19.23.6 Silica Analysis ............................................................................................. 340
19.23.7 Sodium Analysis .......................................................................................... 340
20. Chemical Dosing .......................................................................................... 341
20.1 Chemical Dosing Equipment ................................................................................... 341
21. Electrical Generation and Distribution ....................................................... 342
21.1 History of the Generator .......................................................................................... 342
21.2 Principle of Generators ............................................................................................ 342
21.3 Electromagnetic induction....................................................................................... 343
21.4 The simple generator ............................................................................................... 343
21.4.1 Principles of electromagnetic induction through a rotating armature ..................... 345
21.5 Generator Construction ........................................................................................... 347
21.5.1 Rotor construction ........................................................................................ 347
21.5.1.1 Salient pole construction...................................................................... 347
21.5.1.2 Cylindrical construction ....................................................................... 349
21.5.2 Rotor excitation............................................................................................ 354
21.5.2.1 Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) ........................................................ 356
21.5.2.2 Brushless excitation ............................................................................ 358
21.5.3 Stator construction ....................................................................................... 359
21.5.3.1 Outer frame ....................................................................................... 359
21.5.3.2 Iron core ........................................................................................... 361
21.5.3.3 Windings ........................................................................................... 361
21.6 Generator Bearings and lubrication ....................................................................... 363
21.7 Generator Cooling Systems .................................................................................... 363
21.8 Totally Enclosed Air Cooling ................................................................................... 364
21.9 Totally Enclosed Hydrogen Cooling ....................................................................... 370
21.9.1 Characteristics of Hydrogen as a Cooling medium ............................................ 370
21.9.2 Hydrogen Gas Safety ................................................................................... 370
21.9.3 Components of the Hydrogen Gas System ...................................................... 371
21.9.4 Hydrogen Gas Supply................................................................................... 371
21.9.5 Hydrogen Gas Dryer..................................................................................... 371
21.9.6 Hydrogen Gas Pressure and Purity Monitoring ................................................. 372
21.9.7 Carbon Dioxide Supply ................................................................................. 374

21.9.8 Hydrogen Gas Cooling Circuit ........................................................................ 374
21.9.9 System Monitoring and Alarms....................................................................... 375
21.10 Liquid Cooling........................................................................................................... 376
21.10.1 Stator Water Cooling .................................................................................... 376
21.10.2 Stator Water Pumps and Circuit Components .................................................. 376
21.10.3 Stator Water Flow and Differential Pressure Measurement ................................. 377
21.10.4 Stator Water Conductivity Monitoring .............................................................. 377
21.10.5 Alternatives to Stator Water Cooling ............................................................... 377
22. Seal Oil System ............................................................................................ 379
22.1 Function of the System ............................................................................................ 379
22.2 Operation of the System .......................................................................................... 379
22.3 Components of the System ..................................................................................... 380
22.3.1 Shaft Sealing Mechanism .............................................................................. 380
22.3.1.1 Radial Type Seal ................................................................................ 381
22.3.1.2 Axial Collar Type Seal ......................................................................... 382
22.3.2 Seal Oil Pumps ............................................................................................ 383
22.3.3 Differential Pressure Regulators ..................................................................... 384
22.3.4 Seal Oil Cooler ............................................................................................ 385
22.3.5 Seal Oil Filter............................................................................................... 386
22.3.6 Seal Oil Return Lines .................................................................................... 386
22.3.7 Seal Oil Drain Level Switches ........................................................................ 388
22.3.8 Liquid Detectors ........................................................................................... 388
22.3.9 Seal Oil Vapour Extraction Fan ...................................................................... 388
22.3.10 Seal Oil System Monitoring and Control .......................................................... 389
22.3.11 Seal Oil Local Control Panel .......................................................................... 391
23. Transformers ................................................................................................ 394
23.1 Applications .............................................................................................................. 394
23.1.1 Step-up and step-down transformers .............................................................. 394
23.1.2 Double-wound transformers........................................................................... 395
23.2 Principle of Transformer Operation ........................................................................ 395
23.3 Transformer Construction ....................................................................................... 396
23.4 Types of double-wound transformers .................................................................... 396
23.4.1 Core type .................................................................................................... 396
23.4.2 Shell type.................................................................................................... 397
23.4.3 Toroid type .................................................................................................. 398
23.5 Winding connections ............................................................................................... 399
23.5.1 Three phase transformer connections ............................................................. 399
23.5.2 Tertiary windings.......................................................................................... 401
23.6 Parallel Operation of Transformers ........................................................................ 402
24. Transformer Protection................................................................................ 402
24.1 Transformer Protection Overview ........................................................................... 402
24.2 Transformer faults .................................................................................................... 403
24.3 Overheating protection ............................................................................................ 404
24.3.1 Thermal characteristics of a transformer .......................................................... 404
24.3.2 Winding insulation ........................................................................................ 405
24.3.3 Temperature rise for classes of insulation ........................................................ 406
24.4 Temperature monitoring devices ............................................................................ 406
24.4.1 Winding temperature measurement ................................................................ 407
24.4.2 Operating principle of temperature monitoring device ........................................ 409
24.4.3 Oil temperature measurement........................................................................ 409
24.4.4 Electronic winding/oil temperature monitor ....................................................... 410
24.5 Transformer Cooling Systems ................................................................................ 411
25. Oil and gas Protection Devices ................................................................... 417

25.1 Buchholz relay .......................................................................................................... 417
25.2 Tank pressure devices ............................................................................................. 420
25.2.1 Gas impulse relay ........................................................................................ 420
25.2.2 Fault pressure relay...................................................................................... 422
26. Power Station Electrical Supplies ............................................................... 423
26.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 423
26.2 Unit Auxiliary Supply................................................................................................ 423
26.3 Unit transformer system .......................................................................................... 424
26.4 Equipment supplied from each unit auxiliary switchboard .................................. 429
26.4.1 Essential and non essential sections ............................................................... 429
26.5 Selection of supplies when bringing unit into service.......................................... 430
26.5.1 Requirements for paralleling of supplies .......................................................... 430
26.5.2 Generators fitted with generator circuit breaker in the PIB. ................................. 432
26.6 Operation on emergency diesel generator............................................................. 434
26.6.1 Procedures to be adopted after unit trip ........................................................... 436
Introduction
This module is designed to provide power station staff with
information on the purpose, function, layout and arrangement of
the wide range of plant found within a modern power station in
order to gain an overview of the main plant and an
understanding of the manner in which many of the systems
within a power station are co-dependant.
While the information contained within this module is generally
generic much of it will nonetheless relate directly to the plant at
any one location or site.
Learning Outcomes
After completion of this module the reader should have gained
an overview of the main plant and an understanding of the
manner in which many of the systems within a power station are
co-dependant.
Disclaimer
While every care will be taken to ensure the accuracy and
adequacy of information, concepts, advice and instructions
conveyed to participants in the Course, no responsibility or
liability is accepted by either TechComm Simulation, the
course leaders or their associates, for any errors or omissions
which may arise through no fault of the parties, and which may
be attributed to errors or omissions in the information, advice or
instructions given to the parties by the Client or others. No
responsibility or liability is accepted for any consequent errors,
omissions or acts of the participants or others
Assessment: Evaluation, Recording and Reporting

Assessment of trainee achievement of the learning outcomes is
an essential part of the training process. Regular assessments
during the training will enable the trainee’s progress to be
monitored and any parts of the training where a trainee may be
having difficulty to be identified and appropriate corrective
action to be taken.
1. A Theoretical overview of Steam Generation
1.1 Advantages of water/steam as a working medium

The use of water/steam as a working fluid for thermal power
plant cycles has the following advantages:
a) water is cheap, clean, odourless and tasteless.
b) water can be chemically treated so that it is not excessively
harmful to the material with which it comes in contact.
c) water can be easily changed into steam suitable for driving
turbines.
d) steam can be easily condensed back into water so that it can
be easily pumped back to the boiler.
e) steam, at moderate pressure and temperatures, is capable of
storing a relatively large amount of heat.
f) water and steam can be distributed and easily controlled.
1.2 The Generation of Steam from Water

The temperature at which a liquid boils depends on the type of
liquid and the surrounding pressure. An increase in pressure
raises the boiling temperature and conversely a decrease in
pressure reduces the boiling temperature.
The boiling temperature of a liquid is the saturation temperature
(Tf). The corresponding pressure is the saturation pressure.
Water at standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa (absolute)
will boil at a saturation temperature of 1000C.
If we consider a quantity of water at ambient temperature (250C)
and standard atmospheric pressure that is heated sufficiently it
will change to steam. In doing so it passes through three stages.
Stage 1: Addition of sensible heat
Sensible heat is heat which results in a change of temperature
within the substance to which it is added. With the addition of
sensible heat the water temperature will increase until it just
begins to boil. The temperature at which a liquid begins to
change from a liquid to a gas (to boil) is its saturation
temperature.
Stage 2: Addition of latent heat
Latent heat is heat that results in a phase change within a
substance to which it is added ( e.g solid to a liquid and liquid to
a vapout). During the addition of latent heat the temperature
remains constant. The water is absorbing latent heat while it is
changing state from a liquid to a vapour. Not until all the water
has evaporated to steam will the absorption of latent heat cease.
Once all the water has turned to steam it has absorbed sensible
heat plus latent heat of evaporation.
Stage 3: Addition of superheat
With continued application of heat the steam temperature again
begins to rise. It is once again absorbing sensible heat and this
is now termed superheat.
Enthalpy (total heat) (H)

A body at absolute zero temperature (-2730C) possesses no heat
and therefore no internal energy. As its temperature increases
the internal energy increases and the body possess heat.
The thermodynamic scale measures temperature from absolute
zero, which is the lowest temperature that can be theoretically
obtained. It is equal to –2730C. At this temperature, molecular
activity ceases and a body possesses no heat and no internal
energy. It is not practical to use –2730C as a reference point so
for the purposes of simplicity a substance at 00C is considered to
contain no heat and used as a reference point for the total heat
wihin a substance.
Enthalpy is the total heat possessed by a given mass of a
substance in a given condition as measured from 00C. It is the
sum of sensible heat, latent heat and superheat.
1.3 The Nature of Steam

Steam is water in its gaseous state and tends to behave in the
same manner as a gas.
Within the power plant cycle, steam may exist as wet, dry
saturated or superheated steam.
Wet Steam
Is a mixture of dry saturated steam and water vapour or water
particles in suspension. Wet steam is usually present during the
conversion of water to steam due to the agitation of the water
surface, ejecting water particles into the steam space above. It is
also present during the condensation of dry saturated steam
back to water. Due to the presence of the water particles, wet
steam is visible and is shown in Figure 1.
Wet steam
cloud
Figure 1: Wet steam
Dry Saturated Steam

Is steam at its saturation temperature (or boiling point) and
which contains exactly the amount of latent heat to convert all
the water into steam. Due to the absence of water particles, dry
saturated steam is invisible. Refer Figure 2.
Wet steam
cloud
Stream of invisible
dry saturated steam
at exit of kettle spout
Figure 2: Dry saturated steam
Next time you boil water for a cup of coffee or tea, have a careful
look at the steam stream coming from the kettle spout. You will
be able to observe that immediately adjacent the kettle spout the
stream is invisible (dry saturated steam) but as it travels further
out it begins to cool and returns to wet steam. Be careful not to
burn yourself as wet steam and dry saturated steam are both
very hot.
Superheated Steam
Superheated steam is at a temperature in excess of the
saturation temperature and is produced when heat is absorbed
by dry saturated steam. It is a dry invisible gas with the potential
to harm or kill if a person was to enter its stream.
Reason for superheating steam

When steam is supplied to a turbine it gives up heat as it travels
through the blade system. As it gives up heat, work occurs on
the turbine blades.
If the steam was dry saturate steam, it would immediately begin
to become wet steam as it flowed through the turbine. In the
early stage of the turbine the steam would drive the blades but
as the moisture in the steam increased the blades would drive
the steam. Also the impact of the water droplets on the blades
would cause erosion along with a reduction in turbine efficiency.
By superheating the steam, most of the work is done by the
steam before it begins to become wet steam as only sensible heat
an approximately 12% of the latent heat is able to produce work
within the turbine.
Effects of pressure on the properties of steam

If water is placed under pressure its saturation temperature or
boiling point will increase.
Page 18 of 436
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
101.3 kPa
(absolute)
101.3 kPa
(absolute)
This
101.3 kPa
amount of
(absolute)
water is Superheated
Upon The last
evaporated steam at
heating, particle of Upon
into steam 0
water water has just superheat- 150 C

101.3 kPa resulting
101.3 kPa expands been ing the
(absolute) in a large
(absolute) this evaporated. steam
increase
amount Wet steam We now have expands
in volume 0
at 100 C dry saturated this
steam at amount
0
Version (5) March 2011

100 C
1 kg of 1 kg of
water at water at Water at
0
0 100 C 0
0.01 C 100 C

Sensible heat Latent heat Sensible heat
Figure 3: Generation of superheated steam at atmospheric pressure
Power Plant Technology Module

If the pressure acting on the water was increased to 1000kPa

absolute, the temperature of the water will increase above 1000C
before the water begins to boil. This has caused an increase in
the sensible heat along with a higher saturation temperature.
The latent heat of evaporation has been reduced, but the total
heat of evaporation has increased.
Superheating the vapour shows a smaller increase for the same
heat input. This is shown in Figure 4.
1000 kPa
180
101.3 kPa
100
Temp
0
C
0 h
420 763 kJ/kg 2676 2778
Figure 4: Temperature – specific enthalpy (T – h) diagram for water/steam at

1000
If the pressure is increased progressively, there is a point where

no latent heat is required to change the saturated liquid to a
vapour. This is called the critical point and it occurs at a
pressure of 22120 kPa absolute.
The corresponding temperature is 374.20C
With increasing pressure:
 saturation temperature increases
 enthalpy of the saturated liquid increases
 enthalpy of the saturated vapour increases to a maximum

of 3000 kPa, then decreases
 latent heat of evaporation decreases to zero at critical
pressure
Operation of boilers at high pressure

As pressure increases the density of the dry saturated steam
increases and the density of the water decreases at the
corresponding saturation temperature. At the critical pressure
the density of the steam and water are the same. This makes
separation of the steam from the water and natural circulation
difficult to maintain. Special provisions must be taken into
account when designing high pressure boilers to ensure proper
circulation.
Many boilers overcome circulation problems by installing a
pump(s) in the boiler circulation system to aid circulation. This
is known as forced circulation.
Another option is to increase the size of the circulation tubes,
which lowers frictional losses and therefore increases flow.
1.4 Heat Transfer
Conduction
Conduction is the process of heat transfer from one part of a
substance to another without permanent displacement of the
molecules. For example when one end of a metal rod is heated,
heat will transfer along the rod making the other end warmer;
this is shown in Figure 5. The ability of a substance to transfer
heat by conduction is known as its thermal conductivity. Metals
are very good conductors of heat, while substances (such as
glass) with poor thermal conductivity are known as thermal
insulators.
Heat transfer from hot end

to cool end held by hand
Figure 5: Conduction of heat along metal rod
Convection
Convection is a process of heat transfer that occurs only in
fluids (liquids and gases) as they have the ability to mix. This
mixing causes a continual displacement of molecules from the
hotter region of the liquid/gas to the colder region. The
convection cell allows the energy to be transferred from the
hotter molecules to the colder ones. For example, heat transfers
throughout water contained in a saucepan because of natural or
free convection. Natural convection is shown in Figure 6 and
when applied to boilers it is referred to as natural circulation. In
order to increase the rate of heat transfer by convection, the
movement of the fluid may be assisted by stirring or pumping, in
which case it is known as forced convection or forced circulation
as shown in
Figure 7
Steam
Feed water vapour
replacing
evaporated
water lost to
atmosphere in Steam
form of steam
bubbles
Water not turned

Cold water to steam
descending recirculating
Hot
water/steam
rising
Source of heat
Figure 6: Natural circulation.
Steam
Feed water vapour
replacing
evaporated
water lost to
atmosphere in
form of steam
Water not turned

Cold water to steam
descending recirculating
Hot
water/steam
rising
Source of heat
Figure 7: Forced circulation
Radiation
Radiation is the process of heat transfer from a source to a
receiver without direct contact between the bodies. The transfer
of heat energy is by waves, similar to light waves, which are
converted into heat when they strike an object. An example of
this is the transfer of radiant heat from the sun to the earth
through the vacuum of space. This is shown in Figure 8.
All three of these methods of heat transfer are employed in a

modern boiler.
Figure 8: Transfer of heat by radiation
1.5 Obstacles to transfer of heat

Although metals are good conductors of heat, soot (produced
from combustion) that deposits on the outside of boiler tubes
and scale (caused from impurities in the boiler water) deposited
on the inside of the boiler tubes, hinder the transfer of heat.
Soot deposited on the outside of the boiler tube reduces the heat
transfer to the surface of the tube. This means the gases leave
the boiler hotter, resulting in a decrease in boiler efficiency.
The layer of soot deposited within the boiler is typically removed
on a regular basis by the use of steam (or water) sootblowers
which direct a high temperature blast of steam against the
deposit causing it to be dislodged and re-entrained in the flue
gas stream. It may then be carried through the boiler to the dust
removal plant.
Scale forming on the inside of the boiler tubes also restricts the
transfer of heat from the boiler tube to the water or steam. With
scaling heat transfer is impeded and overheating of the boiler
tube occurs with boiler tube failure imminent.
Figure 9 shows the effect of insulating layers on the walls of the
boiler tubes.
S
c
a
l
e
l
T1
a Cold
fluid
T2 y side
T3 e
Hot S r
fluid o T4
side o Boiler
t tube
wall
l
a
y
e
r
Figure 9: Heat transfer through a boiler tube
Heat from the hot fluid at a temperature of T1 is being

transferred through the boiler tube to the cold fluid at
temperature T4. A layer of soot at the surface of the boiler tube
offers a resistance to the transfer of heat and results in a
temperature reduction from T1 to T2 at the boiler tube surface. A
layer of scale on the inside surface also restricts the heat
transfer and reduces the temperature from T3 to T4.
The temperature drop (T1 – T4) is a measure of the overall
resistance to the transmission of heat and is significantly
influenced by the thermal conductivity of the soot and scale
layers.
2. Boiler Construction
The function of a boiler is to produce steam at a suitable
pressure and temperature for use by a turbine.
A typical boiler comprises the following equipment:
 Combustion chamber or furnace where fuel is burnt to
provide the heat necessary to convert water into steam,
 Circulatory system which provides for the circulation of water
from the drum through the downcomer pipework and the
furnace wall tubes and back to the drum,
 Drum for the distribution of water and the collection of
steam,
 Economiser for preheating the incoming feedwater,
 Superheater(s) for superheating the steam received from the
drum,
 Reheater to raise the temperature of high pressure (HP)
turbine exhaust steam close to its original superheated
temperature,
 Draught system which provides preheated air for combustion
of the fuel and removal of the gases produced during
combustion,
 Coal grinding and pulverised fuel injection equipment to
supply fuel to the boiler,
 Ash and dust disposal plant.
All of the above equipment is displayed in an elementary boiler

layout diagram shown in Figure 10.
Superheater
steam outlet
To IP
Page 26 of 436
cylinder
From HP
Secondary Reheater cylinder
superheater
Flue gas Primary

flow superheater Induced
draft fan
Coal Feedwater
‘A’
bunker Economiser inlet Precipitator
Burner
Furnace
‘B’
Figure 10: Elementary boiler layout

Coal
Burner Stack
feeder
Version (5) March 2011

‘C’
Burner
Back pass
hopper Air

heater
‘D’
Mill ‘D’
Burner
Air
Primary Ash inlet
Forced
air fan hopper
Draft fan
Ash and dust disposal
Power Plant Technology Module

We will now look at the boiler as a heat exchanger, with regard

to both its performance and construction. In order to
understand its construction, it is convenient to regard the boiler
as composed of a number of integrated heat exchanges. The fluid
on the HOT side of the heat exchanger is the hot gas that results
from combustion of coal and air. The fluid on the COLD side of
the heat exchanger is either water or steam. A general
description of the construction of a modern water tube boiler will
be given. In the course of the description the function of the
various components and explanation of the term used, will be
described under the following headings.
 combustion chamber or furnace

 economiser
 drum
 boiler circulatory system
 superheater
 reheater
2.1 Furnace
The furnace in a modern boiler is a large water cooled chamber
in which fuel and air are mixed and burned in suspension. Its
purpose is to achieve the most efficient transfer of heat energy
from the fuel to the working fluid, water/steam.
Its construction is of water cooled tubes, joined by fusion

welding, to form a gas tight enclosure, and suspended from large
roof beams so as to allow lateral and downward expansion. The
water in the tubes form part of the boiler circulatory system and
heat energy is transferred to the water by radiation, conduction
and convection. The quantity of heat transferred by each process
depends on the selected design of the boiler.
The furnace houses the firing equipment and confines the

combustion process. A typical furnace has two entry and two
exit ports. These are (1) fuel inlet, (2) combustion air inlet, (3)
products of combustion (flue gas) outlet and (4) a disposal port,
usually in the form of an ash hopper. Figure 11 shows a
boiler/furnace cross section with these four ports shown.
(3) Products of
combustion (flue
(1) Fuel gas) exiting furnace
inlets
(2) Combustion air in the form of

primary and secondary air
(4) Ash
hopper
Figure 11: Cross section of furnace chamber
The combustion chamber in modern boilers is constructed

entirely of water-cooled tubes (shown in Figure 12). These are
formed into four walls which surround and form the furnace.
The water contained within these tubes forms the boiler
circulatory system which will be covered shortly in this module.
Furnace water
wall riser
tubes
Boiler casing
Air gap
Layer of refractory material

reinforced
with expanded metal and wire netting
Figure 12: Section of a furnace waterwall
Factors that must be taken into account when designing a

combustion chamber or furnace are:
 capacity and steam conditions of the boiler

 type of circulatory system
 type of firing
 range of fuels to be burnt
The waterwall tubes of a combustion chamber are usually

constructed as closely spaced plain tubes often referred to as
tangent tubes (shown in Figure 13) or finned tube construction
shown in Figure 14.
Furnace water
wall riser
tubes
Tubes butted
together
Figure 13: Tangent type waterwall tube construction
Furnace water
wall riser
tubes
Fins butted
and welded
along this line
Figure 14: Finned type waterwall construction
Coal in the form of pulverised fuel is admitted to the furnace via

burner nozzles. The burner nozzles are arranged in such a
manner as to cause a cyclone effect on the fire ball. This cyclone
effect assists in the fuel mixing with the air/oxygen thus
ensuring complete combustion.
2.2 Economiser
The economiser utilises exhaust heat from the furnace to raise
the temperature of the feedwater entering the boiler to near
boiling point. If the economiser raises the feedwater temperature
above boiling point then the economiser is said to be a steaming
economiser. The economiser consists of banks of tubes with steel
fins spot welded to the tube surface to increase the heat transfer
rate. A section of economiser tubing is shown in Figure 15.
During starting up or light load conditions the economiser can

be damaged by the corrosive effect of flue gasses below the dew
point temperature. To minimise this corrosive effect a bypass
damper(s) may be fitted to bypass flue gases around the
economiser under these conditions.
The economiser is the first heat exchanger that the feedwater
entering the boiler flows through. The feed water is supplied
from a feed pump(s) and passes through the feed check valve(s)
before entering the economiser. Upon exiting the economiser it
then flows to the boiler drum.
The economiser is the last tubed heat exchanger in the hot flue
gas path before the flue gases exit the boiler to the air heater(s).
The location of the economiser can be seen in Figure 16.
Figure 15: Section of economiser showing fins
Boiler drum
vent valve
Economiser
vent valve
Boiler
drum
Hot flue gas

path
Downcomer
Economiser
tubing
Economiser
feed check
valve
Ductwork to
air heater(s)
Combustion
chamber
Dust
hopper
Economiser
drain valve
Bottom
distribution Economiser
headers recirculation
valve
Ash
hopper Feed pump
supplying
feed water
to boiler
Figure 16: Elementary boiler layout showing economiser and fittings
Primary
superheater
Desuperheater
Secondary
superheater
Reheater
outlet
Boiler stop header
valve
Reheater
safety
valve
Screen Water wall

tubes riser tubes Reheater
Reheater
inlet
header
Economiser Ductwork to
air heater(s)
Combustion
chamber
Reheater
Dust de-superheater
hopper
Feed pump
supplying
feed water
to boiler
Ash
hopper
Intermediate
pressure Low pressure
cylinder cylinder
Hot reheat
drain valve
Turbine Turbine
stop throttle
Steam mains valve valve High pressure
drain cylinder
To
condenser
Cold reheat
drain valve
Figure 17: Elementary boiler layout showing superheater and reheater
2.2.1 Economiser fittings

The economiser will be fitted with some or all of the following
items:
 feed check non return valve
 economiser recirculation valve
 drain valves
 vent valves
2.2.1.1 Feed check valve(s)

The feed check valve(s) are a non return valve that prevent a
reverse flow of water from the boiler back to the feed pump in
the event of interruption of feed water supply.
2.2.1.2 Economiser recirculation valve

To protect the economiser from overheating, and consequent
tube failure, there must be at all times sufficient flow through
the economiser. To achieve adequate flow at low loads and when
raising pressure special provision is made to recirculate water
from the boiler drum or downcomer tubes through the
economiser and back to the drum.
The type of recirculation system adopted depends on design and
the relative position of the economiser to the drum. Methods
adopted are either gravity recirculation through an isolating
valve or forced circulation by means of a pump. In the latter
case, a separate pump with associated valves is provided in a
recirculation line from the drum to the economiser or, for boilers
with assisted circulation, a line from the boiler circulation pump
discharge header to the economiser inlet header (this method is
shown in Figure 16).
2.2.1.3 Drain valves

These are required to drain the economiser for maintenance or
storage and are only operated when the boiler is out of service.
2.2.1.4 Vent valves (air releases)

These are installed to assist draining of the economiser and to
allow passage for air to escape when filling the boiler. They are
only opened during priming and closed as soon as water flows
freely. Often these valves are not installed and the boiler drum
vent valves perform a dual task of venting the economiser and
boiler drum at the same time.
2.3 Boiler drum

The boiler drum of a subcritical boiler serves two functions:
1. The separation of steam from the mixture of steam and
water being fed into it.
2. The boiler drum houses equipment for the purification of
the steam after separation.
Early high pressure boiler installations employed a boiler drum

forged from a solid block of metal, pressed and elongated to the
proper length and shape. Modern boilers employ a fabricated
and welded (followed by stress relieving) construction method.
Figure 18 shows the general location of the boiler drum with

respect to the boiler. Majority of boiler drum fittings are also
displayed.
The boiler drum will contain steam baffles and steam scrubbers
to ensure that under normal steaming conditions the steam is
almost completely dry saturated condition when it leaves the
boiler drum for the superheaters.
Steam washing equipment may also be provided so that any

steam/water mixture exiting the boiler drum has any suspended
solids removed.
As the quantity of water contained in the boiler is relatively

small, compared to the total steam output, the matter of water
storage is not significant and thus the drum size is dependent
upon the space required to separate and purify the steam. Such
separation may be achieved by a combination of corrugated
plates, turbo separators or screen dryers. Access holes have to
be provided for maintenance so entry is possible to carry out
inspections and repairs. A typical boiler drum showing the main
components is shown in Figure 19.
The boiler drum is the largest single mass of metal contained on

the boiler. For this reason it must be maintained within strict
heating and cooling limits or stress cracking will result.
Boiler drum
safety valve Boiler drum
vent valve
Gauge
glass Hot flue gas
path
Boiler
drum
Boiler
drum
blowdown
valve Water wall
riser tubes Economiser
tubing
Economiser
feed check
Downcomer valve
Ductwork to
air heater(s)
Combustion
chamber
Dust
hopper
Bottom
distribution
headers
Ash
hopper Feed pump
supplying
feed water
to boiler
Boiler
circulation
pump
Figure 18: Location of boiler drum and associated fittings
Figure 19: Cross section of typical boiler drum
2.3.1 Boiler drum fittings (external)

Depending on the boiler design the boiler drum will be fitted with
some or all of the following external items:
 drum gauge glass
 downcomer pipework
 feedwater inlet pipework
 saturated steam outlet pipework
 waterwall return pipework
 boiler drum safety valves
 access holes
 boiler drum blowdown valves
 vent valves
 pressure tapping lines
 steam and water sampling lines
 chemical injection lines
2.3.1.1 Boiler drum gauge glass

This give a physical indication of the actual water level contained
within the boiler drum. Usually two are fitted and one is
maintained in service at all times. Boiler drum gauge glasses are
shown in Figure 18 and Figure 20.
2.3.1.2 Downcomer pipework

Downcomer pipework is attached to the bottom of the boiler
drum as shown in Figure 19. These downcomers feed the bottom
distribution headers shown in Figure 21.
2.3.1.3 Feedwater inlet pipework

Preheated feedwater coming from the economiser enters the
boiler drum via this pipework (shown in Figure 19). Entry point
into the boiler drum will depend on boiler drum design but will
always be in the top half.
2.3.1.4 Saturated steam outlet pipework

Shown in Figure 19 exiting the top of the boiler drum after
passing through the cyclone separators and dryer boxes. The
saturated steam exiting the drum then passes to the
superheater. The superheater will be described in detail later in
this section.
2.3.1.5 Waterwall return pipework

Waterwall return pipework enters the boiler drum near the top.
They are shown in Figure 19 as steam and water mixture
pipework. This is the return pipework from the waterwall riser
tubes and makes up part of the boiler water circulatory system,
which is the next topic to be covered.
2.3.1.6 Boiler drum safety valves

These relieve excessive boiler pressure in the event of a large loss
of load or malfunction. They are set at the highest operating
pressure of all safety valves on the boiler and for this reason will
be the last to operate. This is done so that other safety valves
operate first maintaining a flow through the respective heat
exchanger they are installed upon to protect. These safety valves
may be seen in Figure 18 and
Figure 20.
2.3.1.7 Access holes

Access holes were mentioned earlier and are provided for
maintenance so entry is possible to carry out inspections and
repairs. It is normal for an access entry hole to be installed at
both ends of the boiler drum.
2.3.1.8 Boiler drum blowdown valves

The term blowdown is when a drain valve on the boiler is opened
to discharge water to waste. This is usually done to flush the
boiler when higher than normal levels of dissolved solids are
present in the boiler water. The boiler drum blowdown valves
(usually two valves) are used for boiler flushing but also perform
a minor role in draining the boiler drum for maintenance. The
valves used principally for draining the downcomers, waterwall
riser tubes and boiler drum are the bottom distribution header
drain valves shown in Figure 23.
2.3.1.9 Vent valves (air releases)

These are installed to assist draining of the boiler drum,
downcomers and waterwall riser tubes. When filling the boiler
they allow passage for air to escape during priming and are
closed as soon as water flows freely. The boiler drum vent valves
are shown in Figure 18 and Figure 20.
2.3.1.10 Pressure tapping lines

Higher pressure boilers do not have pressure gauges fitted to the
boiler drum. They do however have pressure tapping lines that
feed transmitters which are connected to remote pressure
indicators, recorders, conventional and computer alarms. These
tapping lines also provide the remote drum level indication.
2.3.1.11 Steam and water sampling lines

These are routed to the chemical room where the samples are
analysed and the results fed to indicators, recorders,
conventional and computer alarms in the chemical and unit
control rooms.
2.3.1.12 Chemical injection lines

Chemicals are injected into the boiler water to oxygen scavenge
and control pH. The injection points on most boilers are the
boiler drum or the bottom distribution headers. There are other
chemical injection points on the condensate and feedwater
systems and these will be discussed in the turbine module.
2.3.2 Internal boiler drum fittings

The internal fittings associated with the boiler drum are:
 steam washers
 steam baffles, cyclones and scrubbers
2.3.2.1 Steam washers

These reduce the dissolved solids content of the steam before it
enters the scrubbers.
2.3.2.2 Steam baffles, cyclones and scrubbers

To direct passage of steam and to ensure steam is as dry as
possible before it leaves the boiler drum through the saturated
steam pipes for the superheater(s). The cyclone separators and
scrubbers can be seen in Figure 19.
Saturated steam
pipes
Safety valves
Vent valve Vent valve
Returns from
waterwall
riser tubes
Feedwater inlets
Access hole
Gauge glass
Drum blowdown Downcomers
Figure 20: Typical boiler drum fittings
2.4 Boiler water circulatory system

There are three types of boiler water circulation systems:
 natural circulation (subcritical)
 forced circulation (subcritical)
 supercritical (having a once through circulation system)
A simplified layout showing a forced boiler water circulation

system is shown in Figure 23 and a supercritical once through
system shown in Figure 24.
2.4.1 Natural circulation

Natural or thermally induced circulation is where the different
densities of water and steam are used to create a syphonic
action which causes the water to flow down through the
downcomers and up through the waterwall riser tubes. This
system requires that the boiler head and tube diameters be
sufficiently large so that frictional losses are below available
syphonic head.
The boiler water circulatory system houses the combustion

chamber. As the name implies waterwall riser tubes form the
walls of the combustion chamber.
Feedwater, chemically treated to a high degree of purity is

pumped under pressure from a feed pump(s) through the feed
check valves and economiser into the boiler drum. As the water
passes through the economiser, it is preheated to a temperature
nearing boiling point.
Once the water has entered the boiler drum it is diverted down
the downcomer pipework to the distribution and interconnecting
headers. It then enters the waterwall riser tubes where it
receives heat from the combustion chamber. Heating causes the
water to expand and rise up the waterwall riser tubes setting up
thermo-syphonic circulation which returns the water/steam
mixture to the boiler drum. This is commonly referred to as
natural circulation. A simplified diagram of a boiler circulatory
system using natural circulation is shown in Figure 21.
As heat is absorbed into the water travelling up the waterwall

riser tubes steam generation takes place. The mixture of water
and steam (which contains small droplets of water in
suspension) is returned to the boiler drum where the steam,
being less dense, rises and passes through cyclones, scrubbers
and dryers (shown in Figure 19) before it exits the drum for the
superheater(s). The water droplets separated from the steam in
the cyclones, scrubbers and dryers are mixed with cooler
feedwater incoming from the economiser. This is then diverted
via the downcomer pipework and waterwall riser tubes for
further heating.
The design of the boiler water circulatory system must ensure

that sufficient heat absorption surface is provided around the
combustion chamber. If this is achieved the combustion
chambers waterwall riser tubes are maintained below the ash

fusion temperature of the coal thus eliminating slagging of the
waterwall riser tubes. Superheater(s) overheating is also
prevented with correct boiler circulatory system design.
Tubes bringing feedwater

from economiser
Boiler drum
Downcomer
pipework
(not heated)
Combustion
chamber
(contained
within the
four walls
made up of
riser tubes)
Waterwall
riser tubes
surrounding
combustion
chamber
Bottom distribution Interconnecting

headers headers
Figure 21: Boiler water circulatory system (natural circulation)
2.4.2 Forced circulation

Assisted circulation is where pumps are provided in the
downcomer pipes to help the syphonic action during periods of
fluctuating boiler loads where insufficient syphonic head is
available naturally. By using boiler circulation pumps; tube
diameters can be reduced, resulting in lower tube weights, lower
waterwall tube metal temperatures resulting in less thermal
stresses.
With improved boiler design and tougher metals, efficiency gains

can be obtained with operating boilers at higher pressures and
temperatures. In boilers operating at or above 10500 kPa the
difference in density between the water and the saturated steam
is negligible and consequently the difference in head which
causes the circulation is reduced. This can be compensated for
by increasing the height of the boiler, but a limit is reached
when the friction head becomes excessive. To keep boiler tube
cross sectional area compact and therefore boiler cross sectional
area reasonable, assisted circulation using pumps is employed.
The location of boiler circulation pumps in the circulatory
system is shown in Figure 22.
Forced or once through circulation is where the flow through the

boiler is produced and controlled by using the feed pump(s).
There is no drum provided in this system and hence there is no
recirculation of the water/steam fluid in the boiler. This type is
suitable for high sub-critical or supercritical operation.
The feedwater passes through the economiser up the furnace

walls and then to the superheaters, changing to saturated water,
saturated steam and superheated steam as it travels.
Tubes bringing feedwater

from economiser
Boiler drum
Downcomer
pipework
(not heated)
Combustion
chamber
(contained
within the
four walls
made up of
riser tubes)
Boiler
circulation
pumps
Waterwall
riser tubes
surrounding
combustion
chamber
Bottom distribution Interconnecting

headers headers
Figure 22: Boiler water circulatory system (forced circulation)
Boiler drum
safety valve Boiler drum
vent valve
Gauge
glass Hot flue gas
path
Boiler
drum
Boiler
drum
blowdown
valve Water wall
tubing
Economiser
feed check
Downcomer valve
Ductwork to
air heater(s)
Combustion
chamber
Dust
hopper
Bottom
distribution
headers
Ash
hopper Bottom Feed pump
distribution supplying
Boiler headers feed water
circulation drain valves to boiler
pump
Figure 23: Boiler water circulatory system
2.4.3 Super- Critical boilers

At pressures above the critical pressure (22120 kPa absolute)
the steam and water have the same density and forced
circulation must be employed. Super-Critical boilers are
constructed differently to sub-critical boilers as they do not have
a drum, downcomers or riser tubes. A simplified super-critical
boiler construction is shown in Figure 24.
Desuperheater
Final stage (for temperature
superheater control) First stage
superheater
Final stage Hot flue gas

superheater path
outlet
To turbine
Reheater
outlet
Furnace Reheater
walls
Reheater
inlet
Economiser
Ductwork to
air heater(s)
Combustion
chamber
Dust Economiser
hopper feed check
valve
Ash
hopper Feed pump
supplying
feed water
to boiler
Figure 24: Simplified construction of a critical boiler
2.5 Boiler Circulatory System Fittings (sub-critical boilers)

Depending on the boiler design the boiler circulatory system will
be fitted with some or all of the following external items:
 downcomers
 forced circulation equipment
 bottom distribution and interconnecting headers
 waterwall riser tubes
 chemical injection pipework
 bottom distribution header drains
 waterwall riser tubes vent valves
2.5.1 Downcomers
Pipework running from the boiler drum to the bottom
distribution headers. They run external to the boiler and are
fully insulated. As they are external to the boiler they do not
absorb any heat and this assists the thermo-syphonic process.
The downcomers can be seen in Figure 21, Figure 22 and Figure
23.
2.5.2 Forced circulation equipment

Boiler circulation pumps are installed to assist boiler water
circulation. They are connected between the downcomers and
the bottom distribution headers. The pump and motor are a
sealed unit and are subjected to full boiler pressure. To maintain
the motor temperature within limits an external cooler is
installed. A cross section of a boiler circulation pump and cooler
are shown in Figure 25.
2.5.3 Bottom distribution and interconnecting headers

As their name indicates they distribute the water flow evenly to
all waterwall riser tubes. This is very important as uneven
distribution will cause starvation of water to some tubes. The
starved tubes will overheat due to a reduction in flow and tube
failures will result. The bottom distribution headers and their
interconnecting headers are shown in Figure 21 and Figure 22.
Downcomer
Pump
impeller
To bottom
distribution
headers
Bearing
Cooling
water
outlet
Motor
rotor
Motor
windings
Cooling
water
inlet
Bearing
Motor
cooler
Figure 25: Cross section of boiler circulation pump and cooler
2.5.4 Waterwall riser tubes

The waterwall riser tubes connect to the bottom distribution and
interconnecting headers. They then rise up (and surround) the
combustion chamber before terminating at the boiler drum. The
waterwall riser tubes are shown in Figure 21 and Figure 22.
2.5.5 Chemical injection pipework

Chemicals are injected into the boiler water to oxygen scavenge
and control pH. The injection points on most boilers are the
boiler drum or the bottom distribution headers. There are other
chemical injection points on the condensate and feedwater
systems and these will be discussed in the turbine module.
2.5.6 Bottom distribution header drains

These drain valves are installed to allow draining of the
waterwall riser tubes, downcomers and boiler drum for
maintenance or storage.
2.5.7 Waterwall riser tubes vent valves

These are installed to assist draining of the boiler drum,
downcomers and waterwall riser tubes. When filling the boiler
they allow passage for air to escape during priming and are
closed as soon as water flows freely.
2.6 Superheaters
Saturated steam with a minimum of moisture exits the boiler
drum via saturated steam pipes and is conveyed to the
superheater inlet header.
Superheaters may be the horizontal self-draining or the pendant
non-draining type.
In the horizontal type the tubes are arranged in a continuous
loop which progress in a vertical manner thus making them self-
draining, this is shown in
Figure 26. With the pendant type, the tube elements are vertical
and may be located in a top section of the furnace where they
receive heat by radiation as well as convection. Pendant type
superheaters are shown in Figure 27. Non-draining pendant type
superheaters must be flash dried to remove any condensed
water when the boiler is taken out of service. This is achieved by
opening the superheater vents when the superheater metal
temperature is approximately 1500C to allow any water to
evaporate.
Modern superheaters are required to raise the saturated steam

temperature by approximately 200 – 2500C of superheat. For
efficient heat transfer to occur the superheater layout and the
area of the heating surface must be considered carefully, taking
into account relatively thick tube metal walls and the low
thermal conductivity of the superheated steam. The tendency
today is to design a boiler with several banks of superheater
tubes. These are usually arranged for contraflow (or counter
flow) of the steam with respect to the gas flow. The final bank
may be arranged for contraflow or parallel flow depending on
superheater steam outlet temperature requirements.
The contraflow arrangement results in the temperature of the

tube metal and steam becoming higher and higher the nearer it
gets to the superheater outlet. The tube material therefore must
be graded in quality and thickness to cope with these working
conditions. For example; in a three stage superheater the first
stage would be constructed of mild steel tubes, the second stage
of low alloy steel and the final stage of high alloy creep-resistant
steel.
Superheaters are usually designed with a constant cross

sectional flow area throughout the superheater. As the steam
flows through the superheater and absorbs heat it expands, this
expansion causes its velocity through the superheater to
increase and the heat transfer to improve.
The superheater is of considerable length and a fairly large

pressure drop occurs between the saturated steam outlet pipes
on the boiler drum and the superheater outlet header. This
pressure drop must be taken into consideration when designing
the boiler and ancillary equipment such as boiler feed pump(s).
It is undesirable to have any slag deposited on the superheater tubes as this

reduces heat transfer and restricts gas flow through the superheater. It is
normal practice to have some screen tubes in front of the superheater. These
screen tubes are usually part of the boiler circulating water system and any slag
will deposit on these tubes leaving the superheater tubes free. These screen
tubes are shown in
Figure 26 and Figure 27. The build up of slag and any soot
deposited on the screen tubes is removed with the aid of soot
blowers that are discussed in detail later on in this module.
Superheater
outlet header Desuperheater
Secondary
superheater Primary
Superheater
superheater
vent valve
Superheater Superheater
safety valve inlet
header
To turbine
Superheater
inlet header
Screen drain valve
Water wall
Boiler stop tubes riser tubes
valve
Economiser
tubing
Superheater
starting-up
valve Ductwork to
air heater(s)
Combustion
chamber
Dust Economiser
hopper feed check
Superheater valve
outlet
header
drain valve Bottom
distribution
headers
Ash
hopper Feed pump
supplying
feed water
Boiler to boiler
Boiler
blowdown
circulation
tank
pump
Figure 26: Boiler layout showing superheaters and fittings
Pendant type
Superheater
superheaters
vent valves
Superheater
vent valve
Desuperheater
Superheater
safety valve Super-
heater
headers
To turbine
Superheater
inlet
header
Super-
heater
Boiler stop outlet
valve header
Superheater
inlet header
drain valve
Screen
tubes
Water wall
tubing
Superheater
starting-up Ductwork to
valve air heater(s)
Combustion
chamber
Dust Economiser
hopper feed check
valve
Bottom
distribution
headers
Ash
hopper Feed pump
supplying
feed water
to boiler
Boiler Boiler
blowdown circulation
tank pump
Figure 27: Boiler section showing pendant type superheaters
2.6.1 Temperature control of superheater steam outlet temperature

Turbines operating at high steam temperatures and pressures
are extremely sensitive to changes in superheater outlet
temperatures. Wide fluctuations in steam temperature may
cause damage to the turbine blading or shaft. This damage may
not be evident immediately but show up later in the form of
stress cracks.
Radiant type superheaters have a falling heat transfer

characteristic. Steam outlet temperature decreases with an
increase in boiler load. This occurs because the furnace
temperature does not increase as rapid a rate as the steam flow.
With a convection type superheater the reverse occurs because
the heat in the flue gasses increase at a greater rate than the
steam flow.
Whether the superheater is a radiant or convection type is not

necessarily important. What is important is that we must have
some form of steam temperature control. Installation of a
superheater desuperheater gives us the control we require as
long as we can maintain the superheater steam temperature
above that required.
Desuperheaters are manufactured in contact and non-contact

arrangements. The non-contact type is shown in Figure 28 and
the contact type shown in Figure 29.
For higher pressures the contact type desuperheater is usually

chosen. This type of desuperheater has feedwater sprayed
directly into the steam to give the required cooling. A section of a
contact type superheater desuperheater is shown in Figure 30.
The superheater desuperheater is nearly always shortened in

name to ‘desuperheater’. Desuperheaters are usually installed
between the primary and secondary banks of superheaters. For
the non-contact type this ensures the superheated steam has
had a chance to remix with itself and have a uniform
temperature. With the contact type this ensures the quenching
feedwater admitted through the desuperheater has had adequate
time to mix and become superheated steam itself before being
admitted to the turbine.
Primary
superheater
Boiler
drum
To turbine
Secondary
superheater
Control valves
(as one valve
opens the other
valve closes and
visa versa)
Actuator
Non contact
desuperheater
Figure 28: Non contact type superheater desuperheater
Boiler Primary
drum superheater
To turbine
Secondary
superheater
To
economiser
Spray water
control valve
Contact type
desuperheater
Feed pump
supplying
feed water
Actuator to boiler
Figure 29: Contact type superheater desuperheater
Figure 30: Section of a contact type superheater desuperheater
Another method of controlling superheater steam outlet

temperature is to use a flue gas bypass damper arrangement.
This achieves temperature control by bypassing some of the hot
flue gasses around the superheater. This method is usually only
employed on smaller boilers.
Final control of superheater steam outlet temperature is usually
by a combination of desuperheater and burner tilt adjustment.
Desuperheaters control steam temperature by injection of spray
water into the steam flow. The burner tilt is by adjusting the
burner angle that the pulverised fuel is admitted to the
combustion chamber. By raising or lowering the burner tilts we
can raise and lower the fireball within the furnace. This raising
and lowering alters the quantity of heat absorbed by the furnace
wall riser tubes thus regulating the amount of heat passing
through to the superheaters. Burner tilts will be covered in detail
further on in this module.
2.6.2 Superheater fittings

Depending on the boiler design the superheaters will be fitted
with some or all of the following external items:
 boiler stop valve(s)
 superheater desuperheater
 inlet and outlet headers
 safety valve(s)
 header drain and vent valves
 superheater starting up valve
 thermocouples
2.6.2.1 Boiler stop valve(s)

These valves isolate the boiler superheater steam outlet from the
steam mains pipework that feeds the turbine. They are normally
closed during pressure raising if there is a mismatch in steam
outlet temperature to steam mains metal temperatures. Once
the two temperatures have been matched the boiler stop valves
are opened in readiness to run up the turbine.
2.6.2.2 Superheater desuperheater

As mentioned previously desuperheaters are installed to
maintain superheater steam outlet temperature within
acceptable limits.
2.6.2.3 Inlet and outlet headers

These are installed to permit connection of the tubes from one
superheater bank to another. They also provide pressure
equalising points between superheater banks and are a
convenient location for superheater vents and drains.
2.6.2.4 Safety valve(s)

Safety valve(s) are provided to relieve excessive pressure within
the boiler. The superheater safety valves are set at approximately
10% below the operating pressure of the boiler drum safety
valves. This is done so that the superheater safety valves operate
first and maintain a flow of steam through the superheaters
when a large load rejection on the boiler occurs. The boiler
pressure rises because the demand for steam reduces at a faster
rate than the fuel to the furnace can be reduced.
2.6.2.5 Header drain and vent valves

Vents are installed to assist with draining of the superheater
banks and for expelling air during pressure raising. Drains are
installed on superheater inlet and outlet headers to permit the
draining of the superheater banks for maintenance or storage.
Another function of the superheater drain valves is that they can
be throttled during pressure raising to obtain the exact steam
outlet pressure and temperature requirements. This is important
as final steam temperature must closely match that of the
turbine metal temperatures or differential expansion problems
are encountered and stress cracking is possible.
With a superheater drain valve fully open a large flow through
the superheater causes its temperature and pressure to remain
low. As we throttle the superheater vent valve the flow decreases
causing the steam temperature to increase. Throttling also
enables pressure to be raised quicker.
An experienced operator will be able to gauge the correct amount
of throttling as well as the firing rate to achieve ideal
temperatures and pressures for either a cold, warm or hot start
on the turbine. The drain valves are only used for throttling if a
start up valve is not installed.
2.6.2.6 Superheater starting up valve

A start up valve is provided to ensure an adequate steam flow
through the superheaters on start up. It also can be throttled to
allow for varying pressure and temperature requirements of the
turbine. The start up valve is never closed until the boiler stop
valve(s) has been opened thus ensuring and adequate flow
through the superheater.
2.6.2.7 Thermocouples
Thermocouples as mentioned earlier in this module are
strategically placed on superheater tubes in order to monitor
tube metal temperatures. The thermocouples are usually
installed on tubes near the superheater bank outlet (this is the
hottest area). By maintaining these metal temperatures within
limits ensures safety of the entire superheater bank.
Thermocouples are also installed to monitor superheater steam
outlet temperature.
2.7 Reheater
The reheater is the section of the boiler that receives returning
steam from the high pressure cylinder of the turbine. After the
steam has passed through the high pressure cylinder it has lost
a considerable amount of pressure and temperature. We are
unable to increase the pressure but are able to significantly
increase the steam temperature.
The reheater function is to raise the steam temperature to a
value almost equivalent to the superheater outlet steam
temperature. The arrangement and construction of a reheater is
much the same as a superheater except that the tubes are
usually arranged in a single bank or section
The location of the reheater within a boiler can be seen in Figure
31. The turbine and connecting pipework for the reheater is also
shown in this diagram.
Temperature control of the reheater is achieved with bypass
dampers, burner tilt adjustment or reheater desuperheaters.
Higher pressure boilers usually employ burner tilt adjustment
and reheater desuperheaters to control the reheater
temperature.
2.7.1 Reheater fittings

Depending on the boiler design the reheater will be fitted with
some or all of the following external items:
 reheater desuperheater
 inlet and outlet headers
 safety valve(s)
 hot and cold reheat line drains
 thermocouples
Primary
superheater
Desuperheater
Secondary
superheater
Reheater
outlet
Boiler stop header
valve
Reheater
safety
valve
Screen Water wall

tubes riser tubes Reheater
Reheater
inlet
header
Economiser Ductwork to
air heater(s)
Combustion
chamber
Dust
hopper
Feed pump
supplying
feed water
to boiler
Reheater
Ash desuperheater
hopper
Intermediate
pressure Low pressure
cylinder cylinder
Hot reheat
drain valve
Turbine Turbine
stop throttle
Steam mains valve valve High pressure
drain cylinder
To
condenser
Cold reheat
drain valve
Figure 31: Boiler section with reheater installed
2.7.1.1 Reheater desuperheater

The reheater desuperheater is constructed similar to the
superheater desuperheater and performs the same function of
maintaining a constant reheater steam outlet temperature.
It is installed in the cold reheat line so as the injected spray
water has sufficient time to be turned to superheated steam
before exiting the reheater and returning to the turbine.
2.7.1.2 Inlet and outlet headers

Once again inlet and outlet headers are installed to permit
connection of pipework and are also a suitable location for
mounting of safety valve(s)
2.7.1.3 Safety valve(s)

Installed on the reheater outlet header they relieve excessive
reheater pressure as well as maintain a flow through the
reheater if the boiler suffers a large load rejection.
2.7.1.4 Hot and cold reheat line drains

The reheater is fitted with hot and cold reheat line drain valves.
Upon removing the boiler from service they are opened and any
water that may have condensed is drained away. With a return
to service the hot and cold reheat lines are again opened and any
steam that condenses as the reheater and turbine are brought
up to operating temperature will also drain away.
The hot and cold reheat line drains are located adjacent to the
turbine as they perform the multi function of draining the hot
and cold reheat lines, the intermediate pressure cylinder of the
turbine as well as the reheater.
2.7.1.5 Thermocouples
Thermocouples are strategically placed on reheater tubes in
order to monitor tube metal temperatures. The thermocouples
are usually installed on tubes near the reheater bank outlet (this
is the hottest area). By maintaining these metal temperatures
within limits ensures safety of the entire reheater bank. It is
important to monitor reheater tube metal temperatures during
start up as no steam flow passes through the reheater until the
turbine run up has commenced.
Thermocouples are also installed to monitor reheater steam
outlet temperature.
3. Boiler Draft System

To achieve efficient heat transfer within the boiler furnace the
gas must travel a predetermined path where it is able to give up
the heat energy produced by combustion. The flow pattern of the
gas through the boiler is known as the gas path.
A typical boiler draft system comprises the following equipment:
 Forced draft (FD) fans
 Induced draft (ID) fans
 Primary air (PA) fans (for pressure type mills)
 Exhausters (for suction type mills)
 Air heaters
 Boiler casings air/gas path ducting and dampers/vanes
The source of heat that produces steam in a boiler comes from
the combustion of coal mixed with air. The coal is pulverised and
dried in the mill(s) then conveyed in suspension to the furnace
by air that has been preheated by air heaters. The pulverised
fuel (PF) and air mixture enters the furnace via burners where it
is ignited and burns rapidly. The product of the combustion
process produces what is known as flue gasses. The content of
the flue gasses is made up of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur
dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxide (NOx), a small quantity of oxygen
(O2), minor quantities of other gasses and ash.
Approximately 10% of the ash produced from the spent fuel falls
to the bottom of the furnace (bottom ash) and is collected in the
ash hopper(s). The remaining 90% (fly ash) is carried through in
suspension with the hot flue gases.
A portion of the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel is
transferred to the water contained in the waterwall tubes. The
hot flue gases containing the remaining heat flows from the
furnace, passing through the superheater(s), reheater,
economiser and air heaters, giving up heat as they pass through
each of these heat exchangers.
The flue gases having given up most of their heat pass through
the electrostatic precipitators, or fabric filters where the fine fly
ash is removed. The gases pass through the induced draught
fans and are exhausted up the stacks to the atmosphere.
A typical arrangement of air and gas path is shown in Figure 32.
Gas exiting
after economiser
Secondary
air
Combustion
chamber
Primary air and

pulverised fuel
PF line only shown for one mill
Air PF PF PF PF Air
heater Mill Mill Mill Mill heater
Gas Air Air Gas
side side side side
PA PA PA PA
Fan Fan Fan Fan
FD Air FD
Fan Inlet Fan
Precipitator or Precipitator or Precipitator or Precipitator or

Fabric filter Fabric filter Fabric filter Fabric filter
dust collection dust collection dust collection dust collection
chamber chamber chamber chamber
ID ID
Chimney
Fan Fan
Figure 32: Typical air and gas path through boiler
3.1 Air and Flue Gas Path

The ambient temperature air (approximately 250C) enters the
system via the forced draft (FD) fans. These are usually located
in the basement. The quantity of air passing through the FD
fans is regulated by vane or speed control. The air once through
the FD fan divides with the majority going to the air heaters. The
remainder goes to the cold air cross over duct that supplies cold
air to the primary air fans for regulating the mill outlet
temperature.
The air that has passed through the air heater has had its
temperature increased by approximately 1000C. This preheated
air once again is divided with the majority becoming what is
called secondary air or combustion air. This secondary air is
distributed to each corner of the furnace and admitted to the
combustion chamber around what are called pulverised fuel
burner box nozzles (more about pulverised fuel burner boxes
and nozzles later). The remaining preheated air goes to the hot
air cross over duct and supplies the primary air fans with
preheated air for admission to the mills.
You can see in Figure 32 that the pulverised fuel (PF) mills are
supplied with both hot and cold air from their respective cross
over ducts. The hot and cold air supplied to the primary air (PA)
fan is regulated to maintain the required mill outlet temperature
(approximately 950C). The air supplied to the PA fan is forced
through the mill by the PA fan and entrains pulverised fuel
particles. The entrained PF particles are then transported in
suspension to the furnace corners via PF lines. These PF lines
supply the PF burner boxes that inject the primary air
(conveyance air) and pulverised fuel mixture into the furnace
through the burner box nozzles.
You can see from Figure 32 that the primary air and pulverised
fuel mixture combines with the secondary air (combustion air) at
the burner boxes. With correct control of secondary air dampers,
FD and PA fans the fuel/air ratio at the PF burner boxes can be
maintained to give the most efficient combustion.
Once the primary air and pulverised fuel mixture combines with
the secondary air it is admitted to the combustion chamber
where the fuel burns rapidly. The pulverised fuel and air mixture
is admitted to the furnace in a fashion that causes a cyclonic
fireball to be created. Turbulence created by this method
achieves improved fuel air contact and more efficient
combustion.
Heat produced by combustion is absorbed by the water walls,

superheaters, reheater and economiser as the hot flue gasses
pass through the boiler.
After the flue gas exits the economiser it is directed via ductwork
back to the air heater where it releases further heat used for the
preheating of the primary and secondary air. The flue gas exiting
the air heater is approximately 1350C. It is essential that the flue
gas temperature be maintained at approximately this value or
moisture contained within the flue gasses condenses and
combines with the sulphur dioxide to form a mild sulphuric acid.
Even though only a mild acid it will cause major corrosion to the
ductwork, precipitators and chimney over a period of time. The
value at which this condensing and combination takes place, is
approximately 1120C and is referred to as the flue gas acid dew
point.
Flue gas exiting the air heater is directed through the
precipitator (or fabric filter) chambers where the suspended dust
particles are removed. The dust collected is stored in dust
hoppers installed below the precipitator (or fabric filter) in
readiness for later removal and disposal.
When the flue gas exits the precipitator (or fabric filter) it passes
through induced draft (ID) fans and then exhausted to
atmosphere up the chimney or stack.
3.2 Boiler Draught Fans

For efficient combustion to take place the correct quantity of air
(containing oxygen) must be admitted to the furnace and then
after combustion the flue gasses must be effectively removed.
This process is carried out on a continual basis by forcing air
into the furnace with Forced Draft (FD) fan(s) and extracting flue
gases from the furnace by Induced Draft (ID) fan(s). The quantity
of air admitted to the furnace will depend on the load on the
boiler and balance between the FD fans and the ID fans must be
controlled to maintain furnace combustion chamber
pressure/suction within design limits.
3.2.1 Control of fan output

The methods used to control fan output are:
 damper control (inlet or outlet)
 inlet vane control
 inlet louvre control
 two speed or variable speed control
 variable pitched blades
Regardless of whether the fan is controlled by dampers, vanes,

louvres, variable pitched blades or variable speed control most
fans installed on a boiler have what is known as a limit stop. A
limit stop is a physical or electrical minimum position that the
fans controlling device can move whilst the equipment is in
service. An example is a primary air fan that has a minimum
discharge pressure of 0.75 kPa. The controlling device is set so
that the fans output cannot fall below this value as PF in transit
to the furnace would fall out of suspension and/or burnback
into the burner boxes would occur. (more about this later)
Limit stops may also be installed on other equipment contained
within a power station.
3.2.1.1 Damper control

The output from the fan is controlled with a damper installed
either on the suction or discharge side of the fan. This method is
the simplest but is the most inefficient.
The damper consists of a suitable partition that is hinged at the
centre and allowed to rotate through an arc of approximately 90
degrees. As the damper blade is closed; passage of gas/air
through the duct and fan decreases. A simplified diagram of
damper control is shown in Figure 33.
Damper control is also non linear in that a small change in angle
of opening near the closed position causes a large change in fan
output. Whereas when the damper is nearing its fully open
position a large change in damper position will only have a small
effect on fan output.
Duct
Damper seals Damper shaft
Damper blade
(pivot)
Gas/air
flow
Damper in open Damper in

position closed position
Figure 33: Simplified diagram of damper control
3.2.1.2 Inlet vane control

Adjustable vanes are installed on the input side of the fan. The
vanes are arranged to turn the gas in the direction of rotation of
the impeller. Regulation of fan output is by opening or closing
the inlet vanes. This type of fan control has a fairly rapid
response along with giving the gas/air a pre-rotation in the same
direction as the impeller is rotating. This significantly reduces
blade erosion and is suitable for fans that handle abrasive gases.
Fans are generally fitted with a twin flow impeller and two sets of
inlet vanes. With this arrangement gas/air is drawn into both
sides of the fan as shown in Figure 34 and any radial thrust that
is experienced with a single flow impeller is eliminated.
The inlet vanes are shown in the closed, open and limit stop
position in Figure 35.
Air/gas inlet
Rotation
Inlet vanes
Fan
casing
Backward sloped
impeller blades
Figure 34: FD fan twin flow impeller controlled by inlet vanes
Inlet vanes in closed position
Inlet vanes in open position
Air/gas flow direction
Inlet vanes at limit stop
Air/gas flow direction
Figure 35: Inlet vanes shown in closed, open and limit stop positions
3.2.1.3 Inlet louvre control

Inlet louvres are a combination of smaller dampers arranged to
operate in a similar fashion to inlet vanes. The damper blades
have parallel sides as opposed to the vanes that have tapering
sides.
The inlet louvres are shown in the closed and open position in
Figure 36.
Duct
Gas/Air
flow
Inlet louvres
Inlet louvres in closed
in open position
position
Figure 36: Inlet louvres shown in the closed and open position
3.2.1.4 Variable speed control

Fan output can be controlled by means of varying the speed of
the fan. This is achieved by using an AC commutator motor, a
hydraulic fluid coupling or a magnetic coupling.
Variable speed motor

With an AC commutator motor efficiency is almost constant over
the entire working speed range. There are however some
disadvantages with this type of speed control as lower electrical
efficiency at reduced loads and higher maintenance due to the
commutator and brushgear. For these reasons this type of fan
speed control is rarely employed in large modern power stations.
Hydraulic fluid coupling

Often referred to as fluid coupling or fluid drive. A constant
speed motor is coupled to the fluid drive and allowed to rotate.
The output speed of the fluid drive will depend on the quantity of
oil circulating between the input and output elements, thus
enabling the torque transmitted and/or output speed to be
controlled.
Magnetic coupling
Magnetic or eddy current couplings use the strength of a
magnetic field to transmit energy through the coupling. As the
strength of the magnetic field is increased the output speed and
torque are also increased.
3.2.1.5 Variable pitched blades

Variable pitch blading has becoming increasingly more popular
as the preferred method of control for the output of axial flow
fans. A constant speed motor is installed and the fan output is
governed by the setting of the pitch on the blades. This gives
easier load regulation compared to a centrifugal fan, with a rapid
fan output response.
The pitch variation on this type of control is operated by
mechanical linkage contained within the impeller hub and taken
out to an external shaft connected to a control mechanism.
3.2.2 Forced draft (FD) fans

FD fans supply the combustion air to the boiler. This
combustion air is split into primary air (conveyance air) that
passes through the mills then to the furnace while the secondary
air (combustion air) passes directly to the furnace.
Approximately 75% of the air passing through the FD fan
continues on to become secondary air while approximately 25%
becomes primary air for the mills.
The output from the FD fan is regulated by vane or speed

control. If vane control is employed it is installed on the suction
side of the FD fan. Most FD fans are fitted with a discharge
damper that is used for isolation purposes.
3.2.3 Induced draft (ID) fans

ID fans extract the flue gasses from the furnace and draw them
over the heat exchangers before discharging the flue gasses to
atmosphere. ID and FD fans work in unison to maintain the
correct quantity of flow through the boiler and desired furnace
pressure/suction regardless of the boiler load.
Furnace pressure on most modern boilers is maintained at a
slight suction. This condition is referred to as balanced draft
firing. This slight suction (approximately minus 1kPa) ensures
that if any inspection port or aperture located at or after the
combustion chamber is opened there will be no flame or hot flue
gas discharge. The temperature of combustion is in the order of
11000C and would cause severe injury to a person if they were to
open an inspection port if the furnace was on a positive
pressure.
The ID fans are located after the precipitator or fabric filter plant
to reduce erosion on the fan internals.
The ID fan output is controlled by damper, vane or variable
speed.
3.2.4 Primary air (PA) fans (for pressure type mills)

Primary air fans are installed prior to the pulverised fuel mill
and forces conveyance air through the mill. This conveyance air
entrains the fine pulverised fuel particles in suspension and
transports them to the furnace corners; where it is admitted to
the combustion chamber via burner boxes and nozzles.
PA fan output control is by damper, vane or variable speed.
3.2.5 Exhausters (for suction type mills)

Exhausters perform the same function as primary air fans only
they are installed on the outlet side of the pulverised fuel mill.
Their advantage over a primary air fan is that the mill does not
require any sealing air system to exclude pulverised fuel from
entering its bearings. The disadvantage is that they convey a
mixture of air and pulverised fuel which causes erosion of the
impellers blades.
Exhauster output is controlled by variable speed.
3.3 Air heaters

To assist combustion the air entering the furnace combustion
chamber is preheated. This is achieved by passing the inlet air
through a device called an air heater (or air preheater). There are
a number of different types of air heaters in use today, but the
objective is the same for all and that is to elevate the furnace
inlet air temperature to aid combustion.
Figure 32 shows the installation location of air heaters in the air

and gas path of the furnace.
Two main types of air heaters have been used in large power
stations for many years with comparatively little change in basic
design. They are the stationary type of tube or plate construction
and the rotating regenerative design.
The stationary or recuperative type consists of tubes or plates so

arranged that hot flue gases flow past one side of the surface
while air flows past the other side. Heat is transferred through
the plate or tube surface thus cooling the flue gases and heating
the air for combustion. The heater is arranged contraflow which
ensures the maximum amount of heat is extracted from the flue
gases.
3.3.1 Recuperative multi-pass tubular air heater

Figure 37 shows a multi-pass tubular air heater. With this type
of air heater the gas travels inside the tubes, whilst air travels on
the outside of the tubes. Various baffles are arranged to ensure
even distribution of the air and good heat transfer.
Gas inlet
Air outlet
Baffles
Air Inlet
Gas outlet
Figure 37: Multi-pass tubular recuperative air heater
3.3.2 Plate type recuperative air heater

A plate type air heater is shown in Figure 38. With this type of
air heater the gas passes between two plates causing them to
heat up. On the other side of the plates is the air which absorbs
the heat that has transferred through the plate from the gas
side.
Figure 38: Plate type recuperative air heater
3.3.3 Regenerative type air heater

With the (Howden) regenerative type air heater a large core of
thin crimped sheet metal plates are built up in wedge shaped
sections. These are then arranged on a rotating cylindrical frame
in such a manner that air/flue gas can flow freely parallel to the
rotor axis. Seals are installed to prevent air/flue gas from
moving laterally. These thin plates provide a large heating
surface and maximum heat transfer. Ducts are arranged to pass
the hot gases from the boiler through one side of the slowly
rotating rotor core, while cold air moving in the opposite
direction passes through the other side. In normal operation, the
hot flue gases from the boiler flow through the gas side of the
rotor, heating the plate elements. As the rotor revolves, this
heated section passes into the air zone and transfers its heat to
the cool air entering. This type of air heater is shown in Figure
39.
The (Davidson) regenerative is similar to the Howden type except
that the elements are stationary and a rotating hood directs the
cool air across the hot elements.
Radial, axial and circumference seals are fitted to the air heater
rotor. Their function is to prevent air under pressure from the
forced draught fans bypassing the boiler and mixing with the
flue gases that are being drawn out of the boiler by the induced
draught fan. The seals are adjustable and are normally set in a
fixed position. In some cases, the seals may be spring loaded to
provide a better seal and to make allowance for air heater rotor
distortion. The air heater is generally rotated at approximately 2
rpm.
Regenerative air heaters may be driven by either a central
gearbox driving the rotor or by a pinion gear driving a peripheral
rack around the air heater circumference.
The top bearing of the heater is pressure lubricated, oil being
circulated by means of a motor driven oil pump mounted on an
oil tank adjacent to the air heater. A filter and cooler are fitted at
the oil pump discharge to ensure that the oil enters the bearing
in a clean, cool condition.
The bottom bearing is usually of the double row, self-aligning
type of roller bearing which is grease packed in a water cooled
housing.
3.3.4 Twin-flow regenerative air heaters

A modern trend in boiler construction is to install a twin flow
regenerative type air heater. The construction of this type of air
heater is the same principle as a normal regenerative air heater
except that it has a section reserved for the passage of primary
air. Figure 40 shows how a twin-flow regenerative air heater is
installed on a boiler while Figure 41 shows the construction of

the twin-flow air heater.
3.3.5 Sootblowers
Two sootblowers are normally fitted, one on the gas inlet side
and one on the air inlet side to facilitate in-service cleaning of
the element plates. These can either be the swinging arm or fixed
type and are used to clean away the build-up of fly ash from the
air heater baskets.
3.3.6 Air heater fires

A fire in an air heater has the potential to cause an enormous
amount of damage. The lead up conditions to an air heater fire is
incomplete combustion due to some malfunction of the
equipment or the controls associated with the draft and fuel
plant. Unburnt fuel carries over from the furnace and is
deposited on the air heater elements. If this deposited fuel
ignites it burns rapidly and destroys the air heater elements.
A rapid rise in air heater outlet temperature indicates the
presence of a fire and emergency action must be taken to remedy
the situation. The usual response to an air heater fire on large
generating plant is to trip the boiler and close the air heaters
associated dampers; in the hope of smothering the fire.
All dampers are installed on the furnace side of the air heater to
allow for maintenance and isolation from the ignition source
should an air heater fire occur.
Air heaters are often fitted with an air side bypass damper used
for regulating air heater air outlet temperature.
Air Inlet
25OC
Gas Outlet
O
135 C
Gas Inlet Air Outlet

O O
250 C 130 C
Figure 39: Rotary type regenerative air heater
Gas exiting
after economiser
Secondary
air
Combustion
chamber
Primary air and

pulverised fuel
Air PF PF PF PF Air
Gas Air PA PA Air Gas
side side side side side side
PA PA
Fan Fan
Air
FD Inlets FD
Fan Fan

ID ID
Chimney
Fan Fan
Figure 40: Typical air and gas path with twin-flow air heater
Figure 41: Twin-flow regenerative air heater
3.4 Boiler Casings, Ducting, Dampers and Vanes
3.4.1 Boiler Casings

Boiler casings and gas passes are suitably constructed and
insulated to prevent the entry of any excess air into the boiler
and to withstand high temperatures.
Holed or misplaced baffles in the gas passes permit poor
distribution of gas flow through the boiler causing reduced
efficiency.
Misdirected high velocity flue cases can also be the cause of tube
failures due to erosion caused by impingement of dust on the
tubes.
3.4.2 Air Ducts

Air ducts require little attention other than repairs to insulation
and fabric expansion joints. Leakage in the air ducts imposes
additional load on the FD fans, which must then supply the
leakage as well as the combustion air.
Leakage of air into the boiler furnace or gas passes will affect the
fuel/air ratio, cool the hot gases in the passes, and impose
additional load on the ID fans.
The loss of either an FD or ID fan means a reduction in the
boiler output. The outage of other fans such as PA fans usually
means the associated auxiliary plant cannot be operated, and
under certain conditions, could also mean a reduction in output.
3.4.3 Dampers and Vanes

A number of dampers and vanes are provided on the boiler for
both control and isolation purposes. Depending on the design of
the boiler some or all of the following dampers and vanes may be
present.
The following dampers/vanes are used for control purposes:
 FD fan inlet vanes (speed control sometimes employed)
 air heater air bypass damper
 PA fan inlet vanes (speed control or variable pitch impeller
blades sometimes employed)
 secondary air dampers
 pulverised fuel mill hot and cold air dampers
 ID fan inlet vanes (speed control or variable pitch impeller
blades sometimes employed)
 hot air dampers associated with the furnace ignition

system.
 If fabric filters are installed emergency cooling dampers are
installed
The non-control dampers installed on a boiler are:

 FD fan discharge dampers
 air heater air outlet damper
 air heater gas inlet damper
 air heater gas inlet damper to PA fan section (only installed
if twin-flow type air heater installed
 PA fan discharge damper
 Precipitator or fabric filter gas inlet dampers
 Precipitator or fabric filter gas outlet dampers
 ID fan discharge damper
Some air and gas flow equalising dampers are often installed to
regulate ductwork pressures and flue gas distribution. These are
normally adjusted by maintenance personnel and are not used
for operating or isolation purposes.
4. The Boiler as a Heat Exchanger

The Boiler functions as a large heat exchanger with all three
modes of heat transfer being employed.
The initial fire ball provides a radiant heat source that provides a
direct heat exchange to the furnace water wall tubes.
Depending on the whether the boiler is natural or assisted
circulation a varying degree of convection is maintained within
the boiler downcomers and water wall risers.
The heated flue gas stream provides a conductive source from
which heat is transferred through the various tube bundles
throughout the gas path to the stack.
Apart from the furnace water walls the remainder of the boiler
heating elements (superheater, reheater, and economiser) are
placed in an overall, contra flow pattern in descending order of
design outlet temperature.
As with any heat exchanger the degree of efficiency may be seen
as the difference between inlet temperature and the exhaust
temperature. To maximise efficiency the boiler must be fired to
the maximum permissible furnace temperature while the flue

gas exit temperature is at a minimum.
A number of heat exchangers are located between the furnace
and the flue gas exit from the air heaters, if each of these heat
exchanger is operating efficiently, a fixed flue gas temperature
profile should be seen through each of the regions of the boiler.
This temperature profile should change with the amount of heat
release in the furnace, which, in turn, should vary with load.
Figure 42 Shows a typical set of temperature gradient curves
presented when the values of the temperature exiting the
following heat exchange areas is plotted:
 Furnace
 Superheater
 Economiser
 Air heater
The horizontal axis is arbitrary and has been chosen to allow the
curves to be plotted as a continuous and consistent curve.
The shape of the curves with respect to an increase in load
shows an increase in gradient, which indicates a greater capacity
for heat transfer.
The flue gas exit temperature (which indicates the level of flue
gas losses) can also be seen to increase with load. The increase
in flue gas exit temperature with load may be attributed to the
following factors:
 Higher furnace exit temperature
 An increase in the mass flow of flue gases (combustion
products and air)
 An increase in gas velocity ( due to increase volumetric
flow )
 An increase in the feedwater temperature entering the
economiser due to increase feedwater heater performance.
Each of the heat exchange elements within the boiler is designed

to receive a dedicated portion of the total heat released in the
boiler furnace. If the heat transfer characteristic changes
(through fouling with dust and ash) the exit temperature from
that element and each successive element will increase.
1300
Furnace Exit
1200 Temperature
120% Load
1100
100% Load
80% Load
1000
60% Load
900 40% Load
800
Temperature º C
700
600
Superheater Outlet
Temperature
500
Economiser Outlet
Temperature
400
Flue Gas Exit

300 Temperature
(Air Heater Outlet)
200
100
Gas Path through Boiler Setting (arbitrary scale)
Figure 42: Typical Temperature Gradient through Boiler Setting with increasing load
4.1 Factors Effecting Boiler Heat Exchange Rate

The efficiency of any heat exchanger is dependent on its ability
to effectively transfer heat across the exchange boundaries.
Several conditions may arise within the boiler that will directly
impact on the quality of heat exchange. Such conditions include:
 Fouling of the heat exchange surfaces
 Leakage
 Excessive flow rates
4.1.1 Fouling of the Furnace Water Wall Tubes

The primary function of the furnace water wall tubes is to
generate dry steam at the required pressure and at the required
rate to meet unit load demand.
If adequate steam generation is being maintained the flue gas
temperature exiting the furnace will be within the desirable
range for the superheater heat exchange elements and the final
superheat temperature will be within the controllable range.
There is normally a minimum steam flow requirement associated
with an increase in firing rate during a unit start-up.
As the greatest heat transfer demand is within the steam
generation elements, within which both sensible and latent heat
are required to produce dry steam, any degree of fouling will
reduce the overall boiler efficiency.
If the water wall tubes become fouled the heat dedicated to the
generation of steam will be reduced and the furnace exit
temperature will increase.
The superheater elements are now faced with a reduced steam
flow through them but an increased heat uptake due to the
increased temperature differential across the heat exchange
surface. The superheated steam temperature must, therefore,
rise.
A limit to the degree of fouling that can be tolerated will be
reached when any of the following conditions are reached:
 The maximum allowable superheat metal temperature is
reached
 The maximum allowable furnace exit temperature is
reached
 The superheater desuperheating attemperator has reached
the limit of its control range with increasing superheat
temperature. In this case the superheater is also being
used to generate steam by virtue of the phase change
demanded of the spraywater as it enters the steam flow

path. This is not the design function of the superheater.
 The turbine steam inlet temperature approaches the upper
limit.
The only remedy for fouling of the furnace water wall tubes is to
remove the material fouling the heat exchange surfaces. This can
be done while in service at a stable load if sootblowers are fitted
or it may be done during an outage with suitable equipment.
4.1.2 Fouling of the Superheater-Reheater

Similar conditions to those experienced with water wall fouling
will manifest themselves as the external surfaces of the
superheating elements become fouled, with the major effects
being felt downstream of the flue gas path. Any (or all) of the
following may be observed:
 Due to the reduced heat transfer across the superheater
elements the final superheat temperature will reduce
 The temperature of the flue gas as it exits the superheater
and enters the economiser heat exchange elements will
increase
 The increased temperature differential across the
economiser heat exchange surfaces will result in an
increase in the economiser exit temperature (which may
result in a slight increase in the steam generation rate
until the heat transfer pattern stabilises)
 The temperature of the flue gas as it enters the air heater
elements will increase
 The final air and gas exit temperatures from the air heater
will increase
 Overall boiler efficiency will decay.
In boilers fitted with a reheater, similar conditions will be
experienced.
Due to the need to achieve the same outlet temperature for the
reheated steam as that of the superheated steam the reheater
elements are normally interspersed with those of the
superheater within the flue gas path.
In boilers (such as tangentially fired boilers) fitted with tilting
burner mechanisms as a means of reheat temperature control,
the range of operation of the tile mechanism will initially be
reached followed by progressively increasing reheater
desuperheater spraywater use.
4.1.3 Internal Fouling of Superheater – Reheater Tubes

Internal fouling in the form of scaling may also occur within the
superheater elements as a result of carryover and in both the
superheater and reheater elements if poor quality feedwater is
fed through the desuperheater spraywater system. The scale
decreases the coefficient of heat transfer across the tube wall
with the result that higher surface temperatures are needed in
order to maintain the heat flow through to the steam. This can
lead to localised overheating of the tubes and possible failure.
To prevent tube damage through overheating (thermal stress), a
flow passage is normally maintained through the superheater
elements by ensuring that the final superheater header drain is
open prior to firing of the boiler and remains open until the unit
is synchronised or sufficient flow is being maintained by a
HP/IP/LP bypass system. The maximum furnace exit
temperature is also limited until a satisfactory steam flow is
being maintained through the boiler.
In boilers fitted with a reheater, similar conditions will be
experienced. Due to the need to achieve the same outlet
temperature for the reheated steam as that of the superheated
steam the reheater elements are normally interspersed with
those of the superheater within the flue gas path.
In boilers (such as tangentially fired boilers) fitted with tilting
burner mechanisms as a means of reheat temperature control,
the
4.1.4 Fouling of the Economiser

As the degree of fouling increases within the economiser the
amount of heat transfer to the feedwater decreases. The reduced
heat in the feedwater must be gained in the water walls in order
to maintain the same steam flow. Therefore the steam flow will
decrease demanding an increase in firing rate to regain the
required steam flow.
The overall result will be an increase in firing rate for a given
load with an accompanying increase in superheat, primary and
secondary air temperatures.
A similar situation may be seen when the feedwater heaters are
taken out of service although the temperature profile throughout
the boiler, including the economiser, will be raised in this case
due to the increased firing.
4.1.5 Air Heater Fouling

As with other heat exchange surfaces within the boiler setting air
heaters are also prone to a degree of fouling from air borne as
and dust and, particularly during cold start conditions, from

unburnt fuel oil.
Being the last heat exchanger in the boiler setting the failure of
the air heater to absorb its design heat load will result in
increased flue gas exit temperatures to the precipitators or fabric
filter chambers. In extreme cases the flue gas exit temperature
may be above the design limit for the fabric filters and demand
attemperation (a further loss of efficiency due to the increased
input power demand)
Air heater design has previously been covered and three different
types were introduced:
 Rotary
 Stationary Tubular
 Plate
Dependent on the design, the ability to clear deposits from the
heat exchange surfaces by sootblowing may or may not be
practicable.
4.1.6 Sootblowers
Sootblowers are used on coal fired boilers to remove the deposits
of soot and slag which are deposited on the outer tube surfaces
in various parts of the boiler system, (furnace, economiser,
superheater, reheater and air heaters, as a result of combustion,
which if were allowed to accumulate would severely inhibit the
transfer of heat to the tube surfaces. This involves blowing steam
or compressed air across the tube surface to dislodge the
deposits.
Depending on the location in the boiler where they are utilised
there are several types of sootblower used, these being -
4.1.6.1 Short Retractable Blowers

Short Retractable Blowers are used to clean the furnace walls
and are located around the furnace at intervals to give full
coverage of the tube surfaces.
4.1.6.2 Long Retractable (Lance) Blowers

Long Retractable (Lance) Blowers are used to clean the
superheater, reheater and economiser sections of the boiler and
thus consist of a long travelling arm which extends half way into
the boiler to give full tube coverage.
4.1.6.3 Swinging or Fixed Arm Blowers

Swinging or Fixed Arm Blowers are used to clean the air heater
baskets as they rotate. They may be either a fixed unit, being
located across the radius of the heater or a swinging arm type
which extends across the basket surfaces while in operation
then swings out of the gas stream when finished.
4.1.7 Air Leakage through Air Heaters

The air heater is subject to a pressure differential due to the
difference in pressure between the forced draught or primary air
fan discharge and the induced draught fan suction. This
pressure differential can be the mechanism for leakage of air
directly to the flue gas side of the heater if a path is available.
Corrosion and erosion of the tubular type heaters may result in
failure of some of the tubes, allowing air to pass preferentially
through the site of fracture.
The seals of rotary air heaters may wear with time or the rotating
elements may be subject to distortion if the heater is allowed to
remain stationary with a high temperature differential across the
heater body. Both of these conditions will result in air leakage
across the heater.
Dependent on the leakage path air heater leakage may reduce
the thermal capacity of the air heater by carrying a portion of the
heat directly to the exiting flue gas.
4.1.8 Boiler Tube Leakage

During the life of a boiler, corrosion, erosion and thermal stress
may cause a tube or tubes within one of the heat exchange
elements to fail. Although the initial consequence, loss of
working fluid, is the same in each case, the indication, and the
effects, of a tube leak will be slightly different with each heat
exchange element.
4.1.8.1 Economiser Tube Leak

The effect of a tube leak on the boiler heat demand will vary
dependent on the location of the leak. The effects increasing as
the location of the leak varies from inlet to outlet of the
economiser.
The loss of working fluid will demand an increase in make-up
which in turn will make a greater demand on the feedwater
heating system and result in a reduction in the feedwater
temperature entering the economiser.
As the leak from the economiser will carry with it part of the heat
gained, there will be a further falling off in the economiser outlet
temperature, which will eventually demand an increase in firing
rate.
The temperature of the flue gas exiting the economiser will also
decrease due to the greater heat demand of the increased
feedwater flow and the reduced feedwater temperature.
The tube leak itself will act like a contact type attemperator
tending to further reduce the flue gas temperature. The flue gas
inlet and outlet to the air heater will reduce and the air heater
air exit temperature will also decrease.
4.1.8.2 Water Wall Tube Leak

A water wall tube leak, once again, places an increased heating
demand on the feedwater heaters and economiser. The leak itself
will tend to contribute to the mass flow within the furnace and
demand heat as it is transformed from water into superheated
steam. The increased mass flow will cause an increase in the
velocity of the flue gas through the boiler.
Other indications that may follow a water wall tube leak include:
 An increased make-up demand
 An increased feedwater flow demand to maintain drum
water level
 A deviation between the steam and feedwater flow trends
as the feedwater flow is increased to service the leak
 A reduction in boiler water conductivity due to the
increased blowdown of dissolved solids through the leak
 An increase in firing rate due to the increased heat
demand to maintain the same steam generation rate
 A consequential increase in temperatures through the
remaining boiler setting (superheater to air heater) due to
the increased firing rate
 Dependent on the location the leak may cause flame
instability as it impinges on the fuel air stream being
delivered by a burner. This may be detected through
repeated loss of flame indication being displayed by flame
monitoring equipment.
4.1.8.3 Superheater Tube Leak

The loss of working fluid from the superheater will cause the
same increased heat demands and raised firing rate as have
been detailed in the previous situations.
Other indications that may follow a superheater tube leak
include:
 An increased make-up demand
 An increased feedwater flow demand
 A deviation between the steam and feedwater flow trends
as the feedwater flow is increased to service the leak
 Because the leak is in the steam phase and not the water
phase of the steam generation cycle there will not be a
corresponding reduction in boiler water conductivity
 An increase in firing rate due to the increased heat
demand to maintain the same steam generation rate
 A consequential increase in temperatures through the
remaining boiler setting (furnace exit to air heater) due to
the increased firing rate
Dependent on the boiler design single or dual furnace different
temperature profiles may be identified through each flue gas
path, which may aid in the detection of the location of the tube
leak.
5. Combustion Theory
A boiler is a thermodynamic engine that utilises the heat
liberated from the burning of a fuel to generate a potential
energy source for a prime mover or heating process to which it is
coupled.
In operating a boiler the maintenance of a continuous,
controlled, stable, combustion process is of prime importance, in
order to prevent uncontrolled combustion within the confines of
the boiler (an explosion), especially as the potential energy of the
fuel mixture within the furnace and boiler setting increases to
meet the demands of modern power generation plant.
Since the combustion of fuel is the primary process within a
thermodynamic engine, this chapter will introduce the student
to the chemistry of combustion and the reactions that take place
during this process. The student will also be introduced to the
combustion process as fuel exits the burner and reacts within
the furnace.
5.1 Fundamentals of combustion

During chemical reactions heat energy may be either absorbed
or liberated.
A chemical reaction to which heat must be contributed in order
for the reaction to proceed is called an endothermic reaction.
A chemical reaction that liberates heat is called an exothermic
reaction.
The combustion of a fuel is an exothermic reaction within which
the combustible elements of the fuel combine with oxygen to
form a new compound.
The fuels used in a boiler do not readily combine with oxygen at
normal ambient conditions of pressure and temperature and
must be heated to an elevated temperature before the
combustion reaction becomes self-sustaining. This elevated
temperature is called the Ignition Temperature.
Ignition Temperature is the minimum temperature to which the
fuel-oxygen mixture (or a portion of it) must be heated in order
for the combustion reaction to become self sustaining. The
actual oxidisation reaction may commence with some
combustible elements (such as hydrogen) at a minimal rate long
before the actual ignition temperature is reached. At this
reduced rate however the reaction does not produce sufficient
heat to remain self-sustaining.
Fuels that have a high ignition temperature are difficult to ignite,
while those with a low ignition temperature ignite easily making
them potentially hazardous.
The temperature of ignition will vary when the combination of

gases is varied, when the proportions of the same gases are
varied, and when the pressure is varied. There are also limiting
proportions of a mixture of gases outside of which the mixture
has no practicable ignition temperature, for example hydrogen
and air mixtures containing less than 5% and more than 72% of
hydrogen are non-inflammable.
From the above it can be seen that there are three essential
conditions that must be satisfied before the combustion process
can be established and maintained:
 Fuel must be present in sufficient quantity
 Oxygen must be present in sufficient quantity
 The temperature of the fuel-oxygen mix (or at least a portion
of it) must be raised to, and maintained at, its ignition
temperature.
Should any one of these three conditions be removed,
combustion ceases to be self-sustaining.
5.2 Fuels and their Constituents

Typical fuels burnt within a coal-fired power station include:
 Natural Gas (normally used to provide a primary ignition
source but can be used as the main fuel)
 Fuel Oil (normally used as the initial or primary fuel with
which the boiler is brought up to an operational status of
approximately 25% MCR)
 Coal (normally used as the main fuel source once sufficient
load is established to demand a stable coal flow)
Each of these fuels can be termed a fossil fuel as they have been
created from the compression of sedimentary plant deposits
under successive layers of rock. In keeping with their plant
constituents the main compounds that make up the fuel are
hydrocarbons. These compounds consist of linked hydrogen and
carbon molecules to which may be added molecules of nitrogen,
oxygen, and sulphur derivatives.
Some important hydrocarbons are methane (CH4), ethane
(C2H6), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10).
Coal, dependent on the seam from which it is removed, may
have a wide range of constituents.
From Table 1 it can be seen that the major combustible
constituents of coal are carbon, hydrogen and sulphur. Nitrogen,
while also present in the coal, does not take place in the
combustion process but reacts with oxygen at high temperatures
in an endothermic reaction to form Nitric oxides (NOx), which are

an environmental pollutant.
Fuel %C %H %S %N %Ash %Moisture NCV

Coal 66.5 - 4.5- 1.0 – 1.2 – 7.5 – 1.0 – 4.0 27.2 –
78 5.5 2.5 1.8 20% 32.2
kJ/kg
Table 1: Typical Analysis of the constituents and nominal calorific value of Coal
5.3 Combustion Reactions for Fuel Constituents

The ability to design a boiler within which to burn a range of
fuels demands an understanding of the chemical reactions
taking place within the combustion zone.
Knowledge of these combustion reactions is required to allow the
boiler operator to understand how fuels combine with oxygen to
release heat within the boiler and to appreciate the need for
constant monitoring and control in order to maintain a stable
combustion process.
Laboratory tests with a bomb calorimeter have identified the
calorific value of carbon as approximately 33.7 MJ/kg, therefore
the combustion reaction for 1 kg of carbon requires 2.67 kg of
Oxygen to produce 3.67 kg of carbon dioxide and release 33.7
MJ of heat.
Similar tests allow the amount of oxygen required for the
combustion of hydrogen and sulphur to be determined
5.4 The Provision of Air to Support Combustion

The oxygen that is supplied to the combustion reaction within a
boiler is provided as one of the constituents of the primary and
secondary air.
While air is composed of a mixture of many gases in the
approximate proportions as is shown in Error! Reference
source not found., it can be seen that the two major
constituents are Nitrogen and Oxygen. In calculating the ability
of air to supply oxygen to a combustion reaction it is normally
considered that air is made up of 23% Oxygen and 77% Nitrogen
by mass (the other constituents are neglected).
In determining the amount of oxygen required for the complete
combustion of a fuel the balanced chemical equation for this
reaction is first defined. This equation is called the stoichiometric
equation.
The stoichiometric mass (also known as the theoretical mass) of

air is the minimum amount of air that must be supplied for
complete combustion of 1 kg of an element.
To determine the stoichiometric mass of air required for the
complete combustion of any particular fuel:
 Determine the amount of oxygen required for each
constituent
 Subtract any oxygen already present in the fuel
 Determine the mass of air required to supply the required
amount of oxygen
5.4.1 Air: Fuel Ratio and the Provision of Excess Air

Complete combustion of fuel within a boiler with only the
stoichiometric mass of air is virtually impossible as this would
demand that each and every molecule of fuel must encounter its
appropriate companion molecule of oxygen within the
combustion envelope in order to complete the reaction.
In practice an excess of air is supplied to ensure that each fuel
particle has an increased opportunity for contact with oxygen.
When burning hydrocarbon fuels the amount of excess air for
efficient combustion must be increased as the percentage of
carbon in the fuel increases. This also corresponds to the
hydrocarbons change in physical properties from a gas to a
liquid and finally to a solid.
Table 2 shows typical minimum values of excess air required for
the efficient combustion of hydrocarbon fuels as the percentage
of carbon with respect to hydrogen is increased.
Type of Hydrocarbon Mass Ratio of H2: C Excess Air Requirement

Gas 1:3 5-10 %
Fuel Oil 1: 6.5 5-10 %
Coal 1:10 to 1:20 15-25%
(delivered as pulverised
particles)
Table 2: Excess Air Required for Efficient Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels

with increasing Carbon Content
There are limiting proportions of a mixture of gases outside of

which the mixture has no practicable ignition temperature (for
eaxample: air mixtures containing less than 5% and more than
72% of hydrogen are non-inflammable.
A similar condition occurs with the pulverised fuel air mixture.

At both reduced and excessive levels of combustion air the
mixture becomes unstable and loss of ignition becomes likely.
Figure 43 shows the limits of stability for a pulverised fuel flame
with respect to the percentage of oxygen remaining in the flue
gases. The theoretical base line for stoichiometric combustion
assumes that no oxygen will be remaining in the flue gas and
that complete combustion has taken place.
10
9
Unstable – High
8 likelihood of loss of
flame
7
Percentage of oxygen in dry flue gases
6 Usually Stable
Consider ignition
support
5
Optimum Flue Gas O2
for 50% Load
4
Stable
Optimum Flue Gas O2
3
for 100% Load
Usually Stable
Consider ignition
2 support
1 Unstable – High
likelihood of loss of
flame
0 Stoichiometric Air Supply
Figure 43: Stability limits for a pulverised fuel flame with respect to flue gas O2
5.5 Factors Contributing to Complete Combustion of a Fuel Particle

As air is comprised of only 23% oxygen, the fuel molecules, by
deduction, are three times more likely to be located adjacent to a
nitrogen molecule than an oxygen molecule. If the fuel exists in
large particles then the likelihood of all fuel molecules combining
with an oxygen molecule becomes increasing remote.
Several factors must be considered and appropriate action taken
to ensure that the fuel particles’ chances of complete combustion
are enhanced.
All of the following factors increase the probability of fuel particle
and oxygen contact within the furnace combustion envelope:
 Provision of air in sufficient excess quantities to optimise
contact
 Designing the burners to encourage a high degree of
turbulence to promote intimate mixing of the fuel and air
within the combustion zone
 Ensuring the distribution of the air is such that intimate
and progressive mixing may occur
 Reducing the fuel particle size to an optimum size
 Ensuring the particle residence time within the combustion
zone is sufficient to allow complete combustion
It is difficult to rapidly gauge the combustibles content in
varying grades of coal or to accurately measure the volume of air
entering a furnace. The best way to determine whether safe and
stable combustion is occurring in a furnace is to monitor the
make-up of the exhaust flue gas.
There are two methods of flue gas monitoring used to determine
correct combustion:
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) monitoring
 Carbon monoxide (CO) and Oxygen (O2) monitoring
Predominantly CO2 monitoring was used in older power plants
while the current trend is for CO and O2 monitoring at newer
power plants
6. Boiler Firing Equipment

6.1 Oil Burning Equipment
The function of oil burners is to:
 provide a stable, controllable heat source during boiler
start-up and turbine/generator synchronisation (up to
approx. 20% to 25 % MCR)
 provide the boiler with ignition energy support during

periods of unstable pulverised fuel firing, such as during
start up or shut down of pulverised fuel burners and
operation at the lower limit of burner turndown ratios
In order to ensure stable combustion of the fuel oil stream the oil
is broken into fine particles or atomised, thereby increasing the
streams surface area and ensuring greater mixing with the
combustion air.
Oil burners may be pressure atomising or air / steam atomising
type. Pressure atomising burners rely on the pressure of the oil
to break the oil into small droplets as it is forced through the
sprayer plate at the burner tip. Air or steam atomising burners
use a supply of compressed air or low pressure steam, which is
admitted to the sprayer head independently of the oil to break to
fuel oil into a fine mist. The air / steam and oil form an emulsion
which rapidly disperses as it leaves the burner. A typical, steam
atomised, oil burner and ignitor assembly can be seen in Figure
44.
6.1.1 Oil Burner Operation

Because of the high cost of fuel oil, the use oil burners must
always be considered and unnecessary use of oil fuel should be
avoided. At times when furnace stability or continuity of output
is at risk, however, the judicious and prompt use of oil burners
is a necessary operator action. During such occasions efforts
must be made to restore stability and output and oil burners
should be removed from service as soon as conditions permit.
Figure 44 Typical Oil Burner/Ignitor Arrangement
It is essential that igniters and oil burners are correctly operated

having due regard for safety, efficiency and pollution control.
The following operating procedure should be adopted.
 Before attempting to ignite any igniter or oil burner, the
furnace must always be properly purged
 All igniters and oil burners must be individually tested and
proven reliable when returning a unit to service and on a
routine basis on in-service units.
 Ignition must occur readily and fuel must burn cleanly with
a clear furnace atmosphere.
 All igniters and oil burners must shut down properly with
the fuel being securely isolated and the burner body and
nozzle being correctly purged of any accumulated oil. (Oil
deposits not scavenged from the burner may carbonise and
block the burner tip).
 Any oil burner that trips must be purged and retracted from
the furnace to prevent damage through overheating.
6.1.2 Emission Control

Black smoke is produced by incomplete combustion of oil fuel.
This condition must be corrected to avoid moist, sooty deposits
from building up on air heater and precipitator surfaces. Such
deposits can cause impaired efficiency and, especially in the air
heaters, can present a fire or explosion hazard.
These unburnt fuel deposits are also corrosive and air heaters
should, if possible, be bypassed until the flue gas temperature
exceeds the acid dew point. If the air heaters cannot be by-
passed they should be sootblown as directed by the boiler
manufacturer to remove any unburned fuel particles and
corrosive products from oil firing.
6.1.2.1 Causes of Incomplete Combustion (black smoke)

Incomplete combustion, which may be identified by a black
smoke plume, may be caused by any of the following:
 Inadequate or poorly distributed air supply (during initial

firing on oil the boiler should be set up with open air
registers” and the furnace airflow must be approx. 30 %)
 Incorrect oil pressure
 Incorrect atomising air or steam pressure
 Carbonised oil on burner tip ( blocked tip ) Due to
previously inadequate burner purging or failure to retract
from furnace
 Leakage of oil into furnace from out of service burners
Good combustion can be identified by a clean, bright

orange/yellow flame. A flame that is white indicates over-airing
while a flame that is dark indicates under-airing or blocked
burner tips.
A typical oil burner and igniter arrangement showing air and
steam atomising connections with scanners and cooling
equipment can be seen in Figure 45.
Figure 45 Oil Burner and Ignitor Arrangement
6.2 Pulverising Fuel Equipment (PF)
6.2.1 Operating Pinciple of a PF Combustion Group

Coal from an overhead bunker passes through a coal feeder into
the pulverised fuel mill (often abbreviated to mill) at a controlled
rate, depending on boiler load. The grinding elements of the
pulverised fuel mill then reduce the coal particle size to the
required fineness. The ground coal is removed from the mill by
means of a primary air stream supplied by a fan(s). The primary
air, which is approximately 20% - 25% of the total air required
for combustion, carries the pulverised fuel (PF) in suspension
through a separator or classifier where oversize particles are
rejected back to the mill for further grinding. Whilst it is
necessary to dry the coal as much as possible within the mill to
assist combustion, care must be exercised to ensure mill outlet
temperature does not exceed 95°C. This is done to prevent the
possibility of spontaneous combustion of the coal in the mill or
pipework. Hot and cold air dampers are provided for the control
of mill outlet air temperature. The PF air mixture then travels
through distribution pipework that may bifurcate until
eventually the mixture is delivered to a group of burners at the
required velocity. With the fuel air ratio and velocity within the
required limits, ignition of the mixture takes place.
The remainder of the total air (secondary air) is usually admitted
through a damper or nozzle from a windbox (or burner box) at
the burner mouth in a stream above and below or all around the
pulverised fuel/primary air mixture. In some installations a
further air supply known as tertiary air may be provided.
6.2.2 Components of a PF Combustion Group

The principle components of a combustion group include:
 Coal bunker
 Coal chute gate valve
 A coal feeder to feed coal to the mill at a controlled rate
 A mill to grind the coal to the desired fineness
 Primary air system to pass air through the mill
 Sealing air for pressure type mills
 A classifier for returning the large particles to the mill for
regrinding
 Hot and cold air duct isolating dampers
 Pulverised fuel and air piping, line isolating dampers or
valves and non-return valves
 Riffle boxes placed at the bifurcation points to ensure even

division of coal both in quality and quantity
 Burner boxes fitted with burner box nozzles
Coal bunker
Furnace
waterwall
Burner tubes
windbox
Chute gate
Burner
nozzle
Secondary
Air damper
‘A’ Mill
burner
Coal feeder
‘B’ Mill
burner
Pulverised
fuel burner
Coal ‘C’ Mill
with in built
chute burner
non-return
flap damper
Pulverised fuel
and air piping
isolation
Pulverised
damper/valve
fuel and air
piping to
other corners Riffle box at
of furnace bifurcation
point
Classifier
Pulverised
fuel and air
piping
Pulverised
fuel mill
‘C’ Mill Primary
air fan
Hot air from

Air heater
Cold air from

FD fan
Figure 46: Elementary diagram of a combustion group
6.2.2.1 Coal bunker

A coal bunker with a capacity of approximately 8 to 20 hours of
full load operation is installed above the coal feeder and mill.
With this layout coal can be gravity fed through the coal feeder
to the mill.
6.2.2.2 Coal chute gate valve

A coal chute gate is primarily installed for isolation purposes.
The coal chute gate valve is closed whenever isolation and access
to the mill is required. Several designs are available but they all
carry out the same function.
6.2.2.3 Coal feeder

A coal feeder feeds coal to the mill at a controlled rate. There are
a number of different types of coal feeders available and the
most popular models are:
 rotary star feeder
 table type feeder
 belt type gravimetric type feeder
 belt type volumetric feeder
6.2.2.4 Rotary star feeder

This type of coal feeder is found in older power stations. It has a
horizontally mounted rotor with vanes. The coal gravitates into
the space between the vanes and the coal feeders output is
dependant on how fast the rotor is rotated.
A rotary star feeder is shown in Figure 47.
6.2.2.5 Table type feeder

A table type feeder consists of a circular table with a non-skid
surface mounted horizontally and rotating about a vertical shaft.
Coal gravitates onto the table and is removed by a plough (or
knife) down a chute to the mill below. The rate of coal feed is
dependant on the position of the plough and the speed of the
table.
A table type feeder is shown in Figure 48
Figure 47: Rotary star feeder
Figure 48: Table type feeder
6.2.2.6 Belt type gravimetric feeder

The belt type gravimetric feeder is a small conveyor. Coal is
deposited from the overhead coal bunker onto one end of the
conveyor. The coal travelling along the belt is continuously
weighed. As the weight varies the weighing mechanism varies the
position of a levelling bar to maintain a standard weight of coal
on the belt. The speed of the belt controls the feed rate to the
mill. A gravimetric type feeder is shown in Figure 49.
Figure 49: Gravimetric type coal feeder
6.2.2.7 Belt type volumetric feeder

Belt type volumetric feeders are similar to the gravimetric feeder
in that it uses a small conveyor belt running on two separate
rollers. The feeder receives coal from a bunker outlet chute,
which sits above the feeder at one end. As the belt travels it
discharges coal down the chute at the other end into the mill. A
levelling bar is set to control the depth of coal on the belt, this
gives a predetermined volume of coal on the belt. The conveyor
belt speed is varied to control the feed rate to the mill.
With any type of coal feeder the rate of coal fed to the mill must
be controlled within design limits to avoid choking the mill.
6.2.2.8 Problems associated with coal feeders

Wear on the checker pattern of the table type feeder increases
the slip between the coal and the table surface and for a given
speed reduces the amount of coal supplied to the mill. This
condition is known as underfeeding.
On gravimetric type feeders coal may block up between the inlet
and levelling bar causing underfeeding or a torn belt.
Coal chutes blocked between bunker and feeder or between
feeder and mill. This again causes underfeeding.
6.2.3 Pulverised fuel mills

To assist complete combustion of the coal during the short
period of time it is in the furnace combustion chamber the coal
is ground into a fine powder before admission to the furnace.
This is achieved by feeding coal via a coal feeder into a
pulverising mill. Wether the pulverising is a tube-ball ring-roll or
ball-race type the end result is the same; to provide pulverised
fuel (PF) for improved combustion within the furnace chamber.
The pulverising mill may be a pressure or suction type. A
pressure type mill draws hot air from the ductwork after the air
heater and mixes it with cold air drawn from the ductwork prior
to the air heater (or atmosphere). This attemperated air is forced
through the mill by a primary air fan and in doing so entrains
the PF in suspension. It is then transported in PF pipework and
injected into the furnace combustion chamber via burners.
A suction type mill draws its air from the same sources as the
pressure mill but has an exhauster fan installed after the mill.
This exhauster fan sucks the air through the mill, entrains the
PF in suspension and then blows the PF air mixture into the
furnace in the same manner as the pressure mill.
Pulverising mills use one, two or three methods of the basic

principles of particle size reduction. These methods are:
 impact
 attrition
 crushing
Impact is where a falling object such as a mill ball is repeatedly
dropped on the coal to reduce its particle size.
Attrition is when the coal is tumbled over and over as in a
cement mixer. The coal particle size is reduced by the action of
sliding over itself or liners contained within the mill.
Crushing is where balls or rollers roll over liners with coal
particles between them.
The greatest amount of wear occurs on milling equipment when
the attrition principle is dominant with the least amount of wear
occurring when the impact principle is dominant.
Power consumed by a mill motor, increases as the degree of
fineness of coal particle exiting the mill. On the other hand the
boiler combustion efficiency increases as the fineness is
increased. Taking both of these factors into consideration it is
usual to aim for a pulverised fuel particle size that fits the
following specifications.
70% - 80% should pass through a 200 mesh sieve
94% should pass through a 100 mesh sieve and
not more than 1% should be retained by a 44 mesh sieve
NOTE: A 200 mesh sieve has 200 holes per square inch or in
metric 31 holes per square centimetre.
The most preferred types of pulverised mills for power station

operation are:
 tube-ball type mill
roll-bowl type
 ring-roll type mill (two types)
roll-table type
 ball-race type mill
6.2.3.1 Tube-ball Mill

The tube ball mill consists of a hollow horizontal cylinder rotated
on its axis. Heavy wear resistant cast liners are fitted to the
inside of the cylindrical shell. It is then filled to approximately
45% of its volume with forged steed or cast alloy balls. The balls
varying in size from 20 millimetres to 100 millimetres in

diameter. Hot air is blown through the mill to dry the coal and
remove the fines. An external 'classifier regulates the size of PF
passed to the furnace and the oversize material is returned to
the grinding zone until the required fineness is achieved.
The horizontal cylinder is rotated at approximately 18 to 35 rpm
(revolutions per minute); this causes the balls to be carried
approximately two thirds of the way up the periphery and then
continually cascaded down towards the centre of the cylinder.
Coal is fed into the cylinder through hollow trunnions and
intermingles amongst the ball charge. The continual cascading
of the balls accomplishes the pulverisation by impact, attrition
and crushing.
The large storage capacity within the grinding zone of this type of
mill acts as a storage reservoir from which sudden increases of
fuel demand can be supplied. On the other hand this type of mill
is not well suited to intermittent operation because of slow
starting time. It can take up to 25 minutes to fill and bring a
tube-ball mill up to full output. Additional precautions also need
to be considered when ‘off’ loading this type of mill as the large
amount of heat stored in the ball charge and coal burden can
produce overheating and fires within the mill when the mill is
idle.
Power consumption on this type of mill is considerably higher
than other types of mills due to the need to continually elevate
the ball charge and coal burden within the mill to maintain the
cascading process.
An advantage of this type of mill is the ease of maintenance with
the simple process of adding additional balls to the coal entering
the mill to compensate for worn balls. This process can be
accomplished while the mill is in service with an indication of
correct ball charge being mill motor power. The wear resistant
liners have a life expectancy of approximately 80,000 service
hours. If the mill is fitted with lifting wedges installed between
the liners then these require attention after approximately
40,000 service hours.
Rejects (or pyrites)

Contained within the coal coming from the mine is a small
quantity of rock/stone. This is a harder material than the coal
and performs a similar function to the ball charge in pulverising
the coal. The harder pyrites gradually erode away during the
pulverising process and eventually pass through the mill and
furnace in a dust format.
An arrangement of a tube-ball mill is shown in Figure 50.
Figure 50: Cross section of tube-ball mill
6.2.3.2 Ring-roll type mill

Often referred to as medium speed vertical spindle mills. The two
most common examples of these are the roll-table (Lopulco) type
and the roll-bowl (Raymond bowl) type. They both operate on the
same principle of crushing the coal between two surfaces. These
types of mills have a lower power consumption compared with
other types of mills and are quite compact for their output. If
mill outlet temperature is maintained equal to or greater than
650C then they have the ability to handle very wet coal without
much reduction in output.
The roll-bowl type mill shown in Figure 51 consists of a
replaceable grinding ring carried by a rotating bowl. Fixed
position roller journal assemblies are mounted so that the roll
face is parallel and in close proximity with the inside surface of
the grinding ring. Pressure for grinding is applied through
externally adjustable compression springs or hydraulic
cylinders. Coal enters the mill at the centre of the bowl and
travels due to centrifugal force towards the outer perimeter of
the bowl. The coal passes under the grinding rolls and continues
up and over the edge of the bowl. In doing so is picked up by the
primary air rising around the edge of the bowl.
The primary air (transport air) is admitted tangentially to the

mill windbox and as it is directed upwards is given a swirling
motion by directional vanes mounted around the outer edge of
the bowl. The pulverised coal particles are picked up and
transported to the classifier installed at the top of the mill.
An integral multi-vane classifier or rotating whizzer blades are
located above the grinding chamber to control the required
fineness of PF, the coarser material being returned to the
grinding zone through a conical hopper.
The harder and heavier reject materials know as pyrites is
thrown over the top of the bowl and drops down under the bowl
where rotating ploughs sweep this material into the rejects
hopper for storage until being passed into the sluiceways for
disposal.
The latest design in roll-bowl type mills have the bowl with only
a shallow depression; more like a plate than a bowl and this can
be seen in Figure 52.
Figure 51: Roll-bowl type mill
Figure 52: Later design roll-bowl mill
6.2.3.3 Roll-table type mill

Roll-table type mills are constructed in a similar fashion to the
roll-bowl except it has a flat table. The coal enters the mill
through the centre and moves across the table by centrifugal
force. In doing so passes under the rolls that do the crushing.

The coal is retained on the table for a longer period by the
installation of a dam ring installed around the circumference of
the table. Once the coal has been sufficiently ground it is able to
pass over this dam ring and be entrained by primary air in the
same manner as the bowl type mill.
A roll-table type mill is shown in Figure 53.
Classifier construction is the same as for roll-bowl type mills and
pyrites are disposed of in a similar fashion.
Rejects or pyrites travel across the table over the dam ring and
fall below the table where they are collected and disposed off in
the same manner as the roll-bowl type mill.
Figure 53: Roll-table type mill
6.2.3.4 Ball-race mill

With this type of mill the grinding elements (balls) are confined
between two races. Pressure to crush the coal is applied by
heavy springs or pneumatic loading cylinders. Additional
grinding pressure is obtained from the centrifugal force of the
rotating balls. A ball-race mill is shown in Figure 54.
A vertical shaft driven by a bevel gearing drives the lower race. A

single row of balls positioned on this lower race are caused to
rotate. Coal entering the centre of the mill once again is forced
outwards by centrifugal force and under these rotating balls.
Once crushed it exits to the outside of the grinding elements and
is entrained by the air entering from below. The classifier
installed at the top of the mill can be either a rotary (whizzer) or
vane type construction.
Rejects or pyrites exiting the grinding elements falls below where

they are collected and disposed off in the same manner as the
roll-bowl or roll-table type mills.
Figure 54: Ball-race type mill
6.3 Factors Affecting Mill Output

Mills are driven by constant speed induction motors so that the
output, in terms of pulverised coal of required fineness, depends
entirely on the air flow through the mill and the amount of fines
of transportable size that are produced by the mill. A decrease in
air flow without any reduction in the amount of fines being
produced by the mill will thus decrease the mill output. Similarly
a reduction in the amount of fines produced by the mill without
any reduction in the air flow will also result in a decrease in mill
output.
Mill wear can also affect the mill output. Generally for a given air
flow through the mill the effect of wear is to decrease the output
causing a leaner mixture to be delivered to the burners. The
output can be increased by increasing the air flow but generally
to maintain the required fineness under wear conditions, an
adjustment must be made to the classifier to increase its
rejection rate. The combined result of these factors is to increase
the power consumed per tonne of output.
Loss of mill output can result from:

 wear of grinding parts
 loss of adjustment where this is provided
 foreign bodies blocking up the air flow passages.
6.4 Mill primary air system

There are two types of mill primary air systems used in power
stations. In older stations the trend was for suction type mills
while in the more modern stations the pressure type mill has
become more popular.
Both systems have advantages and disadvantages. The
disadvantage of the suction mill is that it uses a fan known as
an exhauster installed in the outlet pipework exiting the mill. In
this location the exhauster has to handle a mixture of air and
pulverised fuel which causes erosion of the radial fan blades.
Regular maintenance is required to the fan to ensure proper mill
performance.
The disadvantage with the pressure mill is that some form of
sealing is required to prevent the ingress of PF into the roll or
table bearings and gearbox of the mill. This is accomplished with
the addition of a seal air system to the mill. This will be
discussed in detail later in this section.
Exhausters
Exhausters as just mentioned are installed in the outlet
pipework and draw air through the mill. The air drawn through
the mill entrains the PF in suspension and transports it to the
burners for injection into the furnace.
A combustion group fitted with an exhauster fan is shown if
Figure 55.
An exhauster must develop sufficient discharge pressure to
overcome pipe resistance and force the pulverised fuel/air
mixture through to the burners located some distance away.
Single or double stage fans may be installed. A double stage
exhauster is shown in Figure 56 and is fitted with both air and
coal blades. The coal blades are located so they bear the brunt of
the erosion action of the coal while the air blades provide air
movement.
An exhauster may have either damper or speed control to

regulate the fan output with a preference for speed control as
this reduces the wear on the fan impeller.
Coal bunker
Furnace
waterwall
Burner tubes
windbox
Chute gate
Burner
nozzle
Secondary
Air damper
‘A’ Mill
burner
Coal feeder
‘B’ Mill
burner
Pulverised
fuel burner
with in built ‘C’ Mill
non-return burner
flap damper
Pulverised fuel
and air piping
isolation
damper/valve
Classifier Pulverised
Pulverised fuel and air
Riffle box at
fuel and air piping to
bifurcation
piping other corners
point
of furnace
Pulverised
fuel mill
Exhauster
Cold air from

‘C’ Mill
FD fan
Hot air from

Air heater
Figure 55: Combustion group with exhauster fitted
Figure 56: Two stage exhauster
Primary air fan (PA fan)

Primary air fans are installed on the inlet side to the mill. PA
fans draw their air from a location before and after the air heater
providing a hot and cold air supply to the mill. The primary air
fan is of similar design to the exhauster except that the mill
resistance must be considered as it is on the discharge side of
the fan and not the suction.
Pressure type mills using primary air fans are installed almost
exclusively in modern power stations for the following reasons:
 PA fans handle only air, not a mixture of air and PF;
therefore they can be smaller, run at higher speeds and be
fitted with the more efficient air-foil blade shapes.
 Inlet vanes can control airflow and further add to efficiency.
 Boiler designs utilising higher pressure differentials are
possible and therefore larger mills with longer fuel pipe
runs are practical.
A combustion group showing a pressure type mill is shown back

in Figure 46. An arrangement of a pressure mill with and
individual PA fan is shown in Figure 57 while an overall view
showing the boiler draft system with individual primary air fans
supplying each mill is shown in Figure 58.
Figure 57: Pressure mill with individual PA fan
Gas exiting
after economiser
Secondary
air
Combustion
chamber
Primary air and

pulverised fuel
Air PF PF PF PF Air
Gas Air Air Gas
side side side side
PA PA PA PA
Fan Fan Fan Fan
FD Air FD
Fan Inlet Fan

ID ID
Chimney
Fan Fan
Figure 58: Boiler draft system with individual PA fans
In older power stations a primary air fan was installed for each
individual mill and was regulated by damper, vane or speed
control. The latest trend is to install one or two PA fans
circulating through a designated section of the air heater to
supply a PA hot air duct. Individual mills then draw their hot air
from this duct while cold air has a separate duct supplied from
the forced draft fans discharge. The primary air input to each
mill is regulated by the hot and cold air control dampers
associated with that mill. This can be seen in Figure 59 while an
overall view showing the boiler draft system with primary air
fans supplying a common PA duct is shown in Figure 60.
Secondary Burner
Chute gate
Air damper windbox
Burner
nozzle
Coal feeder
Sealing air
to feeder
Mill hot Cold air

air gate Hot air
manifold manifold
valve Mill cold air
gate valve
Mill cold Pulverised fuel

air control and air piping
damper isolation
damper/valve
Mill hot
air control Pulverised Riffle box at
damper fuel and air bifurcation
piping point
Classifier
‘C’ Mill Pulverised

Sealing air fuel mill
to mill
Figure 59: Pressure mill supplied from common PA ducts
Gas exiting
after economiser
Secondary
air
Combustion
chamber
Primary air and

pulverised fuel
Air PF PF PF PF Air
Gas Air PA PA Air Gas
side side side side side side
PA PA
Fan Fan
Air
FD Inlets FD
Fan Fan

ID ID
Chimney
Fan Fan
Figure 60: Boiler draft system with common PA ducts
6.4.1 Sealing air

With pressure type mills it is necessary to have a means of
sealing all the internal bearing surfaces and the gearbox against
the ingress of pulverised coal. This is achieved by using a fan to
supply clean filtered air to these components at a pressure
higher than the primary air so that leakage will always occur
from the clean to the dirty air streams.
The method of providing sealing air for the mills and coal feeders
is dependant on the design of the mill. Some manufacturers
install one or two sealing air fans that supply a common duct
that connects to all mills. Other manufacturers install an
individual sealing air fan for each mill. The latest trend is to
draw air from the cold air duct supplied from the FD fan
discharge. On occasions the pressure from this source is not
adequate and a sealing air booster fan is often installed in the
line.
6.4.2 Classifier (or separator)

The object of the classifier is to control the fineness of PF being
transported to the furnace and hence the combustion efficiency.
This is achieved by causing the PF stream to change direction in
the upper mill section. In doing so the oversized coal particles
with higher centrifugal force will fall out of the PF stream and be
redirected back to the grinding zone to achieve the required
fineness.
There are two types of classifiers in use and they are:
 rotary
 stationary
6.4.2.1 Rotary classifier

The rotary classifier has two sets of whizzer blades mounted
radially on a vertical shaft rotating in a circular casing located at
the top of the grinding chamber of the mill.
With this type of classifier the larger particles travelling at a
slower rate than the smaller/finer particles are struck by the
rotating whizzer blades and forced to the outer area of the
classifier casing. Mounted in the outer area of the classifier
casing is a deflector ring that returns the coarser particles back
to the grinding zone. The smaller particles of PF are travelling
fast enough to escape collision with the rotating whizzer blades
and pass through the classifier and on through the PF lines to
the burners. The roll-table type mill shown in Figure 53 has a
rotary type classifier fitted.
Classifier output fineness can be regulated by adjustment of

whizzer blade speed. Compensation for wear upon the blades to
a lesser effect can also be achieved by increasing blade speed.
6.4.2.2 Stationary classifier

Stationary or static type classifiers are constructed of a number
of stationary vanes installed in the upper portion of the mill. The
primary air that is forced through the mill enters upwards from
the windbox around the table or bowl in a spiralling fashion.
This spiralling air flow entrains the coal particles and transports
them to the top of the mill. To exit the mill the coal particles
must change direction to pass through the vanes. The finer
particles are able to achieve this but the heavier particles are not
and are flung to the outer area of the casing. Upon striking the
outer area of the casing they slide back down into the grinding
zone of the mill. A stationary classifier is fitted to the roll-bowl
type mill shown in Figure 51.
The fineness of the PF passing through the stationary classifier
is regulated by the angle at which the vanes are adjusted. This
can be done external to the mill and even while it is in service.
The stationary vane classifier has become the preferred classifier
due to its much lower maintenance requirements.
Factors Affecting classifier output

 Wear on classifier/separator blading causes larger size
particles of coal to leave the mill. When the separator is
driven by its own motor this could be corrected by
increasing speed.
 Build-up of coal or foreign master on blading restricts the
amount of coal leaving the mill and causes vibration due to
out of balance forces:
 Missing blades cause larger size particles of coal to leave
the mill.
6.4.3 Hot and cold air duct isolating dampers

If a common PA manifold is employed then isolating dampers
(gate valves) are installed in the hot and cold ductwork to enable
isolation of the mill while out of service or for maintenance.
These isolating dampers can be seen in Figure 59.
6.4.4 Pulverised fuel and air piping, line isolating dampers or valves and
non-return valves
The pulverised fuel air mixture is transported from the mills to
the PF burners by steel/cast iron piping fitted with wear
resistant cast iron bends. Expansion couplings are used for
connecting straight lengths while all other connections at
separator outlet, flap valves, burners, riffle boxes and other

auxiliary equipment are flanged and bolted.
To ensure even firing conditions within the furnace the
pulverised fuel piping is arranged so that each mill delivers equal
quantities of PF to all of its associated burners. A simple
arrangement of PF pipework is shown in Figure 61.
As a safeguard, a cut-off plate is provided at firing floor level and
this should be inserted in the PF line before maintenance work is
carried out which involves opening the mill grinding chamber.
Non-return flap dampers (flap valves) are installed either at the
PF burner or at the outlet to the mill. The function of this non-
return flap damper is to prevent any hot gases or flame travelling
from the furnace down the PF pipework should a disturbance
occur within the furnace.
P.F. piping at times shows a tendency to become restricted due
to accumulation of PF at riffle sections and behind non-return
PF flap dampers. A restriction can show up as a lower than
normal PA differential consistent with a low mill differential.
P.F. in the piping may become ignited when a mill is out of
service, due to recirculation of hot gas and when the mill is
placed in service the additional fuel and air added causes
damaging fires in the pipework.
6.4.5 Riffle boxes

At each division point, a riffle box is provided which ensures an
even distribution of the fuel air mixture to each line. The riffle
box comprises a series of splitter or deflector plates arranged to
divide the main fuel air stream into a series of streams. Each
alternative stream is then taken off to one of the two outlets of
the riffle box. A riffle box showing these splitter plates is shown
in Figure 62.
Corner burners
Riffle box at
bifurcation point
PF Exhausters
Figure 61: PF pipework layout
Figure 62: PF line riffle box
To allow for varying system resistances in the piping runs

causing uneven flows, a bias nozzle is provided under the first
riffle box. The bias nozzle can be tilted 100 either side of the
vertical and can be used to bias the flow from one outlet side of
the riffle box to the other. A bias nozzle is also shown in Figure
62.
7. Types of Pulverised Coal Burners

There are two main types of burner used in the combustion of
pulverised fuel:
 Long Flame or Jet Burners
 Short Flame or Turbulent Burners
7.1 Long Flame, Pulverised Fuel Jet Burner

Within a jet burner the pulverised fuel and primary air are
delivered, premixed, with an air to fuel ratio of between 3.5:1
(minimum fuel flow) and 1.5:1 (maximum fuel flow) and supplied
to the furnace through a fuel nozzle which tends to accelerate
the mixture to an entry velocity such that the flame front is
developed 1-2 metres from the fuel nozzle at full output.
Fuel Air (Secondary Air) enters through a compartment
surrounding the fuel nozzle and is added to the fuel stream,
effectively increasing the air to fuel ratio.
The balance of air, required for complete combustion is added
further down the flame path through Auxiliary Air (also
Secondary Air) Dampers in the furnace wall.
The high velocity of the fuel jet causes a shearing action as it
penetrates the surrounding secondary air envelope, which in
turn creates turbulence, enhancing the mixing rate of the fuel
and air.
The primary combustion within the fuel rich air stream causes
further downstream turbulence as the expanding fuel and flue
gases interact with the secondary air streams.
The full flame front is established approximately 1-2 metres from
the fuel nozzle with the tail of the flame extending further into
the furnace.
Jet burners may be used in a down-shot or tangential firing
pattern.
By placing jet burners in the corners of a furnace and directing
the flame path toward horizontally along a tangent to an
imaginary circle in the centre of the furnace a pattern of firing
known as tangential firing is developed. The flame length of the
burner may reach to between three quarters and one full
rotation of the furnace and the flame and flue gas tends to spiral
out of the furnace.
When a furnace is fired under a tangential firing pattern above a
minimum boiler load (30-40%) the whole furnace envelope can
be considered to act as a single short flame turbulent burner
creating a vertically spiralling flame.
Fuel Air
Primary air and

pulverised coal
mixture enter
through jet burner Auxiliary Air
Dampers
Furnace
Primary air and

pulverised coal
mixture
Ash
Hopper Mill
Figure 63: Simplified Diagram of Down-shot firing using Jet Burners
Figure 64: Tangential Fired Furnace with Jet Burners
7.2 The Short Flame, Turbulent Burner

Primary Air and Pulverised Coal are delivered through the
burner nozzle with a particular velocity and at an air: fuel ratio
between 3.5 and 1.5 to 1 (minimum to maximum output).
Secondary air forms a swirling annulus around the primary air
and fuel stream and creates a hollow vortex, which tends to
continually draw hot gases into the fuel rich core as it expands
into the furnace. The continual introduction of the recirculating
heat energy serves to ensure that ignition is sustained at the
root of the fuel stream.
Improved performance is gained if both the primary air fuel
mixture and the secondary air are delivered in a swirling pattern.
The short flame, turbulent burner is normally used with a front
and/or rear fired boiler.
Figure 65: Front and rear fired furnace with short flame burners
7.2.1 Tilting burners

A measure of temperature control can be achieved on
tangentially fired units by altering the vertical position of the
fireball inside the furnace. Tilting burners are generally used for
reheater outlet temperature control rather than initial superheat
control.
8. Loss of Ignition and Boiler Explosions

Boiler explosions occur as the result of uncontrolled burning of
PF in the furnace and are usually preceded by loss of ignition.
Not every loss of ignition is accompanied by an explosion,
although the ingredients of an explosion may be present at the
time.
The maintenance of stable ignition, which is achieved by
exercising close control over the air/fuel ratio, is therefore, an
important aspect of safe boiler operation.
Ignition may be lost through either a high or a low air/fuel ratio
(although the most likely abnormal condition to occur results in
a high air/fuel ratio).
One of the hazards of a low air/fuel ratio, apart from ignition
instability, is that unburned PF may be carried through to the
air heaters, with the consequent risk of a fire.
Some of the conditions causing a deviation from the optimum
air/fuel ratio and the situations in which they may arise are
listed below:
 Incorrect coordination when manually controlling the coal

feed and primary air flow on a mill group. This is most likely
to occur, when placing the mill in service or removing it
from service.
 Incorrect coordination in controlling the output of fan and
mill groups when operating the boiler on hand control,
particularly when changing load on the boiler.
 Loss of pulverised fuel flow from one or more mill groups,
due to a coal blockage or loss of a mill group item, coupled
with the omission or delay in making a compensatory
reduction in air flow to match the reduced fuel input. Wet
coal, particularly when there is a high proportion of fines
present, is a frequent cause of coal blockages.
 Excessive wear, incorrect adjustment of the grinding
elements, high separator speed and low loading on a mill
group may contribute to a high air/fuel ratio by reducing
the fuel to primary air ratio at the mill output.
 Mal-operation or inadequate performance of the automatic
combustion control system, particularly under transient
loading conditions.
 Failure of a fan group, resulting in a low air/fuel ratio.
9. Coal Supply and Ash and Dust Removal

9.1 Coal Plants and Bunkering
The majority of thermal power plants in New South Wales use
pulverised coal as the main fuel. This coal may be supplied by:
• belt conveyors direct from the mines,
• rail trucks to a rail siding and unloader,
• road trucks directly to the main storage and reclaim areas,
9.1.1 Belt Conveyors Direct from the Mines

Coal from the mine may be crushed, washed and graded before
being stored in finished products bins to await transportation to
the power station.
The conveyors bringing the product from the mines bins may be
of considerable length and a generally comprised of a reinforced
rubberised fabric belt supported by troughing idlers on the feed
side and return idlers on the underside. The troughing idlers
give the belt the correct shape for it to accept a generous bed of
coal without spillage. The array of idlers is supported on a steel
framework that stands on concrete foundations.
The conveyors are normally covered by a metal roof to provide all
weather protection for the belts, pulleys, and structure and to
help keep the coal dry during rain periods.
Coal is normally fed from the finished products bin onto the
conveyor by vibratory feeders. A weigher is provided to
continuously weigh and record the coal flow from the supplier.
Depending on the distance between the mine and the power
station receiving bin the conveyor system may be made up of a
number of separate belts feeding from one to another in series.
Any change of direction of a conveyor necessitates a transfer
from one belt to another.
9.1.2 Rail Trucks

Coal supplied through the rail system is generally unloaded from
the rail trucks at a dedicated coal siding through hydraulically
operated bottom doors into receiving hoppers from where it is
transported by a conveyor to the station.
9.1.3 Road Trucks

Road trucks are used extensively for the transport of coal to
power stations, travelling direct from the mine to the station
where it is discharged into a live storage area and stockpiled by

mobile plant ( eg. bulldozers).
9.2 Stacking Out and Reclaiming Systems

Coal received at a power station and not immediately required to
fill bunkers is normally "stacked out" on live storage areas (to be
used in the near future) or on to a reserve stack (back up for use
in case of shortage of supply from mines).
The actual layout of coaling systems varies considerably from
station to station but in general most stacking out and
reclaiming systems have similar features. A typical stacking out
conveyor runs from the main receiving hopper out into the coal
storage area. Coal is removed from the belt by a tripper which
can be set to unload at any position along the conveyor, or it
may be carried the full length of the belt and dumped over the
head end pulley. The coal is then stacked on the live storage
area or reserve stack by bulldozers, scraper loaders or "stack out
- reclaim machines".
Coal is reclaimed from the coal storage area using mobile plant
such as bulldozers or scraper loaders. These machines push or
dump coal from the reserve stack into a reclaim hopper. A
plough or vibratory feeder feeds coal on to a belt conveyor that
feeds into the main receiving hopper from where it is directed to
the station bunkers.
Reserve stacks are compacted by the operation of rubber tyred
bulldozers and scraper loaders. Compaction of the stack reduces
the risk of fire from spontaneous combustion.
9.3 Bunkering
Coal from the main receiving hopper is fed by vibratory feeders
onto inclined conveyors and carried to a transfer tower which is
located at the centre or one end of the power station building
above the coal bunkers. At the transfer tower the coal passes
under overmagnets to remove unwanted tramp iron and steel.
These overmagnets must be in position and energised before the
bunkering conveyors can be started.
After the overmagnets the coal passes through chute gates and
onto a bunkering conveyor. In systems where the transfer tower
is in the centre of the building, bunkering conveyors travel in
both directions, at right angles to the inclined conveyors, over
the top of the mill bunkers. Trippers, through which the
bunkering conveyor belt passes travel on rails and take up
position above the bunkers selected to be filled. The coal
gravitates off the nose pulley of the tripper through chutes and
into the bunker, usually through grated slots in the bunker roof.
Stations in which the inclined conveyors terminate at a transfer

house at one end of the building have a similar bunkering
system as above, however chute gates are not required, the
bunkering conveyors travel the complete length of the bunkering
floor and the coal trippers traverse the full length of the
bunkering conveyors.
In all stations where either of the above bunkering systems are
used, the complete system is duplicated, i.e., dual incline and
bunkering conveyors, weighers, overmagnets, chute gates and
coal trippers; this system provides back up in case of break
down and allows organised maintenance programs as well as the
capacity to fill two bunkers at any given time.
9.4 Chute Gates

Chute transfer gates are situation in the system where it is
required from time to time to redirect the flow of coal from one
conveyor to another or from chute to conveyor, bunker, or coal
stack, etc.
The gates are normally constructed from mild steel, pivoted on
ball bearings and operated by means of electric actuators. They
are designed for "on load" operation and gate operation is
automatic, remote manual, or local manual.
Blocked chute switches are fitted in chutes fed by transfer gates.
The operation of a blocked chute switch trips the associated
conveyors through the interlock control system.
9.5 Feeders
Coal feeders of a vibratory type having an electro-magnetic
power source are used to feed coal from hoppers or bins onto
conveyor belts. An inclined trough attached to the electro-
magnet armature interposes in the coal flow. Variable flow rate
is achieved by adjusting the amplitude of vibrations of the
electro-magnet by controlling the firing angle of a thyristor,
which varies the input voltage to the electro-magnet.
9.5.1 Plough Feeders

In some coal plants, travelling plough feeders are used to feed
coal onto conveyor belts when reclaiming from the live storage
area. The plough travels above the reclaim conveyor, scoops the
coal from the live storage area into a rotary paddle wheel and
drops it down through rubber sealing slits onto the reclaim
conveyor belt. This belt usually feeds another incline belt which
delivers the reclaimed coal to the main receiving hopper. The
ploughs have a variable speed paddle wheel that allows
regulation of the quantity of coal transferred to the reclaim belt.
9.6 Conveyor Protection
9.6.1 Underspeed Switches

Underspeed switches are fitted to conveyor belts to prevent
overloading of belts and consequently drive motors and to
prevent overheating and possible fires due to belt slip on the lead
drive pulley. Failure of a conveyor to reach its minimum
operating speed in a preset time after the initiation of a start or
the falling below this speed at the end of this time, except when
conveyors are intentionally or unintentionally stopped, initiates
a trip on the conveyors and associated equipment that is tied to
the interlock stopping sequence.
9.6.2 Belt Brakes

Belt brakes or anti-runback back devices are fitted to all incline
conveyors to prevent the roll back of a loaded belt in the case of
a trip, resulting from the operation of an emergency or protection
device.
9.6.3 Belt Tracking Protection

Belt tracking switches, which are mounted at various intervals
along both sides of the conveyors, trip the conveyor if the belt
begins to track out of its correct alignment. These switches are
normally auto reset.
9.6.4 Conveyor Emergency Trip Wires and Switches

Conveyor emergency trip wires and switches are normally
provided on both sides of the entire length of each conveyor belt
in the coal plant systems.
These emergency switches are not self resetting and must be
reset before the conveyor can be restarted. Some installations
provide a light on the operating mimic panel to indicate the
general area where a trip wire has been operated.
The operation of an emergency stop switch will trip the related
conveyor and any other upstream conveyors or associated
equipment (feeders etc).
This interlock system prevents coal being fed onto stationary
conveyors. Normal switch type emergency stops are also
provided at strategic points throughout the plant to trip the
conveyor if required.
9.6.5 Conveyor Drive Motor Protection

Electrical protection on conveyor drive motors consists normally
of thermal overload relays monitoring out of balance motor
phase current and motor overcurrent. Thermistor protection
monitors motor winding temperature. Exceeding preset limits

will result in tripping the offending motor out of service (manual
reset).
9.6.6 Conveyor Warning Siren and Beacons

Conveyors are equipped with sirens and beacons to serve a
warning to personnel that they are about to start. When a
conveyor start is initiated a time delay relay is energised causing
the sirens to sound and the beacons to flash for a pre-
determined interval before the conveyor starts. Sirens are
usually located at intervals along the total length of the conveyor
and flashing beacons at the head and tail end of the conveyors
9.6.7 Over Magnets

Over magnets are usually installed at the head of the incline
conveyors in the transfer tower, before the bunkering conveyors,
to remove tramp iron and steel from the coal. Before a bunkering
belt "train" can be started the over magnets must be in the
operating position and energised, as will be indicated by a light
on the mimic control panel.
Electrical supply for over magnets is normally from a 415 V
a.c/120 V d.c. transformer/rectifier unit. In the event of a.c.
supply failure a change over switch cuts in and supplies 120 V
d.c. direct from the station batteries.
Over magnets are usually slung from a monorail, and when out
of service can be moved to a "dump" position where the electro-
magnet is de-energised and the tramp iron is dumped into a
trash chute.
9.7 Start, Stop and Trip Interlocks

In general, coal conveyor systems are arranged in series and
interlocks ensure that the early parts of the system cannot be
started until conditions are satisfactory at the following parts of
the system to receive and handle coal.
All starting, stopping and tripping sequences are controlled
through interlock systems except when plant is selected for local
control.
9.7.1 Start Sequence

The main receiving hopper must be below full level. When start
is initiated, the belt will start after an appropriate time delay
during which time the warning siren will sound and beacons will
flash. When belt is up to speed, the vibratory feeder at the mine
finished products bin starts (if on auto control) or can be started
if on remote control.
9.7.2 Stop Sequence

When stop is initiated, the mine feeder stops. The belt continues
to run for a pre-determined period of time to run all the coal off.
The belt then stops.
9.7.3 Trip
If a conveyor emergency stop is operated, the belt and feeder
stop immediately.
9.8 Start Interlocks and Typical Bunkering Sequence

Over magnets must be in position and energised. Transfer tower
chute gates must be in position in accordance with the system
selector switch in P.C.R. or C.P.C.R.
Coal level on selected bunker must be below full level.
On a start initiation the warning siren will sound and beacons
flash for 30 seconds before the bunkering conveyor starts.
When bunkering conveyor is up to speed the tripper moves to its
selected bunker. Warning siren sounds and beacons flash on the
incline conveyor for 30 seconds and then it starts. When the
incline conveyor is up to speed the vibratory feeder starts,
feeding coal from the main receiving hopper. When coal level in
the bunker reaches a preset level the coal feeder stops and the
coal on the belts is run off into the bunker to fill it to the high
level alarm.
The belts remain running and the tripper then moves to the next
selected bunker. When the tripper is in position, the coal feeder
starts and so the sequence continues until all the selected
bunkers are full.
9.8.1 Bunkering Stop Sequence

Stop interlocks are similar to the mine conveyors. On the
initiation of a stop, the feeder will stop and after the coal has
been run off the belts, they too will stop.
Tripping of the bunkering conveyor will also trip the incline
conveyor and the vibratory feeder. Tripping of the incline
conveyor will also trip the feeder, but not the bunkering
conveyor.
Removal or de-energising of the over magnets will trip the incline
conveyor and the vibratory feeder. Similar interlock and
operating sequences apply to stacking out and reclaim conveyor
systems. In all cases, coal feeders are the last of the "train" to
start and the first to stop.
Selector switches allow the operator to program the coaling and
bunkering sequence according to the individual requirements of
the system. Bunkers to be coaled are selected on a push button
station at the bunkering panel, and when an auto start is

initiated, coaling of these bunkers commences, and continues
until the last bunker in the sequence is filled to a
pre-determined level, providing bunker capacity to empty the
belt load prior to shutdown sequence. The coal feeder at the
main receiving hopper then shuts down and after the belts have
been purged of coal, the "train" is stopped.
Systems now being installed use solid state electronic control
and alarm equipment and digital computers are installed to
provide programmed logic control of the process of coal handling
to the boilers.
9.9 Operation
9.9.1 Operator Responsibilities

It is the responsibility of all operators to become familiar with
sections of the plant which under certain conditions could
become a safety hazard or which may pose a threat of damage to
other parts of the plant.
Care must be taken when, through the failure of automatics, the
plant is operated by manual control from local stop-start
stations. In these circumstances the interlock system may be
bypassed and the operator is solely responsible for ensuring that
the plant is operated in its correct sequence. Incorrect operating
sequence may cause feeder blockages, coal spillage, belt damage
and overload on equipment.
Operators should regularly check for build up of coal
underneath belts and around chutes and feeders. Such build
ups may cause incorrect tracking of belts, reduced flow of coal
and eventual blockage of chutes and feeders.
Wet coal also causes many problems - build ups around the area
of conveyor head pulleys and in feeders and chutes, slip on
inclined belts which results in blockages and overloading and
coal hang up in bunkers and associated pipework.
9.9.2 Fire Hazards

Coal dust is quite flammable when accumulated, enclosed and
warmed. Operators should see that electric panels are kept
sealed to ensure reliable performance, and are kept free of
accumulation of coal dust because of fire risks.
Hot work procedures and appropriate safety precautions must
be in place whenever work of this nature is to be carried out in
the vicinity of coal and/or where coal dust is prevalent.
Where conveyors are inclined or elevated in any way the chimney
effect of warm gas flow can spread a fire at enormous speed.
Operators should be satisfied that fire fighting facilities are in

good order at these locations and should bring inadequacies to
the attention of station management
To satisfy environmental requirements the vast majority of the
dust created from the combustion of coal must be removed from
the furnace flue gasses before it enters the atmosphere. This is
the function of the electrostatic precipitator or fabric filter.
10. Ash and Dust Removal

10.1 Introduction to Ash and Dust Handling Plant
As you will have learned in the “Fuels and Combustion” section
of this course, during the combustion of coal, non-combustible
solids, or “particulate”, are released from the burning mass.
The ash and dust collection system is provided to remove this
particulate matter from the boiler flue gas before it is released to
the atmosphere. The emissions must meet the standards
demanded by the Environmental Protection Authority
regulations.
The ash content of coal used in Thermal Power Stations
generally varies from 7 - 30%. In Pulverised Coal fired boilers
approximately 70% of the ash is carried through the various
boiler passes in the form of fly ash. The remaining 30% drops
out of suspension in the furnace into the ash hopper below and
into intermediate hoppers, which are placed at strategic points
in the gas passes where there is a change of direction in the gas
flow.
The magnitude of the problem of fly ash collection is seen by the
fact that a modern unit with a generating capacity of 500MW
may produce (depending on the ash content of the coal)
approximately 420 tonnes of dust over 24 hours. These waste
solids must be continually removed from the system.
The dust particles are of various sizes (or classifications) and
therefore behave a little differently to each other.
The behaviour of these particles and the methods of their
removal from the system is discussed in the following sections of
this module.
The classification of the particulate generally fall into three
categories
1. Bottom Ash – This is comprised of heavy unburned material,
which is not carried by the air flow beyond the combustion
zone and falls to the bottom of the furnace.
2. Intermediate Ash - This is comprised of lighter material,
which is carried beyond the combustion zone by the air flow
but falls out of the gas stream before the gas stream enters
the dust collection zone. This often occurs in the Economiser

and Air Heaters as the velocity is reduced.
3. Fly Ash is the remainder of the particulate in the total gas
flow.
10.2 General Overview of System

As can be seen in Figure 66, the coal enters the furnace
chamber, burns, and the products of combustion plus the
entrained particulate exits upwards from the furnace through
the superheaters, reheaters (if fitted) and the economiser to the
precipitator (or fabric filter in other designs) from which it is
drawn by the I.D. fan through to the stack and the atmosphere.
10.2.1 Ash Hopper

The ash hopper loccated at the bottom of the furnace, in most
designs, is water filled and provides a storage vessel into which
the heaviest ash falls and is quenched by the pool of water.
10.2.2 Back Pass Hopper

The Back Pass Hopper is located at the bottom of the backpass,
under the Economiser (often termed “Economiser Hoppers”) The
intermediate sized ash falls into these hoppers due to its own
momentum as the gas flow undergoes a right angled change in
direction. Some installations will also have hoppers under the
Air Heaters, where the design of the Air Heater is such that dust
can be collected.
10.2.3 Precipitator (or Fabric Filter)

The precipitator (or Fabric Filter) is located after the Air Heater
and before the final outlet of the gases to atmosphere (the
Stack). This is the last stage of dust removal and the
measurement of the quantity of particulate exiting from the dust
collection chambers is the most important environmental
measurement with regard to visible emissions. It is the end
product of the system. To satisfy environmental requirements
the vast majority of the dust created from the combustion of coal
must be removed from the furnace flue gases before it enters the
atmosphere.
Figure 66: General Overview of the flue gas system
10.3 Bottom Ash

“Bottom Ash” is so named because it falls out of the combustion
mass and to the bottom of the furnace. It is comprised of the
heaviest particles of the total non-combustible mass.
Most installations employ the principle of maintaining a pool of
water at the bottom of the furnace, separated from the rest of the
furnace by a water seal around the complete perimeter of the
lowest edge of the furnace. The heavy particles fall from the
combustion mass and are cooled by the water, then settle to the
bottom of the hopper.
Note that this cooling of the material represents one inefficiency
in the total system because heat is lost (not used to produce
energy).
10.3.1 Bottom Ash Removal

The bottom ash that collects in the furnace must be removed. In
Pulverised Fuel Boilers failure to regularly remove the ash can
lead to “bridging” over the water pool and subsequent collapse
and surging of this body of ash out of the outlet gate in a very
hot condition and in a condition be too dry to be carried on
further through the process, causing sluiceway blockage. The
temperature of the ash can also be hazardous if any persons or
equipment come into contact with it.
Additionally, this collapse of the bridged ash can result in a
cloud of dry dust rising through the furnace obscuring the flame
scanners monitoring the fire from the burners and cause a boiler
trip due to an apparent ‘loss of flame’.
10.3.2 Sluice Water Transport Removal

The combination of the ash and the water forms a sludge at the
bottom of the ash hopper and must be periodically removed.
This can be set to a specific time or can be timed with regard to
the unit load.
This hopper may be one entire unit for the whole furnace or may
be separated into sections, each with its own dump system
equipment.
Typically, the waste will exit through a parallel slide gate, which
opens for a specific time, into a sluiceway provided with high
velocity water jets.
These jets convey the slurry into a holding area (or pit) normally
through a crusher to reduce the size of any large lumps of ash or
clinker. From the holding area, pumping systems are used to
remove the waste to a permanent storage area such as an ash
dam.
In some parts of Australia, the vacant holes left by the mining of

coal (or ‘voids’) are being used to deposit these wastes, thereby
restoring the land levels to their original form.
10.3.3 Chain Grate Bottom Ash Transport Systems

Bottom ash can also be removed from the ash hopper by the
employment of chain grate conveyor(s), usually with flutes
incorporated onto the chain to mobilise the ash for the full
length of the hopper.
Various designs and configurations of this system are employed,
depending on the design of the power station, and the method by
which they intend to eventually dispose of the waste.
In some cases only one conveyor will be employed which moves
the ash directly to the holding area, or to a facility for truck
loading of the material to a remote site. In other cases, the
bottom ash conveyor will deliver the material to the ‘tail end’ of
another conveyor for further transport.
10.3.4 Fluidised Bed Furnace Bottom Ash Removal

Fluidised bed furnaces are not as yet, very common in Australia,
however, the method of bottom ash removal in this type of
furnace is somewhat different than other systems.
Fluidised bed fired boilers are normally equipped with a rotary
screw conveyor to discharge boiler bottom ash. The heavier ash
does not remain ‘fluidised’ and remains at the bottom of the
furnace similar to pulverised fuel boilers. The general mass of
the bed is directed towards the opening into the screw conveyor
by the direction of the air flow from the F.D. fan and then the tail
end the rotary screw conveyor.
The heavy material does not remain suspended in the air flow
and is moved into the screw by the air flow direction. From the
screw, the material is transferred into a chain scraper conveyor.
This dry, coarse ash is then directed into an ash crusher and
into an air transport system, which will be discussed in the
section “Depacs”.
10.4 Intermediate Ash

We use the term Intermediate Ash in this section to differentiate
between bottom ash and fly ash. In most installations, this refers
to only that ash which is collected below the economisers.
However, ash can also be collected below the air heaters in some
cases. The material is light enough to be carried out of the main
part of the furnace, but too heavy to remain entrained in the air
flow after its passage through the economiser and so, ‘falls out’
and into a hopper.
The removal of these wastes is usually achieved in the same
manner as fly ash removal. The ash falls into the hopper and is
then removed by the methods described in the following
sections.
10.5 Fly Ash

As previously stated, to satisfy environmental requirements the
vast majority of the dust created from the combustion of coal
must be removed from the furnace flue gasses before it enters
the atmosphere. This is the function of the electrostatic
precipitator or fabric filter. It is also noteworthy that any
particulates passing through the rotating parts of a fan have an
abrasive effect and can severely erode the blades and also the
associated ductwork.
Flue gas exiting the air heater passes through precipitator (or
fabric filter) chambers where the suspended dust particles are
removed. The dust collected is stored in dust hoppers installed
below the precipitator (or fabric filter) in readiness for later
removal and disposal.
When the flue gas exits the precipitator (or fabric filter) it passes
through induced draft (ID) fans and is exhausted to atmosphere
through the chimney or stack.
We will discuss in detail the two major methods of final dust
removal, namely Precipitators, and Fabric Filters. The following
sections will describe their method of operation.
10.6 Precipitators
Figure 67: General arrangement
10.6.1 Principle of Operation of Electrostatic precipitator

The process of precipitation is begun by first reducing the
velocity of the dust laden gas. The dust particles become charged
and the charged particles are transported to a receiving
electrode. The charged particles adhere to the receiving
electrodes and give up their charge.
The electrostatic precipitators are installed in the flue gas path
between the air heater(s) outlet and the induced draught fan(s).
To maximise dust removal from the flue gasses it is important to
slow the velocity of the flue gasses. This is accomplished by
installing large volume precipitator chambers. The slow velocity
dust particles pass between grids of high voltage wire type
electrodes suspended from the ceiling. As the dust particles near
the electrodes they become negatively charged upon entering an
electrical field surrounding the electrode. These negatively
charged dust particles are then attracted to dust collector plates

that are installed on each side of the electrodes. The dust
adheres to these collector plates and is allowed to build to a
thickness of approximately 2 - 5mm.
There is a flow of electrons across the air gap between the
emitters and the collectors and so a small current flows in the
precipitator. This small current flow is necessary to enable the
collection of the particles.
The electrons traverse the gap between the electrodes and in so
doing collide with gas molecules and dust particles on route. The
dust particles thus become charged by collision. The negatively
charged particles are attracted towards the collecting electrodes
by the forces exerted by the electric field, and in this way, both
negatively and positively charged particles move at right angles
to the gas flow and the dust particles are attracted to their
respective electrodes of opposite, polarity.
Particles of dust tend to agglomerate into flakes, and by keeping
the gas velocity at the designed low value, particles from the
collecting electrodes are not picked up by the gas stream and
carried through to the clean side of the plant, but fall naturally
into the hoppers.
A small portion of the entrained dust acquires a positive charge
and is deposited on the emitting (discharge) electrodes thus
forming a layer that increases their effective diameter and tends
to reduce the efficiency of the electrodes. For this reason the
discharge electrode system must also be rapped and an
insulator is interposed in the rapping gear as the electrodes are
at high voltages. See Figure 69
Charged
Electric Field Discharge Electrode at
Particle Negative Potential
Dust Laden Clean Gas

Flue Gasses Exit
Uncharged
Particle Particles Attracted to Collector
Plate and Forming Dust Layer
Collector Plate at Positive

Potential
Figure 68: Diagram of Particle Movement due to Electrical Charges
Rapping gear camshafts
Negative
Electrodes
Earthed
positive
collectors
Figure 69: General Overview of Electrostatic Precipitator Construction
10.6.2 Collector Plates and Discharge Electrodes

The precipitator chamber is filled with many rows of
electrode/collector plate assemblies permitting maximum dust
removal. A small section of an assembly is shown below
Discharge
Electrode
(negatively charged)
Collector
Plate
(positively charged)
Gas Flows
Between
Collector
Plates
Figure 70: Collector Plates
10.6.3 Rapping
The deposited dust particles are removed from the collecting
electrodes (plates) by mechanical rapping and fall into receiving
hoppers. Rapping hammers are struck against the framework of
the collector plates. This rapping dislodges the dust layers,
which fall to the bottom of the precipitator chamber and are
collected in dust hoppers. The dust is temporarily stored in these
dust hoppers before being removed and disposed to an ash
storage area such as an ash and dust dam or a mine void. Some
of this fly ash can be sold for use in the manufacture of some
concrete products. There are four types of rapping systems
generally in use:
 Motor driven rotating shaft operated falling hammers.
 Shaft driven cams
 Solenoids
 Vibrators
10.6.3.1 Motor Driven Rotating Shaft Operated Falling Hammers

With this system of rapping, the falling hammers are mounted
on a horizontal shaft. The shaft rotates slowly and each of the
hammers in turn overbalances, falling down and sending a blow
through its associated shock bar. The shock bar transmits the
blow to all of the collecting electrodes in that section.
The falling hammer system of rapping may also be used for
rapping the emitting electrodes in which case there is an
insulator interposed in the drive shaft.
10.6.3.2 Shaft Driven Cams

The rapping gear is driven by an induction motor through a
chain or belt drive. A number of cams are mounted on the drive
shaft which operates spring loaded hammers positioned above
the collector plates. As the drive shaft rotates, the cams lift the
hammers until the cam disengages and the hammers fall,
striking the collector plate mounting. The dust is dislodged from
the collector plates and falls into the dust hoppers.
10.6.3.3 Solenoid Type Rappers

Solenoid rappers consist of a number of solenoids mounted on
the shock bars of the collecting electrodes. A timer energises the
solenoids in turn, lifting steel plungers which fall and strike the
shock bars when the solenoid is de-energised.
10.6.3.4 Vibrators
Vibrator type rappers are mainly used for emitting electrodes.
This system consists of electromagnetic vibrators connected to
the high tension framework via a ceramic insulator. The
electromagnetic vibrators transmit the vibration to the emitting
(negatively charged) electrodes.
Collector
Rapping
Hammer
Shock Bar
Anvil
Rapping
Shaft
Figure 71: Motor driven rotating shaft operated falling hammers
10.6.3.5 High Voltage Hazard

The emitter wires that carry the charge are normally high
voltage. Under no circumstances may access to these conductors
be allowed without the application of full isolation procedures.
10.6.3.6 Hopper Heaters

Hopper heaters are usually fitted to the lower end of the
precipitator hoppers in order to keep the dust hot (and reduce
the likelihood of dew point conditions within the precipitator)
and more freely flowing. If the heaters are out of service for a
long time and there is an interruption in the dust removal, the
dust will cool and consequently become much harder to flow.
This can ultimately lead to the necessity for a manual clean out
of the hopper. The heaters are usually powered by 240V and
contact with these conductors could be fatal.
10.6.4 Dew Point Problems

After the flue gas exits the economiser passes through secondary
and primary air heaters where it releases further heat to the
primary and secondary air. The flue gas exiting the secondary air
heater is maintained above 1350C to prevent moisture contained
within the flue gases from condensing and combining with
sulphur dioxide to form a mild sulphuric acid, which may cause
major corrosion to the ductwork, precipitators, fabric filter
housing, and stack over a period of time. This reaction takes
place at the flue gas acid dew point, which is at approximately
1120C.
10.6.4.1 Ammonia Gas Injection

Conditioning of flue gas at some power stations with electrostatic
precipitators is achieved by injecting anhydrous ammonia as a
gas into the flue gas at the precipitator inlet ducting. The
ammonia mixes with the flue gas and adheres to the dust
particles providing a highly conductive surface area. This
reduces the resistance of the dust particles, promoting more
rapid ionisation of the dust and thus more efficient collection on
the receiving electrodes. Because of the adhesive qualities of
ammonia the collection of dust particles on the collecting
electrodes is increased and the chance of re-entrainment into the
gas stream when rapping the collecting electrodes is greatly
reduced.
10.6.4.2 Ammonia Gas Hazard

Ammonia is toxic and can be explosive, however combustible or
explosive mixtures are rare. Conditioning must be ceased as a
boiler is being taken out of service and should never be injected
into a precipitator when the I.D. fan is out of service. Ammonia
has a pungent and extremely irritant odour
Hoppers beneath the precipitator collect dust for further removal
Figure 72: Basic Overview showing gas path through the Precipitator
Figure 73: Fabric Filter General Layout

Figure 74: Arrangement Drawings of Fabric Filter
10.7 Fabric Filters

Fabric filter plants perform the same function as electrostatic
precipitators and are installed in the flue gas path at the same
location.
Fabric filter plants are more efficient at extracting dust from the
flue gasses than electrostatic precipitator. For this reason they
are becoming more popular but the down side is they have a
higher pressure drop across them and require larger capacity
induced draught fans to overcome this problem. Larger induced
draught fans mean higher operating costs.
The fabric filter plant has approximately the same volume
chamber as for electrostatic precipitators. The internals are
however totally different. Fabric filter plants consist of a large
number of filter bags. Typically, each bag is in the shape of a
sock approximately 8 metres in length; 150 – 200 millimetres in
diameter (although these dimensions are not limited) with one
end open.
Figure 75: Single Fabric Filter Bag
Flue gasses enter the fabric filter chamber and pass through the
filter bag before exiting the chamber. The dust is either collected
on the inside of the filter bag in the shaker type fabric filter or on
the outside of the filter bag in the pulse air type fabric filter.
Acrylic filter bags have a safe maximum operating temperature
of 120˚C , although newer materials such as “Ryton” are more
temperature resistant (about 148˚C ) care is required as the air
heater outlet gases are normally in excess of this temperature.
Temperature control into the fabric filter casings is necessary
and some form of attemperation may be employed to cool the
flue gas. This is achieved by admitting air at ambient
temperature in a controlled quantity to mix with the flue gas,
thus maintaining the filter inlet temperature to the desired limit.
Serious consequences such as the liberation of cyanide
compounds can result at temperatures approaching 200˚ C and
normally a boiler trip will initiated at approximately 180˚ C.
10.7.1 Pulse Air Type Fabric Filter

With the pulse air fabric filter the filter bags are suspended from
a filter bag housing. The filter bag housing looks like a floor with
large numbers of holes. Once the bag has been installed through
the filter bag housing hole a wire framework (wire retainer) is
inserted down the centre of the filter bag. This wire retainer
prevents the bag from collapsing when placed in service.
The dust collects on the outside of the filter bag and at
predetermined times a blast of high pressure pulse air is
directed down the centre of the filter bag. This blast of pulse air
causes the filter bag to balloon out and dislodge the collected
dust, which falls to the dust hopper located below the plant.
10.7.2 Principle of Fabric Filter Bag Pulsing (Cleaning)

The diagrams below represent the pulsing system for the Fabric
Filter bags.
 A row of bags is serviced by a pulse pipe.
 Each pulse pipe has as its air inlet, and a poppet valve
normally lifted by a solenoid when energised.
 Each row of pulse pipes is connected to a high pressure
(usually about 450 kPa) chamber supplied with dry air.
Usually, each solenoid valve is energised in a sequence and over
a timed period. The time between pulses may be set to
correspond to changes in overall fabric filter differential
pressure, or may be manually energised.
This sequence provides a ‘shot’ of air down each bag in that row
to dislodge the dust and from there, into the collection hopper
below.
The supply of cleaning pulse air to the pulse pipes for each row
of filter bags is controlled by a fast opening and closing valve
provided with a pilot valve which is actuated by a solenoid valve.
Fabric filter emission output occurs mainly when the filter bags
are pulsed and is dependant on the number of bags pulsed at
any one time.
The mechanical opening time of the pulse valves is about ½
second. This is controlled by the electrical activation time for the
solenoids. The pulse valves in each cell are operated in a
sequence to assist in reducing the deposition of removed dust
cake onto the rows of bags adjacent to those cleaned.
Figure 76: Poppet Valves for Fabric Filter Bag Pulsing
Solenoid Valve
Figure 77: Pulse Valve Operation
10.7.3 Pulse Valve Operation

In the CLOSED position the solenoid valve is de-energised and
the pressure from the pulse tank above the plunger forces the
plunger down to seat onto the pulse pipe. The seal created
isolates the compressed air in the pulse tank from the pulse line.
In the OPEN position the solenoid is energised. This releases the
air pressure from the top of the membrane. This in turn allows
the air pressure above the plunger to be reduced rapidly. The
pressure in the pulse tank forces the plunger up of it's seat
allowing the air in the pulse to rush into the pulse line.
When the pulse signal is removed, the solenoid is de-energised
and the pressure above the plunger is re-established. The
plunger is forced back down onto its seat, stopping the air flow
into the pulse line.
The dust is extracted from the dust hoppers in the same manner
as for electrostatic precipitators.
Fabric filter plant performs the same function as electrostatic
precipitators and are installed in the flue gas path at the same
location.
10.7.4 Hopper Heaters

Hopper heaters are usually fitted to the lower end of the
precipitator hoppers in order to keep the dust hot and more
freely flowing. If the heaters are out of service for a long time and
there is an interruption in the dust removal, the dust will cool

and consequently become much harder to flow. This can
ultimately lead to the necessity for a manual clean out of the
hopper.
The heaters are usually powered by 240V and contact with these
conductors could be fatal.
10.7.5 Shaker Type Fabric Filter

The shaker type fabric filter has the filter bags attached to the
filter bag housing so that the bags can extend upwards.
Attached to the top end of the filter bag is a shaker mechanism.
In this type of fabric filter the flue gasses enter the filter bag on
the inside and up the centre. The flow of the flue gasses
maintains the filter bag in an inflated state. After a
predetermined time the shaker mechanism is activated and
shakes the filter bags rapidly. This shaking causes the layers of
accumulated dust on the inside of the filter bag to dislodge and
fall to the dust hopper installed below.
Dust extraction from the dust hoppers is the same as for
electrostatic precipitator and pulse air fabric filters.
10.8 Ash Removal and Transport

So far we have talked about removing the ash and dust from the
gas stream entering the I.D. fan. In this section we will discuss
removing the material from the hoppers and eventually to
permanent storage.
10.8.1 Vacuum Removal (Ejectors)

Many stations have a system of high pressure water flowing
through nozzles (normally termed “ejectors”) which are designed
to use the principle of venturi pressure reduction to create a
condition of very low pressure (~ -40Kpa) on the dust hopper
side of a system of pipework. This pipework is connected to the
bottom of the ash collection hoppers and allows the accumulated
dust to be forced out of the hoppers and into the water stream,
and from there, into a sluiceway.
It is important to note that if the venture nozzles become blocked
with solid matter from the sluice-water stream, it is possible for
the water to “back-up” and into the air slides. The consequent
wetting of the dust and the fabric of the air slides will require a
complete disassembly of the slide to remove the resultant mud.
This method can apply to intermediate ash hoppers or fly ash
hoppers because the material is fine enough to flow and should
not require crushing.
Each hopper’s outlet has a control valve which operates in a
sequence to discharge into the pipework before the venturi
ejector and through the ejector into the sluiceway. The
sluiceway itself is provided with high velocity water jets to carry
the slurry to a holding area (or pit) and from there, pumping
systems are used to remove the waste to a permanent storage
area such as an ash dam or may be stored for use in concrete
products, land fill, roadbase, or other useful purposes.
10.8.2 Air Slide Removal

Another system of ash removal from hoppers is the use of
fluidised air slides. This method is normally only used for the
lightest of the ash (fly ash). From the bottom of the hopper, the
dust passes through a control valve that is sequenced to open in
turn either by a set timer or in relation to the unit load. This
allows the downstream systems to cope without being overloaded
with dust.
From the control valve, the dust enters a dust slide that extends
from the hopper outlet to either a sluice system (as described in
the previous section) or a collection vessel (or ‘DEPAC’)
The air slide is fully sealed, set on a slope and has two main
sections separated by a permeable cloth which is able to
withstand high temperature.
The underside of the cloth has a supply of high pressure air (~
40 – 50 kPa) evenly distributed along the length of the slide. This
air is able to penetrate the cloth and create a fluidising
atmosphere above the cloth.
The dust falls from the hopper and is suspended over the cloth
by the fluidising air. Due to the very low friction created by this
system, the dust then slides down the incline and into the next
or final stage of removal.
10.8.3 Collection Vessels (or DEPACS)

Dense phase pressurised air conveyor systems are very effective
for the transport of dry ash and dust wastes. The material in the
hopper enters the vessel and is transported by high pressure air
to a receiving bin or silo. These depacs can vary in capacity
greatly according to the requirements of the plant, and their
position in the system e.g. the larger vessels will be for fly ash
due its greater proportion of the total waste ash.
10.8.3.1 Sequence of Operation

There are essentially four stages in the process of removal from
the hopper, to the silo. Following is a simplified explanation of
the operation of pneumatic dust collection vessels or ‘depacs’.
Step 1 Fill
In the first stage, as indicated in Figure 78, the inlet control
valve opens and allows material from the hopper to fill the
vessel.
When full, the high level detector closes a circuit and the control
system moves on to the next step.
Inlet Isolating
Inlet Valve
Control
Valve
(deflap
valve) Discharge
Valve
High level
detector
Air Inlet Valve
Figure 78: Depac Cylinder in initial filling step
Step 2 Pressurise
In the second stage, as indicated in Figure 79 , after the desired
level is reached and detected, the ‘deflap’ valve (normally
actuated pneumatically) closes and seals the vessel.
The high pressure air inlet opens and pressurises the dust-filled
vessel to a set pressure depending on the design of that
particular vessel.
The pressure set point is varied depending on the volume of the
vessel, the size of the discharge pipework, and the distance from
the vessel to the collection silo.
After the set pressure is reached, a circuit is closed by the
pressure switch and the control system moves on to the next
step.
Figure 79: Pressurisation of Depac Vessel
Step 3 Discharge
In the third stage, as indicated by Figure 80 , the discharge valve
opens with the supply of high pressure air still open to transport
the material through the discharge pipework. This continues
until the vessel’s pressure switch reaches a pre-set ‘low’ setting.
After the set pressure is reached, a circuit is closed by the
pressure switch and the control system moves on to the next
step.
Figure 80: Discharging of Depac Vessel
Step 4 Purge
In the fourth stage further high pressure air is allowed to
continue to flow through the discharge pipe for a set time (and
whilst the low vessel pressure remains low) to ensure that the
pipeline is clear before the next fill cycle.
In most installations a separate high pressure line is opened
during the purge process, bypassing the pressure regulation of
the pressurising air supply line. A diagram of this is type of
arrangement is shown in Figure 81.
This is the end of the cycle and the controller restarts at Step 1
(fill).
Figure 81: Depac Vessel with dual air supply
10.9 Dry Ash Handling

In pneumatic ash transport systems such as the Depac system
described in the previous section, it is important to remember
that the material is in a dry state and as such, must remain in a
sealed system until it is either stored for commercial use or,
more commonly, conditioned with water in preparation for
further transport.
Airborne dust is an environmental hazard and must be kept to a
minimum or eliminated entirely.
The overall process is to transport the ash to the silo, as

previously described, remove the ash from the silo in a
controlled manner, mix it with water while controlling the
density, and pump the resultant slurry to permanent storage.
10.9.1 Ash Silos

From the discharge lines of depacs, dust can be transported to a
silo for temporary storage. Because some of this dust will in
most cases be fly ash, it is easily made airborne particularly due
to the temperature of the material. An ash silo then must be
airtight and still enable the constant transport of ash and dust
from the pipeline(s).
10.9.2 Vacuum Fans

An ash silo is usually supplied with at least one vacuum fan in
order to maintain a negative pressure within the silo. The
vacuum fan discharges through a small scale fabric filter and
thereby prevents airborne dust pollution, This means then, that
not only is there high pressure air at one end of the depac
pipeline, but also a negative pressure (or suck) at the other
(within the silo). This (apart from preventing the egress of dust
from the silo) greatly enhances the transport along the pipe.
10.9.3 Rotary Valves

A rotary valve is a cylindrical, segmented, rotating material feed
control machine. It forms the interface between the ash silo and
the next stage-the humidifier. The segmented cylinder or drum
receives dust from the bottom of the silo in “doses” into its
segments as the drum rotates. At the same time, the segment on
the bottom side of the valve delivers the contents of its segment
to the receiving end of the humidifier.
This arrangement is similar to a rotating door in a department
store, and in one way fulfils the same function. The silo remains
sealed at all times during operation of the valve thus allowing
the partial vacuum to remain established within the silo (one
hopes that there is not a vacuum in a department store, of
course, but there is the air-conditioning to consider!).
In some installations the rotary valve speed is the means of
control of ash slurry final density. The ash density set-point
signals the variable speed controller of the rotary valve to speed
up, or slow down in order to deliver more or less ash to the
mixture within the ash mixing tank.
In other installations, the rotary valve speed is a means of
controlling the ash mixing tank level (via a level transmitter and
control system) signalling to speed up or slow down according to
the level in the tank. In this arrangement, the water addition to
the mixing tank is used to control density.
Figure 82: Rotary Valve
10.9.4 Conditioners (or Humidifiers)
Figure 83: Mixing Tank
From the rotary valve, the ash is delivered to the receiving end of
the humidifier. The ash humidifier has two counter rotating
shafts containing a series of paddles. The dry ash is introduced
at one end and propelled, whilst being ‘folded’ into itself along
the length of the humidifier. During this process water is
sprayed over the ash in controlled quantities so that it is

thoroughly mixed to a suitable consistency at the humidifier
discharge.
The consistency of the product must be such that, if necessary,
it can be loaded into trucks for removal without allowing free,
dry dust to be blown into the air.
The humidifier mixes the dry ash with water to reduce dust
emissions around the mixing area, and give the dust a better
consistency for mixing in the slurry-mixing tank.
10.9.5 Ash Mixing Tank

From the humidifier, the paste falls into the ash mixing tank.
Here, the mixture is further combined with water to achieve a set
density.
The mixing tank is provided with a motor driven mixer to keep
the dust in suspension and uniform for the conditions required
by the pumping system. A water control valve varies the quantity
of water added to the mixing tank depending on the control
signal it receives (usually D.C.S.).
The mixture to be pumped must:
• Be free-flowing to permit intake by the pump.
• Retain sufficient moisture or not be inclined to separation.
• Have a temperature range suitable for the pumping
equipment.
• Not contain any solid matter with an excessive diameter
10.9.6 Pumping Systems

The wet ash is mixed to the required density for the pumping
system that is to be employed.
However, if the density is high, (common ranges are 1450kg/m3
to 1580kg/m3, at a pressure of 6000 kPa and 1600 kg/m3 to
1750 kg/m3 at a pressure of 10000 to 11000kpa )and pumped
at rates rate of 45m3/hr and to 300 plus m3 respectively, then
the system will always be by positive displacement type pumps.
Two types of these are:
 Positive displacement diaphragm pumps.
 Positive displacement piston type pumps.
Your training section dealing with pumps should be referred to
for more detailed information on the operation of these.
Bottom Ash hopper
Intermediate Silo Bottom Ash Screw Conveyor

(Economiser) Intermediate Silo
(Air Heater)
Bottom Ash Depac
Fly Ash Silo
Ash Silo
Ash transport Lines Rotary Valve
Humidifier
Pumping System
Ash mixing tank
Figure 84: Overview of typical general layout of a dry ash handling system
11. Overview of a Steam Turbine

11.1 History of the Steam Turbine
Early steam engines were of the reciprocating type where steam
acted upon a piston contained within a cylinder. The piston
operated through a connecting rod and onto a crankshaft that
was rotated to give the engines mechanical output.
In the early twentieth century electrical generators had reached
a capacity of 5 megawatts and were driven by a reciprocating
steam engines.
As electrical generator outputs increased an alternative form of
prime mover needed to be developed as the reciprocating steam
engine had reached its practical output limitations.
Although not a new idea at the time; the steam turbine had the
ability to fill the requirement of larger outputs.
11.2 Early Applications

The steam turbine did not have a smooth transition in taking
over from reciprocating steam engine, as early designs had high
noise levels along with difficult regulation and were prone to
frequent breakdowns.
First applications of the steam turbine were in sawmills and
woodcutting shops; with one actually being fitted to a steam
locomotive.
11.3 Benefits of Steam Turbines

As steam turbines became more accepted; rapid development
ensued. With the use of superheated steam, turbine performance
and efficiency exceeded that of the reciprocating engine and the
era of the steam turbine had commenced.
11.4 Basic Construction of a Steam Turbine

A steam turbine can be considered as a rotary heat engine
constructed of a number of cylinders (each cylinder comprises a
cylinder casing that contains a rotor). Individual rotors are
supported within their respective cylinder casing by journal
bearings. The cylinder casing is the stationary component of the
turbine while the rotating section of the turbine is referred to as
the rotor.
The cylinder casing contains rows of stationary or fixed blades
with rotating blades connected to the rotor. These rotating
blades are installed between the fixed blades. The stationary
blades are fitted into the cylinder casing in such a fashion as to
direct or redirect the steam onto the next row of rotating blades.
The cylinder rotors are coupled together and connected to the
alternator rotor. Steam governor valves control the turbine
output.
A condenser installed at the exhaust or low pressure end of the
turbine receives and condenses the steam prior to it being
pumped back to the boiler.
11.5 Principles of operation of a steam turbine

When high temperature steam passes through a steam turbine;
heat energy contained within the steam is converted into kinetic
energy (energy due to motion). The steam flowing from the high
pressure to a lower pressure is then converted into rotating
mechanical energy as the high velocity steam acts on a series of
rows of blades mounted on the rotor.
In a typical condensing turbine high pressure; high temperature
steam is allowed to expand progressively in stages through the
various rows of blades until it is exhausted to the condenser.
As the steam progresses through the turbine the pressure
reduces and the volume of the steam increases. To compensate
for this volume increase the blade passages of the turbine take
the shape of an expanding cone; with the largest diameter blades
located at the low pressure end of the turbine.
The amount of heat that is converted into kinetic energy by the
fixed blades (or nozzles) is dependant on the design shape of
these blades.
12. Components of a Turbine

Most modern turbines are constructed of multiple cylinders
coupled together to achieve the desired output. Smaller turbines
are constructed using fewer cylinders but their construction

philosophy is the same.
The construction of a modern turbine employs the following
components:
 Turbine cylinder(s)
 Turbine rotor
 Turbine glands
 Bearings
 Lubricating oil system
 Turbine thrust
 Governor
 Condenser
 Air extraction equipment
 Circulating water system
 Turbine couplings
 Turbine turning gear
 Steam chest(s) (containing emergency and control valves)
 Drains
12.1 Turbine cylinder(s)

The casings of turbine cylinders are of simple construction to
minimise any distortion due to temperature changes. They are
constructed in two halves (top and bottom) along a horizontal
joint so that the cylinder is easily opened for inspection and
maintenance. With the top cylinder casing removed the rotor can
also be easily withdrawn without interfering with the alignment
of the bearings.
Most turbines constructed today either have a double or partial
double casing on the high pressure (HP) and intermediate
pressure (IP) cylinders. This arrangement subjects the outer
casing joint flanges, bolts and outer casing glands to lower
steam condition. This also makes it possible for reverse flow
within the cylinder and greatly reduces fabrication thickness as
pressure within the cylinder is distributed across two casings
instead of one. This reduced wall thickness also enables the
cylinder to respond more rapidly to changes in steam
temperature due to the reduced thermal mass.
A cutaway diagram of a HP cylinder is shown in Figure 85. The
HP cylinder is a single flow cylinder with steam entering the
inner casing, passing through the blading and then exhausting
to the outer casing before passing to the reheater.
Figure 86 shows a double flow IP cylinder. Steam enters the
centre of the cylinder where it divides into halves before passing
through blading and exhausting at each end of the cylinder.
Low pressure (LP) cylinders are manufactured of either cast iron
or fabricated steel and are shaped to allow smooth passage of
steam as it leaves the last row of blades and enters the
condenser that is usually situated directly below the LP
cylinder(s).
In larger turbines the increased volume of LP steam may require
double flow LP cylinders. In this cylinder style steam enters each
cylinder in the centre dividing into halves before passing through
blading and exhausting at each end of that cylinder. The
condenser (not shown) is installed directly below the LP cylinders
and receives the exhaust steam.
Figure 85: Cutaway of a single flow HP Cylinder
Figure 86: Cutaway of a double flow IP Cylinder
Figure 87: Cutaway of two double flow LP Cylinders
In the HP, IP and LP cylinders casings are constructed, suitable

spaces or belts to provide exit apertures for bled steam used in
the LP and HP heaters.
12.1.1 Casing flanges

One method of joining the top and bottom halves of the cylinder
casing is by using flanges with machined holes. Bolts or studs
are insertion into these machined holes to hold the top and
bottom halves together. To prevent leakage from the joint
between the top flange and the bottom flange the joint faces are
accurately machined. A typical bolted flange joint is shown in
Figure 88.
Figure 88: Bolted cylinder joint
Bolted turbine flanges for a HP cylinder can be seen in Figure 85

while the IP cylinder and LP cylinders may be seen in Figure 86
and Figure 87 respectively.
The bolts or studs holding the flanges together must be
tightened to precise values to effectively maintain their integrity
once the cylinder is exposed to high temperatures. This is
achieved by using a bolt or stud with a hole drilled through the
centre. A carbon heating rod is inserted into these holes in the
bolt or stud to heat the assembly during tensioning. This can be
seen in Figure 88.
Another method of joining the top and bottom cylinder flanges is

by clamps bolted radially around the outer of the cylinder. The
outer faces of the flanges are made wedge-shaped so that the
tighter the clamps are pulled the greater the pressure on the
joint faces. This method of joining top and bottom casings is
shown in Figure 89.
Figure 89: Clamped cylinder joints
With this method heating rods are insertion into the clamps
during the tensioning process. The holes for these heating rods
can also be seen in Figure 89.
12.1.2 Flange warming

As the flanges on a cylinder are relatively thick with respect to
the thickness of the casing there is a tendency for the flanges to
lag behind when temperature changes occur. A cross section of a
turbine cylinder showing the relationship between the casing
and flange thickness is displayed in Figure 90.
With casing flanges being much thicker than the casing itself
they are slower to cool than the casing and are also slower to
warm when the casing is heated. When rapid temperature
changes occur the casing temperature changes much faster than
the flange temperature thus subjecting the casing to abnormal
and unwanted thermal stresses. These thermal stresses reduce
the expected working life of the material.
Thinner
casing
Flange Thicker
bolt/stud casing
flange
Turbine
rotor
Flange
joint
Figure 90: Cross section of simple turbine cylinder
The most critical time when the greatest thermal stress occurs is
when the turbine is being returned to service and the steam to
metal temperature differences are at their greatest.
Casing
flanges Flange
bolt/stud
Flange
Flange warming
joint
steam entering Flange warming
flange steam exiting
flange
From
auxiliary
steam
To
Condenser
via turbine
drains
Holes drilled
through flanges
Figure 91: Cross section side view of casing flanges
To minimise the thermal stress occurring on the casings a

system of flange warming is employed. The flange warming
system supplies a regulated flow of steam through ducts or holes
in the flanges and/or flange bolts/studs. Flange warming
through flange ducts is shown in Figure 91. With this method
warming steam passes through the flange and into the bolt/stud
hole, it then passes along the bolt/stud outer shaft transferring
heat to the casing and bolt/stud. It then passes through the

flange to the next bolt/stud to continue the warming process.
Another method of flange warming is shown in Figure 92. With

this method a small hole is drilled at an angle through the centre
of the bolt/stud to allow steam passage from one flange duct to
the next. During assembly accurate alignment of the bolt/stud is
required to ensure that the flange and bolt/stud holes line-up.
With both methods of flange warming we regulate the flow of
steam through these ducts or holes to maintain design
temperature differential limits between the casing and the casing
flanges.
In reducing the temperature differential, the expansion

differentials of the varying thickness of casing and flanges along
with the rotor are kept to a minimum allowing turbine start and
run-up time to be reduced. More about this when we discuss
turbovisory equipment covered later in this module.
Casing
flanges Flange
bolt/stud
Flange
Flange warming
joint
steam entering Flange warming
flange steam exiting
flange
From
auxiliary
steam
To
Condenser
via turbine
drains
Holes drilled Holes drilled

through flanges through bolt/stud
Figure 92: Cross section side view of casing flanges with drilled bolts/studs
12.2 Turbine rotor

As the name suggests the turbine rotor is the component of a
turbine that rotates. Most modern turbines operate at either
1800rpm when driving a 60Hz 4 pole generator, 3000rpm when
driving a 50Hz 2 pole generator or 3600rpm when driving a 60Hz
2 pole generator.
Special attention must be given to the construction of a turbine

rotor due to the centrifugal force generated by the high speed
operation.
Turbine rotors are constructed by the following methods:

 Forged steel drum rotor
 Solid forged rotor
 Disc rotor
 Shrunk and/or keyed to the shaft
 Welded construction
12.2.1 Forged steel drum rotor

Drum rotors as they are commonly referred to are single steel
forgings for the high pressure steam inlet end rotor (drum) with
another separate forging for the exhaust end disc. After
machining the drum is shrunk onto the exhaust end disc forging
and secured by bolts and driven dowels. Grooves are machined
in the body of the drum to accommodate the blading. A diagram
of a drum rotor construction can be seen in Figure 93
The drum type rotor has limitations in its application due to the
excessive stresses encountered if manufactured in large sizes.
For this reason its applications are limited to small machines or
the high pressure cylinder of multiple cylinder machines.
The main advantage of this type of construction is that there is

approximately the same mass of metal contained within the
rotor as in the cylinder casing. With their mass being almost
equal the same response to a change in temperature conditions
occurs for both the rotor and the casing. By having similar
response characteristics the internal working clearances can be
kept to a minimum thus improving efficiency.
HP steam
inlet end Rotor
blades Driven
dowels
Exhaust
end shaft
and disc
Shrink
fit
Figure 93: Forged steel drum rotor construction
12.2.2 Solid forged rotor

Solid forged rotors have wheels and a shaft machined from one
single solid steel forging. This type of construction is extremely
rigid and eliminates the problems of looses wheels that other
types of construction can experience. Groves are machined into
the wheel rims to accommodate the necessary blading. A
diagram of a solid forged turbine rotor is shown in Figure 94.
Solid forged rotors of creep resistant alloy steel are
predominately used in the HP and IP cylinders employing
impulse type blading and the IP cylinder for reaction type
blading. The modern trend is to bore a hole through the entire
length of the shaft to permit inspection by video camera or other
viewing method. This hole through the centre of the shaft also
relieves stresses during the heat treatment process.
Gland rings are machined between the discs to align with the
diaphragm glands. The outer faces of the first and last discs
have machined slots which allow the attachment of balance
weights
Figure 94: Solid forged turbine rotor
12.2.3 Disc rotor
Shrunk and/or keyed to the shaft

Construction of the disc rotor type is made up using a central
shaft with separately forged discs or wheels and the hubs of
these wheels shrunk and keyed onto the central shaft. The outer
rims of the wheels are suitably grooved to allow for fixing of the
blades. The central shaft is usually stepped so that the wheels
hubs can be easily threaded then pressed and shrunk or welded
into their correct position. A shrink fit disc rotor is shown in
Figure 95.
Suitable clearances are provided between the hubs to allow for

expansion axially along the line of the shaft.
Blades
Locking
ring Weights
Hole through
shaft
Rotor shaft
Wheel
Figure 95: Shrink fit disc rotor
The disadvantage with this type of construction is that if the

rotor is subjected to a rapid temperature rise in excess of
manufacturer’s recommendation the wheels being much smaller
in mass than the shaft expand quicker and can become loose on
the shaft.
Disc rotor balance is achieved by adjusting the position of the
weights in a channel machined in the outer face of the first and
last disc. When the rotor is balanced the weights are locked in
position in the channel by grub screws.
Welded construction
Welded rotors are assembled from a number of discs and two
shaft ends. The discs are joined together by welding at the
circumference. Figure 96 shows this type of construction prior to
welding while Figure 97 shows the rotor after being welded and
the blading installed.
Discs
Figure 96: Rotor showing discs before welding
Blades
Figure 97: Welded rotor construction after assembly
12.3 Turbine blade fixing

Various root fixing shapes have been developed for turbine
blading to suit both construction requirements and conditions
under which turbines operate. The most popular types of blade
root fixing available are:
 groove
 straddle
 rivet
12.3.1 Groove construction

The groove type of root fixing fits into a machined grove around
the circumference of the rotor wheel or disc. Some examples of
typical groove type blade root designs are shown in Figure 98
while a rotor disc with a machined groove arrangement is shown
in Figure 99.
Cut-off blade
section
Blade root
Annular Fir-tree Axial Fir-tree Inverted 'T'
Figure 98: Groove type root fixing
Closing
blade
window
Dowel
hole
Rotor
disc
Figure 99: Disc periphery for annular fir-tree root blades
Blade roots are installed through the closing blade window and
then slid around the circumference of the disc into their desired
position. The last blade root is installed in the closing blade
opening and secured in position by dowel(s).
12.3.2 Straddle construction

Straddle construction is where the blade root fits over the
machining on the outer periphery of the rotor wheel or disc. An
example of straddle fir-tree blade root construction is shown in
Figure 100. while the disc peripheral machining is shown in
Figure 101.
Once again with this type of construction the blade roots are
installed through the closing blade window slid around the
circumference of the disc into position, then the last blade
inserted is doweled in the closing blade window location.
Dowel
hole
Figure 100: Two shoulder straddle fir-tree blade root
Closing
blade
window
Figure 101: Disc periphery two shoulder fir-tree root anchor
12.3.3 Riveted construction

Riveted construction is where the blade root either inserts into a
groove or straddles the disc and all blades are doweled into
position.
12.3.4 Peripheral blade fixing

On larger blading where the blade length is relatively long a
system of lacing wire or shroud rings are installed to give the
blading additional support and reduce vibration.
The lacing wire is installed a small distance from the outer ends
of the blades while the shroud rings are fitted to tangs on the
outer edges of the blades and secured by peening the tangs. A
section of blading showing the installation of the lacing wire is
shown in Figure 102 while a section of blading showing shroud
ring installation is shown in Figure 103.
Overlap of lacing wire at start and finish
Lacing wire
Reaction blading
Figure 102: Blading supported with lacing wire
Shroud ring
Tang peened
over
Tang
Blades
Figure 103: Shroud ring installation
Often gland sealing is installed around the outer circumference

of the shroud ring to minimise pressure leakage around the
outer tips of the blades. A shrouding single baffle ring gland can
be seen in Figure 104. while a shrouding side baffle gland can be
seen in
Casing
Gland
Figure 104: Shrouding single baffle ring gland
Casing
Gland
Figure 105: Shrouding side baffle gland
12.4 Couplings
With multi-cylinder turbines it is necessary to have some
method of connecting individual cylinder rotors. It is also a
requirement to connect the turbine to the alternator rotor. To
achieve these connections we use a device known as a coupling.
These couplings must be capable of transmitting heavy loads
and in some turbines are required to accommodate for axial
expansion and contraction.
The types of couplings generally employed in power plants are:

 Flexible coupling
 Solid shaft coupling
12.4.1 Flexible couplings

Where axial shaft movement is required a flexible coupling is
employed and these are either:
 Sliding claw (or tooth)
 Flexible connection (between the two flanges)
With both of the above flexible couplings it is necessary to have a

separate thrust bearing for each shaft to maintain the same
relative position between rotor and cylinder casing.
Sliding claw (or tooth)

Sliding claw couplings consists of an inner gears or tooth
coupling half. The inner half is shrunk onto its respective shaft
and secured by keys or driven pins. The outer coupling half;
machined in the reverse shape is installed onto the other shaft.
The gear or teeth coupling is positioned inside the outer coupling
half where it is able to slide back and forth to allow for
expansion or contraction. A diagram of a sliding claw coupling
prior to the inner claw section being inserted into the outer half
is shown in Figure 106 while a gear tooth coupling is shown in
Figure 107
Outer half
of coupling
Inner
claw
Shaft
Figure 106: Claw coupling
Figure 107: Gear tooth coupling
Flexible connection coupling

Flexible connections such as the bibby coupling are constructed
in two halves. Each half is shrunk onto their respective shaft
and secured with keys or driven pins. The halves are machined
with groves parallel or nearly parallel to that of the alignment of
the shaft. Flexible spring steel grids are inserted into these
machined groves and held in place with an outer cover. This type
of coupling is effective in allowing axial expansion and
contraction along with the ability to tolerate minor
misalignment. A bibby coupling is shown in Figure 108.
Figure 108: Bibby coupling
The flexible couplings just mentioned are by no means the only

flexible couplings available but they are the preferred choice for
high load applications.
12.4.2 Solid shaft coupling

When shaft movement is not required it is usual to install a solid
type coupling. Two flanges are installed onto their respective
shafts and then the two flanges are bolted together to form a
solid joint as shown in
Figure 109.
Often teeth are machined on the outer rim of these couplings
and used as a point for barring the turbine shaft. (more about
barring the turbine later). Figure 110 shows a solid shaft
coupling with a barring gear fitted.
Figure 109: Solid shaft coupling
Figure 110: Solid shaft coupling fitted with hand barring gear
12.5 Classification of turbines

Turbines are classified as to the:
 Type of flow (axial or radial)
 Cylinder arrangement (number of cylinders; whether
single, tandem or cross-compound in design)
 Type of blading (impulse or reaction)
12.5.1 Type of flow

Turbine construction is either of the radial or axial flow design.
With a radial flow turbine the steam flows outward from the
centre of the casing through stages of blading. Figure 111 shows
the principle of a radial flow turbine.
Figure 111: Radial flow turbine
The radial turbine is not normally the preferred choice for

electricity generation and is usually only employed for small
output applications.
Axial flow turbines have the steam flow through the turbine in a
parallel direction to the turbine shaft. Figure 112 shows an axial
flow turbine.
Figure 112: Axial flow turbine
The axial flow type of turbine is the most preferred for electricity
generation as several cylinders can be easily coupled together to
achieve a turbine with a greater output.
In some modern turbine designs the steam flows through part of

the high pressure (HP) cylinder and then is reversed to flow in
the opposite direction through the remainder of the HP cylinder.
The benefits of this arrangement are:
 outer casing joint flanges and bolts experience much
lower steam conditions than with the one direction design
 reduction or elimination of axial (parallel to shaft) thrust
created within the cylinder
 lower steam pressure that the outer casing shaft glands
have to accommodate
A simplified diagram of a reverse flow high pressure cylinder is

shown in Figure 113.
High
Cylinder pressure
exhaust steam
inlet
Figure 113: Reverse flow turbine cylinder
12.5.2 Cylinder arrangement

Turbines can be arranged either single cylinder or multi-stage in
design. The multi-stage can be either velocity, pressure or
velocity-pressure compounded (more about this later).
12.5.2.1 Single cylinder construction

Single cylinder turbines have only one cylinder casing (although
may be is multiple sections). Steam enters at the high pressure
section of the turbine and passes through the turbine to the low
pressure end of the turbine then exhausts to the condenser.
Figure 112 shows a single cylinder turbine with a high,
intermediate and low pressure section contained within the one
cylinder casing.
12.5.2.2 Tandem construction

Dictated by practical design and manufacturers considerations
modern turbines are manufactured in multiple sections also
called cylinders. Greater output and efficiency can be achieved
by coupling a number of individual cylinders together in what is
referred to as tandem (on one axis). A tandem two cylinder
turbine with a single flow high pressure (HP) cylinder and a
double flow low pressure (LP) cylinder is shown in Figure 114.
Steam from
boiler HP Rotor LP Rotor
Exhaust steam to
condenser
Figure 114: Tandem two cylinder turbine
You will notice that the turbine shown in Figure 114 has what is
referred to as a double flow LP cylinder. The steam enters the
centre of the double flow cylinder and then divides and flows to
opposite ends of the cylinder where it exhausts to the condenser.
This type of arrangement provides sufficient cross sectional area
for the large volume of low pressure steam. If a single flow design
was employed an excessively large diameter cylinder would be
required. With the double flow design the length of the blades is
significantly reduced thus simplifying the construction while
reducing the centrifugal force on the rotor. In addition the
double flow arrangement balances out axial thrust on the rotor.
In Figure 115 a tandem three cylinder turbine is shown. It has a
double flow LP cylinder with an IP cylinder arranged so that the
steam flow through it is in the opposite direction to the HP
cylinder. This design also greatly reduces the axial thrust on the
rotor.
Exhaust steam
to condenser
LP Rotor
IP Rotor
HP Rotor
Steam from
boiler
Figure 115: Tandem three cylinder turbine
Large modern turbines are required to deliver high output and

are generally constructed of four cylinders with the exhaust
steam from the HP cylinder passing through a reheater before
entering the IP cylinder. This arrangement is shown in Figure

116.
LP 2 Rotor
Exhaust steam to condenser

LP 1 Rotor
IP Rotor
HP Rotor
reheater
Steam
Steam from
boiler
Figure 116: Four cylinder turbine with reverse flow HP cylinder and two double
flow LP cylinders
In some larger overseas installations that operate at 60 hertz

(frequency) the use of cross-compounding is sometimes
employed. Cross-compounding is where the HP and IP cylinders

are mounted on one shaft driving one alternator while the LP
cylinders are mounted on a separate shaft driving another
alternator. This is done so as the LP cylinder with its large
diameter blading can be operated at a greatly reduced speed
thus reducing the centrifugal force. This arrangement is shown
in Figure 117.
Steam from
boiler Steam
reheater
Alternator
No 1
HP Rotor IP Rotor 3600 rpm
2 pole
60Hz
Alternator
No 2
LP 1 Rotor LP 2 Rotor
1800 rpm
4 pole
60Hz
Figure 117: Tandem cross-compound turbine
The final turbine arrangement that is becoming increasingly

popular is the “Tandem four cylinder turbine with reverse flow
HP cylinder, double flow IP and twin double flow LP cylinders”.
This arrangement is shown in Figure 118.
LP 2 Rotor

LP 1 Rotor
IP Rotor
HP Rotor
reheater
Steam
Steam from
boiler
Figure 118: Tandem four cylinder turbine with reverse flow HP cylinder, double
flow IP and LP cylinders
12.5.3 Types of blading

The heat energy contained within the steam that passes through
a turbine must be converted into mechanical energy. How this is
achieved depends on the shape of the turbine blades. The two
basic blade designs are:
 impulse
 reaction
12.5.3.1 Impulse Blading

Impulse blades work on the principle of high pressure steam
striking or hitting against the moving blades. The principle of a
simple impulse turbine is shown in Figure 119.
Impulse blades are usually symmetrical and have an entrance
and exit angle of approximately 200. They are generally installed
in the higher pressure sections of the turbine where the specific
volume of steam is low and requires much smaller flow areas
than that at lower pressures. The impulse blades are short and
have a constant cross section.
Bearings
Rotation
Rotor Steam
Nozzle
Boiler
Flame
Figure 119: Principle of impulse turbine
In a single stage impulse turbine the steam is expanded to the

required pressure in fixed diaphragm nozzles thus producing
high velocity steam.
The expanded, accelerated steam is then directed onto the

moving blades transferring its kinetic energy to the blades. The
velocity of the steam (relative to the moving blades) as it leaves
the blades should be zero; indicating that no further energy may
be transferred to the moving blades.
The characteristic features of an impulse turbine are:
 all the pressure drop of the steam occurs in the fixed
nozzles
 no pressure drop occurs over the moving blades, ie. there
is no pressure difference between the two sides of a row of
moving blades (with this feature there is little tendency
for steam to leak past the moving blades)
Figure 120 shows a section of impulse type blading.
Force
Steam Steam
IN OUT
Leading edge
Figure 120: Section of an impulse turbine blade
12.5.4 Reaction Blading

The principle of a pure reaction turbine is that all the energy
contained within the steam is converted to mechanical energy by
reaction of the jet of steam as it expands through the blades of
the rotor. A simple reaction turbine is shown in Figure 121. The
rotor is forced to rotate as the expanding steam exhausts the
rotor arm nozzles.
Rotation
Nozzle
Rotor
Boiler
Flame
Figure 121: Principle of reaction turbine
A section of reaction type blading is shown in Figure 122
Force
Leading
edge
Steam
IN
Steam
OUT
Figure 122: Section of reaction turbine blading
In practice it is impossible to achieve a pure reaction effect as

the steam already has velocity when it reaches the moving
blades. Therefore the steam on passing across the moving blades
imparts some impulse to the blades due to its change in
direction. The force developed by impulse compared with the
force developed by reaction will depend on the blade
speed/steam speed ratio.
In a reaction turbine the steam expands when passing across
the fixed blades and incurs a pressure drop and an increase in
velocity. When passing across the moving blades the steam
incurs both a pressure drop and a decrease in velocity.
12.5.5 Nozzle Plates

Nozzle plates are installed as the first row of fixed blades or
nozzles. A nozzle plate is constructed of three major components:
 Nozzle segments
 Centre ring(s) or diaphragm
 Baffle strip gland (not required on double flow turbines)
A diagram of a nozzle plate is shown in Figure 123.
12.5.5.1 Nozzle segments

Nozzle segments are shaped and positioned in the nozzle plate to
direct steam onto the rotating blades at the most effective angle
to gain maximum efficiency from the steam.
12.5.5.2 Centre ring(s) or diaphragm

Centre rings support the nozzle segments and are located in
groves machined into the cylinder casing. In most large turbines
the nozzle plates are in two halves. The top half of the nozzle
plate is installed into the top half of the turbine cylinder casing
while the bottom half is installed in the bottom half of the
turbine cylinder casing. This arrangement allows for easy
dismantling should maintenance be required.
12.5.5.3 Baffle strip gland

These are installed to prevent steam from bypassing the rotating
blades by passing around the outer tip of the rotating blades. A
diagram of a double flow turbine nozzle plate showing a baffle
strip is displayed in Figure 123.
Figure 123: Nozzle plate for double flow IP cylinder
12.5.6 Diaphragms
The function of a diaphragm is to contain the nozzle segments
and prevent pressure leakage along the rotor shaft to the next
lower pressure stage within the cylinder. A diagram of a
diaphragm is shown Figure 124.
A diaphragm is constructed of three major components:

 Nozzle segments
 Centre ring(s) or diaphragm
 Baffle strips
12.5.6.1 Nozzle segments

Nozzle segments are shaped and positioned in the diaphragm so
to direct or redirect the steam onto the rotating blades at the
most effective angle to gain maximum efficiency from the steam.
12.5.6.2 Centre ring(s) or diaphragm

Centre rings support the nozzle segments and are located in
groves machined into the cylinder casing. In most large turbines
the diaphragms are in two halves. The top half of the diaphragm
is installed into the top turbine cylinder casing while the bottom
half is installed in the bottom half of the turbine cylinder casing.
This arrangement allows for easy dismantling should
maintenance be required.
12.5.6.3 Baffle strip gland

Baffle strip glands in this instance prevent steam pressure
leakage along the rotor shaft to the next lower pressure stage
within the cylinder. The baffle strip gland can be seen in Figure
124.
Figure 124: IP cylinder diaphragm with baffle strips
13. Turbine Supervisory Equipment

The function of the turbine supervisory equipment is to
continuously monitor critical turbine conditions that indicate
unsatisfactory and potentially dangerous conditions, conditions
such as potential over-speed, vibration or temperatures that
represents a risk to both the turbine and persons.
The following are typical parameters under surveillance by the
turbo-supervisory equipment
 Speed
 HP Rotor Differential Expansion
 HP Rotor Eccentricity
 HP Pedestal Displacement
 Turbine Casing Top to Bottom Differential Temperatures
 Bearing Vibration.
 Thrust Bearing Position/Wear
 Condenser Vacuum
 LP Turbine Exhaust Steam Temperature
Other equipment also aids in monitoring turbine safe operation,

such as steam drain temperatures, steam extraction line
temperatures, HP/LP heater drainate levels etc, but being of
different nature is not classified within turbo-supervisory
equipment.
1. HP Eccentricity
2. HP Differential Expansion
3. Bearing Vibration
Thrust Bearing Wear
5. IP Eccentricity
6. Overall turbine expansion
7. Casing Top to Bottom Differential
Temperatures
8. IP Differential Expansion
9. LP Exhaust Temperature
10. Condenser Vacuum
Figure 125: Typical Turbine Supervisory Monitoring Points
13.1 Turbine Speed

Typically two types of speed detection and monitoring are
provided: a mechanical tachometer, and, electrical speed
sensors.
The mechanical tachometer, which is usually mounted on the
HP pedestal, is used for local indication only, while the rotor
speed measurements are used for both control and remote
indication.
It is critical to monitor and control turbine rotor speed:
 during start ups where speed may be held at various levels
to allow the turbine to warm through (heat soak),
 normal running where the turbine operates at 3000 rpm
 and during disturbances (eg. sudden loss of electrical load
or generator trip) which may potentially cause a turbine
over-speed.
During the run–up to 3000 rpm from rest the turbine also
passes through several speed zones within which the shaft will
experience increased vibration and eccentricity.
These speeds, at which increased bearing vibration and rotor
eccentricity occur, are known as critical speeds. The turbine is
always accelerated through these zones and not allowed to dwell
for any period of time at a critical speed in order to avoid bearing
damage.
During run-up the turbine is accelerated to 3000rpm at set rates
according to the type of start-up. High acceleration rates (300
rpm/m) for hot start-ups and low acceleration rates (100 – 150
rpm/m) for cold start-ups. Typically, during the run-up the rotor
speed will also be held constant at a specified low speed (800 –
1000 rpm) and high speed (2000 rpm) to allow turbine heat
soaking and warm through. These speed holds are known as low
speed and high speed heat soaks.
Control and remote indication of rotor speed is usually detected
by 2 separate electrical detection channels each having a set of
three electro-magnetic sensors. These are usually mounted at
the exciter end of the turbine, but vary greatly between turbine
manufacturers.
Normal operating speed is at 3000 rpm. At speeds above 3000
rpm the turbine is subjected to increasing stress due to the
centrifugal forces acting of the turbine blading, particularly the
larger diameter LP blades. These forces are proportional the
velocity squared ( V2 ) and so any small increases in turbine
speed above normal results in substantial stress on the turbine.
Allowing the turbine to reach speeds greater than 3000 rpm
could result in failure of components and eventually

disintegration of the turbine.
To protect the turbine from over-speed both mechanical and
electrical protection are provided.
13.1.1 Typical Electrical Speed Detector

A typical electrical speed monitor uses eddy current probes or
tacho generators to measure the shaft speed. Eddy current
probe detectors installed over a toothed wheel produces an
electrical signal proportional to the shaft speed while the tacho
generator produces an output frequency proportional to the
shaft speed.
Figure 126: Typical Tacho-generator Speed Sensor
13.1.2 Mechanical Over-Speed Device

A mechanical over-speed device normally consists of spring
loaded bolts set into a retainer on the rotating shaft. During
normal operation the bolts are restrained by spring tension,
however, as the shaft reaches a predetermined speed (usually
108 – 110 % of rated speed) the bolts overcome the spring
tension and fly out (due to the increased centrifugal forces).
Once extended from their normal position they strike a lever that
opens a drain valve and dumps the Power Oil to Turbine Stop
and Throttle valves, thus shutting off steam supply to the
turbine.
Figure 127 : Mechanical Over-speed device
13.1.3 Electrical Over-Speed

Two channel electrical speed sensors input the turbine over-
speed protection circuit and will trip the turbine on sensing
potentially dangerous speeds.
The speed trip set point is usually set at 1-2 % higher than the
mechanical over-speed device as a backup.
Should the turbine speed increase to 110% of rated speed by two
out of the three speed sensors of either channel a turbine trip
will be initiated via the Emergency Trip Circuit .(refer to Fig 9 )
This will force closure of all turbine stop and throttle valves.
13.1.4 Poisson’s Effect

As a Turbine is accelerated to synchronous speed it reaches a
point (> 2500 rpm and usually after the final critical speed zone)
at which it reduces in length longitudinally and increases
radially. This effect is known as “Poisson’s Effect” and it is
proportional to the size of the turbine cylinder. The result of this
phenomenon is to create a measurable step change in the
differential expansion of the turbine (rates of 0.1-0.2 mm are not
uncommon.)
The reverse occurs during the turbine run-down after a trip or
removal from service.
Manufacturers take Poisson’s effect into account when
determining the expanded limit of a turbine to ensure that it can
be safely tripped at a fully expanded state without fear of a rub
on run-down. Attempting to run-up and synchronise a turbine
while in the fully contracted state however is not advisable
because a combination of cold steam temperatures and Poisson’s
effect may well take the turbine past the contracted limit.
13.2 HP Rotor Differential Expansion

The HP Rotor Differential Expansion (also known as DE) is one
of the most critical turbo-supervisory points to be monitored.
The DE measurement gives an expansion reading of the HP rotor
shaft relative to the HP Casing.
If the HP DE is allowed to increase or decrease beyond the
specified manufacturers limits there is a risk of a “rub “occurring
between the fixed turbine diaphragms and the rotor blades. In
order to achieve high turbine efficiencies, clearances between the
turbines stationary and rotating parts are kept to a minimum
and therefore DE must be closely monitored. If the rotor and
casing expand together at the same rate these clearances would
be maintained. However, since the rotor is much smaller in mass
compared to the casing it will respond much faster to changes in
steam temperature.
When the turbine cylinders are heated or cooled suddenly the
casing and the rotor will experience different expansion or
contraction rates. The rotor and shaft being of less mass will
tend to increase or decrease in length more quickly than the
casing. If this differential expansion is not controlled a condition
could arise in which the rotating and stationary parts of the
turbine glands and blading come into contact (rub) resulting in
damage to the machine. Differential Expansion is particularly
monitored during start-ups/shutdowns and for monitoring signs
of water ingress.
13.2.1 Possible Causes of Differential Expansion

Possible causes of differential expansion include:
 Difference in thermal expansion coefficient of materials
 Rapid increase or decrease of HP Steam Temperature
 Contraction/expansion of shaft due to speed change
(Poisson’s Effect)
 Difference in rotor/casing mass
 Water ingress or saturated steam conditions
13.2.2 Actions in Response to Differential Expansion Excursions

The following actions should be considered in the related
circumstances as differential expansion approaches the
expanded or contacted limits:
 If differential expansion has been significantly affected by a
load change resume the previous load.
 If differential expansion approaches an expanded or
contracted limit during initial run-up and loading, hold at
that load and allow differential expansion to stabilise.
 If differential expansion is due to changes in steam
temperature correct steam conditions.
 If differential expansion is due to suspected water ingress
isolate the source of water ingress and apply maximum
drainage to turbine.
 If differential expansion continues to approach the limit or if
the turbine begins to experience vibration problems trip the
turbine
13.2.3 Detection of Differential expansion

Typical components of a differential expansion detection device
include:
 Shaft Collar
 Detector Heads
13.2.3.1 Shaft Collar

A special collar is normally machined on the HP Rotor, external
to the turbine blading, between the HP pedestal bearing and the
shaft coupling and is used to give a reference point for the rotor.
13.2.3.2 Detector Heads

HP Rotor detectors (similar to the HP rotor eccentricity detectors)
are mounted on the casing each side of the rotor collar (usually
two). As the rotor moves relative to the casing the magnetic field
and electrical impedance of the detector heads change (due to
change in air gap) and gives a proportional output signal relative
to the movement.
Figure 128: Typical Differential Expansion Detector
Normal running clearance
Reduced clearance as rotor expands

before casing
Casing
Moving Blade
Fixed Blade
Thrust Bearing
DE Detector Heads
DE Output
Collar
Shaft
Contraction Expansion Rotor Expansion
Figure 129: HP Rotor Differential Expansion
13.2.4 Typical Values for HP and LP Differential Expansion

The LP Turbine is subject to reduced temperature differentials
and normally has greater clearances than the HP turbine
therefore there will normally be a greater allowable tolerance for
differential expansion in the LP rotor than the HP (or IP)
Normal Alarm Trip

HP Turbine
LP Turbine
13.3 HP Rotor Eccentricity

The HP/IP and LP shaft and rotors consist of a large mass of
metal supported between two bearings. When a turbine is
brought to rest while relatively high temperature still exists
within the casing the tendency will be for the rotor to “hog”. That
is, it is distorted by arching upwards.
If a cold rotor is left to stand for any period of time it will tend to
distort downward or “sag”.
To ensure that the shaft is concentric it is necessary first to
ensure that the temperature within casing is uniform.
Following an extended period of time at rest the shaft would first
be rotated through 360 degrees to ensure it was completely free
to rotate and then it would be placed on power barring. As the
shaft rotates the portion subject to sag is continuously changing
and this has the effect of re-establishing shaft concentricity.
The opposite to concentric is eccentric and is a measure of the
out of roundness of the turbine shaft.
Monitoring of the eccentric movement of the turbine shaft
provides an indication of the severity of any shaft bend.
High eccentricity at speeds will cause excessive vibration and
possible turbine damage during turbine run-up. A high alarm is
initiated usually at 75 um. A run-up should not be attempted
when eccentricity approaches the limit value. The shaft should
continue on power barring until the value is significantly
reduced.
Minimum barring times are required to ensure rotor
concentricity prior to steam admission.
Usually a turbine must be on turning gear for a minimum of 4
hours prior to rolling on steam to ensure the shaft is concentric
and following a shut-down remain on turning gear until the HP
Turbine inner metal temperature is below 200 C.
13.3.1 Measurement of Turbine Eccentricity

The measurement of shaft eccentricity is a calculated value as it
is not possible to directly measure the eccentricity at the mid-
point of a rotating turbine.
Usually electronic/electrical sensors are installed at the
overhang of the HP rotor at the HP pedestal bearing as this is
usually the only turbine section with a free end and is the most
likely turbine section to experience eccentricity problems.
Eccentricity detectors vary greatly with different turbine
manufacturers. Typically, detectors are installed vertically above
and below the shaft collar. If the shaft is bent the collar
alternatively approaches and recedes from each detector in turn.

The varying air gap changes the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit proportionally to the shaft wobble.
Eccentricity detector heads
Locus of centre
Control
Unit Eccentricity
Monitoring & Trip Circuits
Varying clearance
as shft wobbles Shaft
Figure 130: Typical Eccentricity Proximity Probes
13.4 HP Pedestal Displacement

As the turbine casing warms up it will expand both radially and
axially. The machine is designed to allow for this expansion, as
the bearing pedestals are mounted on greased, sliding, keyed
feet to accommodate the expansion. The HP end expansion could
be as great as 2 – 5 cm.
Provided expansion is smooth and unrestrained no damage
occurs. Should, however, the expansion not occur, or be erratic,
due to the feet not sliding, damage could occur due to distortion
of the casings.
Measurement of the HP pedestal displacement is carried out in a
manner similar to that of measuring eccentricity and differential
expansion. HP pedestal expansion detectors are usually installed
at the HP pedestal to measure the turbine’s overall expansion
relative to the fixed anchor point at the LP cylinder.
13.5 Turbine Casing Top to Bottom Temperature Differential

Top to bottom casing temperatures are monitored to ensure even
distribution of heat during run-up and even cooling during
shutdowns. Usually the upper casing becomes hotter,
particularly immediately after a shutdown while the rotor is on
turning gear and during the early stages of a cold start.
Uneven and large temperature differentials will cause casing
distortion and if severe enough will lead to permanent casing
damage.
During normal operation the planes of the fixed and moving
blades can be considered to be parallel. If, however, the top and
bottom casing halves are heated at different rates the upper
casing will tend to distort. The paths of the moving blades and
the plane of the fixed blade may now no longer be parallel and
contact between the two could occur.
To avoid excessive difference between top and bottom casing
temperatures the following should be done:
 Drainage should be continued until casing metal

temperatures are uniform
 Main steam piping, and valve chests should be properly
drained prior to steam admission
 Steam condition prior to steam admission to the turbine
should ensure at least 50 degrees of superheat and
matched as close to the HP inner casing metal temperature.
 Reduce the rate of steam admission to keep top to bottom
differential temperatures within limits
 Increase flange warming to increase heat front to bottom
casing.
13.5.1 Typical Casing Top to Bottom Temperature Differential Limits

Following removal from service due to high top to bottom casing
differential temperature the turbine should remain at rest until
the temperatures become uniform. It should then be hand
barred to ensure it rotates freely before returning to power
barring and finally to steam admission. Under normal in-service
operating conditions differential temperatures are usually within
5 C. Differential temperatures increases usually occur during
start-up, shutdown or if saturated steam or water ingress
occurs.
Typical Casing top to bottom differential are as follows:
Cylinder Normal High Trip advised

HP/IP + 5 to +10 Deg C + 50.0 Deg C + 65.0 Deg C
13.6 Bearing Vibration

The function of vibration monitoring is to provide data to prevent
damage to the Turbine from excessive vibration.
Turbine shafts are balanced at the time of commissioning to
allow smooth performance and running during normal
operation. Any deterioration or abnormal operating conditions of
the turbine may first become apparent with a marked increase in
turbine bearing vibration.
It is important that the level of vibration of the turbine shaft be
monitored constantly.
While it is important that the actual value is below acceptable
limits the actual value is not as important as the increase or
change from normal to the new running value.
Changes in the level of vibration may occur following changes in:
 Speed
 Load
 Steam Conditions
Following any increase in vibration check the following:
 The amount by which the vibration has increased from
normal
 Accuracy of the vibration measuring instrument. Check
locally by feel to confirm remote indication. If it is severe
enough you will feel it before you reach the turbine.
 Possible cause of vibration (if speed, load or steam
conditions have changed return to the previous condition
and check if vibration subsides)
 Check for evidence of water ingress.
 Check for evidence of any salt leak in the condenser
(possible mechanical damage and failure of LP Blading)
 Whether the vibration is accompanied by any new and
unexplained noise.
 Whether casing top to bottom differential temperature and
shaft differential expansion are within limits
13.6.1 Typical Turbine Vibration Limits

The following values are typical vibration limits set for turbine
operation:
Normal High Trip

Shaft Vibration < 25 um p-p 100 um p-p 130 - 150um p-p
An alarm will occur if any vibration exceeds the specified

manufacturers’ limits and automatic trip should be initiated
should the level of vibration continue to rise.
Figure 131: Typical vibration monitoring equipment
13.7 Thrust Bearing Failure Protection

The function of thrust bearing monitoring is to provide data on
the axial position of the turbine rotor.
The axial position of the turbine shaft is fixed at the thrust
bearing. This allows shaft expansion to take place toward the HP
and LP end of the turbine. Should the turbine rotor move beyond
the allowable tolerance given to thrust pad wear, damage due to
contact between stationary and rotating components could
occur.
Typically, the turbine axial shaft position is monitored by 2 or 3
eddy current type, position sensors at the thrust bearing. Should
the shaft position be seen to be outside the limit by 2/3 position
sensors the Emergency Trip Circuit will be energised.
Figure 132 : Typical thrust bearing sensor
13.7.1 Typical Thrust Bearing Shaft Position Limits
Normal High Trip

Shaft position 0 + 0.2 - 0.5 mm + 0.6 - 1.0 mm
13.8 Condenser Vacuum

The function of the condenser is to condense the turbine’s
exhaust steam and in doing so create a vacuum enabling greater
extraction of energy from the steam.
The condenser is designed to withstand considerable external
pressure due to the vacuum being produced within the shell, but
it is not designed to be subjected to positive pressures. Hence
monitoring and protection is required to prevent the turbine
operating with high condenser vacuums which will result in LP
Turbine blade damage.
The LP Blading usually has quite a large blade ring diameter and
the tip speed of the final row of blades is quite high. As back
pressure on the turbine exhaust increases the effects of windage
is to recirculate steam/air around the blade tips. This increases
the stress on the blading and the blade tip temperature.
Operating for prolonged periods under a condition of high back
pressure can result in damage to the LP turbine blades.
Should the pressure within the condenser become positive and
exceed 0.03 Bar Rupture Diaphragms located in the top of the
LP Exhaust Hoods will operate to relieve the pressure to
atmosphere.
13.8.1 Typical Condenser Pressure Limits
Normal Alarm Trip

Condenser 0.006 -0.007 Bar 0.01 Bar 0.025 Bar
Pressure
6-7 kPa 25kPa
10kPa
13.9 LP Turbine Exhaust Hood Temperature

When in normal operation with a condenser vacuum of 0.06 bar
the turbine exhaust temperature will be approximately 36 deg C.
This is the saturation temperature corresponding to the
condenser vacuum.
The LP Turbine Exhaust Steam Saturation Pressure should be
that of the condenser in which it is condensing, the temperature
at which it condenses should also be determined by the
condenser vacuum.
Unless significant changes have occurred in the LP Steam inlet
conditions or the actual flow of steam has significantly reduced
(such as prolonged operation at minimum load) any changes in
the exhaust conditions will coincide with simultaneous changes
in condenser vacuum. The same effects will be seen within the
LP Turbine as those described for Low Vacuum operation.
13.9.1 LP Turbine Exhaust Hood Spray System

Should the LP Turbine Exhaust Temperature begin to increase
the first countermeasure is to place the LP Turbine Exhaust
Hood Sprays in Service.
The LP Turbine Exhaust Hood Spray System normally consists
of two annular spray manifolds, one at each LP exhaust, which
spray water from the Condensate Extraction Pump discharge
into the space after the final row of LP Turbine blades.
An Open/Close solenoid operated valve opens to allow spray-
water flow if the exhaust temperature increases to 90 Deg C.
An inching type regulating valve may also be used to
progressively increase the spraywater flow in response to an
increasing temperature.
A Manual Bypass is provided around the solenoid operated
valve.
Should the temperature continue to increase the turbine will
normally be tripped when the LP Turbine Exhaust Steam
Temperature reaches 110 Deg C.
13.10 STEAM TURBINE SPEED CONTROL
13.10.1 The Principles of Governing

During operation of a Turbine-Generator Unit the Load carried
by the Generator may vary over time. In order to respond to
changing System Load demands the amount of steam directed to
the Turbine must be varied in proportion to each demand. The
function of a governor is to provide rapid automatic response to
load variations.
13.10.2 The Speeder Gear of a Turbine Governor

In order to raise the speed of the turbine to synchronous speed,
synchronise the generator, maintain the system frequency
constant and at the same time allow load variation to occur, it is
necessary to be able to compensate for the loss of speed
experienced with increasing load and the speed increase which
accompanies load rejection. To achieve this, a device is fitted in
conjunction with the governor which effectively changes the
speed-load characteristic of the turbine in such a way that speed
effectively becomes independent of load. The device is known as
the speeder gear.
13.10.3 Over-speed Control of a Turbine
For typical turbine generators up to approximately 50 to

60 MW capacity, adequate speed control is obtained by
exercising control over the admission of the high
pressure steam to the turbine from the boiler.
Supplementary control is provided by conventional flap
or piston type non-return valves in the bled steam lines
to prevent a back feed of bled steam into the turbine from
the heaters after the HP inlet steam is shut off.
The main speed control system (excluding emergency

tripping functions) operates as a proportional controller
and is sensitive to turbine speed only. Such a system is
capable of handling all normal load variations imposed
on the unit including severe transient conditions such as
full load rejection without an excessive rise in Speed.
With larger capacity units coupled with advanced steam

conditions, however, and particularly when a reheat
turbine cycle is employed, a more sophisticated control
system with supplementary control functions is required
to control the speed adequately under transient loading
conditions.
This situation is brought about by the increased
quantity of steam contained at any instant in the
turbine, reheater and connecting pipework, which is
beyond the immediate control of the HP inlet steam
valves. As a consequence sufficient energy is available
as the trapped steam continues to expand through the
turbine after the HP inlet steam has been shut off to
cause an excessive speed rise of the unit.
This potential over-speed may be counteracted by

incorporating into the following into the system:
 A fast response governor system, which may include an
acceleration sensitive control function (i.e. a derivative
control action), to increase the rate of closure of the HP
steam valves.
 Interceptor valves to control the admission of steam to the

turbine IP cylinder.
 An anticipatory control action in the form of a Secondary
Governor, which is sensitive to loss of load and is able to
initiate action before an actual speed rise occurs.
 Forced Closed Non Return Valves in the bled steam supply
to the feedwater heaters. Forced closure ensures the valves
can be closed more rapidly than if they relied on the
reversal of steam flow for their operation (as with
conventional non-return valves).
13.10.4 Summary of Speed Control Systems
For convenience the speed control systems installed on turbine

generators may be grouped according to unit capacity and
whether a "straight through" or reheat turbine cycle is employed.
For turbine generators up to 50 to 60 MW a non-reheat cycle may

be assumed and a typical speed control system will comprise:
 A main speed governor
 Governor control valves
 An over-speed or emergency governor
 Emergency (or runaway) stop valves
 Non-return valves in the bled steam lines.
13.10.5 Governor Control Valves
The governor control valves may be arranged to regulate the

admission of steam to the turbine by either throttle control or
nozzle control.
13.10.5.1 Throttle Control

With throttle control the steam is admitted around the full
periphery of the steam inlet belt of the HP cylinder. Usually two or
four throttle control valves are employed which operate in parallel.
13.10.5.2 Nozzle Control

Nozzle control employs a number of nozzle control valves each of
which controls the admission of steam to separate groups of
nozzles that are located in segments around the HP steam inlet
belt. The nozzle control valves are opened and closed in sequence
by a series of cams and levers. The camshaft is rotated by a servo-
motor under the influence of the speed governor.
Practically all modern turbines of large capacity employ throttle

control. The throttle control valves and the emergency stop valve
are located in a steam chest interconnected by a short pipe to the
turbine inlet belt. Usually two steam chests are installed, one on
either side of the turbine.
On some turbines a by-pass system is used whereby one throttle

valve takes the turbine up to an economic load (say 80% MCR)
whilst the second valve opens to pass steam into a later stage in
the HP cylinder and take the turbine up to full load. It is more
usual now to make full load the economic load and to dispense
with any by-pass system.
13.10.6 HP Emergency Stop Valves
The emergency stop valves are designed primarily to be either fully

open or shut. They are held open by oil pressure against the force
of a strong spring. In an emergency the oil pressure can be
released and the valve closes instantly thus shutting off all HP
steam to the turbine.
Emergency stop valves are opened manually and may be closed

manually at any desired rate provided the governor oil pressure is
established. Controlling the steam flow to the turbine during
running up may be performed by slowly opening the emergency
stop valve or an integral or separate by-pass valve, which is
sometimes provided.
On large units it is usual to provide an automatic recovery system

which is arranged to automatically reset the emergency stop
valves following an over-speed trip provided no fault condition
exists within the unit. By this means the unit is prepared to
accept further load more rapidly than is possible when the
emergency stop valves have to be reset manually.
13.10.7 Load Pay Off or Unloading Gear
The unloading gear is provided to reduce the load progressively

under conditions of high condenser back pressure or low steam
pressure. Devices sensitive to these conditions act automatically
on the speed governor in a similar manner to the speeder gear.
13.10.8 Summary of Functions Performed by a Speed Control System
The speed control system has the following functions to perform:

 To hold the unit at the desired speed prior to the generator
being synchronised to the high voltage distribution system.
 To provide a means whereby the speed of the unit can be
varied to permit the generator to be synchronised to the
distribution system.
 To synchronise the generator the speed of the unit must be
adjusted until the frequency of the generator voltage is
equal (or very nearly equal) to the frequency of the system,
this being one of the conditions which must be satisfied
before the generator circuit breaker can be closed safely
 To enable the generator load to be varied in the desired
manner from zero to maximum load after the unit is
synchronised.
 When synchronised the speed of the unit is proportional to
system frequency, which normally remains practically
constant. Hence the control system must be capable of
varying the load without a significant corresponding change
in speed.
 To assist in maintaining automatically a practically
constant system frequency when variations occur in the
electrical load-imposed on the distribution system
frequency to normal.
 To limit the speed rise of the unit to an acceptable value if
the generator should suddenly lose its electrical load.
 To shut off immediately the energy input to the turbine if,
for any reason, the speed should rise to 10% above normal
synchronous speed.
 To reduce the unit load progressively and automatically to
alleviate the effects of certain abnormal operating
conditions.
 Such conditions include the condenser back-pressure rising
above and the steam pressure falling below pre-determined
values.
To shut off immediately the energy input to the turbine at any time
should an emergency arise. This action may be initiated manually
by operating an emergency trip switch, or it may be initiated
automatically under the following conditions:
 High condenser back pressure
 Low bearing oil pressure
 Low bearing oil tank level

 Wear or failure of turbine thrust bearing
 Electrical fault in generator, generator transformer, or
elsewhere requiring the immediate shut down of the unit
 High boiler water level.
Turbine Protection
Soft Trip Protection
HP Exhaust Pressure High
IIP Inlet Pressure High
High Rate of Fall of HP Steam Temperature
Lubricating Oil Tank Level Low
HP Exhaust Steam Temperature High
HP Steam Pressure Low
Normal Shutdown
Setting Fault
Tightness Test Fault
HP Stop Valves Closed (MSV Min System)
IP Stop Valves Closed (RSV Min System)
Generator Liquid Leakage High
Generator Seal Oil / Gas Diff Low
*
Trip Only if GSE Reg Soft Trip
*Trip Only if
Soft Trip GSE Reg
HP Cylinder Watchdog Watchdog HP Cylinder
OK 1* 1 2 OK 2*
Not in Service Not in Service
Overspeed Overspeed
Speed Signal 1 Detection Detection Speed Signal 2
Channel 1 Channel 2
Lub Oil Press Lo Lub Oil Press Lo
Axial Displacement Hi Axial Displacement Hi
Condenser Pressure Hi Condenser Pressure Hi
External Trip (GPA MFT) Hardwired Protection Hardwired Protection External Trip (GPA MFT)
Governor Fault Channel 1 Channel 2 Governor Fault
Emergeny Stop Emergeny Stop
Push Buttons Push Buttons
No Trip = 1
(24V DC)
Channel 1 GSE PSL104 GSE PSL105 Channel 2

Emergency Trip Safety Fluid Safety Fluid Emergency Trip
Solenoid Valve Pressure CH1 Pressure CH2 Solenoid Valve
GSE PSL 101

Safety Fluid
System Pressure Orifice
Orifice
NRV NRV
Solenoid Valve for Solenoid Valve for
Channel 1 Channel 2
Protection Test Protection Test
Safety Fluid Supply to High Pressure

Turbine Stop and Hydraulic Fluid Supply
Governor Valves Pressure from GFR System
Regulating Drain
Valve (10 Bar) To GFR Tank
Figure 133: Sample Turbine Protection
14. Basic Steam Cycle

To gain an understanding of how a turbine functions we must
first understand where a turbine fits into the basic steam cycle.
Lets us first start with the simplified diagram of a basic steam
cycle shown in Figure 134.
We will start our journey at the bottom of the condenser which is
known as the condenser hotwell. At this point the water is in
liquid form and is termed condensate. The condensate is drawn
from the condenser hotwell by the condensate extraction pump. It
is then pumped through the non-contact low pressure (LP)
heater/s. Travelling through the low pressure heater/s the
condensate is heated. It then passes to the deaerator (DA) for
further heating and oxygen removal.
The deaerator is a multi function device in that it acts as a
contact type low pressure heater, oxygen remover and a storage
vessel allowing for system fluctuations.
Once the condensate exits the DA it enters the feedwater pump.
The feedwater pump boosts the pressure to that greater than
boiler pressure and therefore forces what is now known as
feedwater through the high pressure (HP) heater/s and into the
boiler. The feedwater gains further heating in the HP heater/s
but is still in a liquid form when it enters the boiler.
As the feedwater travels through the boiler it becomes high
pressure, high temperature steam known as superheated steam.
The superheated steam is now in a gaseous state.
Superheated steam exiting the boiler is piped to the control
valve/s (or throttle valve/s). The control valves regulate
admission of steam to the turbine depending upon load. Once
the superheated steam enters the turbine it expands and gives
up heat causing the turbine rotor to rotate.
Once the superheated steam has exhausted its energy it exits
the turbine and enters the condenser. The condenser has
circulating water passing through tubes installed in the
condenser. As the exhaust steam comes in contact with these
circulating water tubes it is cooled and changes from a gaseous
state back to a liquid. It then gravitating to the bottom of the
condenser and collects in the condenser hotwell ready for
pumping once again around the water/steam cycle.
For efficiency reasons bled steam (or extraction steam) is drawn

off from the turbine at various stages. This bled steam
containing heat is piped to the various low and high pressure
heaters and is used to preheat the condensate/feedwater. Upon
entering the LP or HP heaters the bled steam releases its heat
energy preheating the condensate/feedwater. In giving up this

heat it changes from gaseous to liquid form. This liquid form is
known as drainate and passes to the condenser for reuniting
with the condensate.
Figure 134: Basic steam cycle
15. Turbine Gland Sealing System
15.1 Function of the Gland Seal System
The Function of the Gland Seal System is to maintain a constant

steam pressure at the Steam Turbine Shaft Glands to prevent
steam egress from, or air ingress into, the turbine.
15.2 Components of the Gland Seal System
The basic components of the Gland Seal System are:

 Steam Turbine Shaft Glands
 Gland Steam Header
 Gland Steam Supply Pressure Control Valve
 Gland Steam Exhaust Pressure Control Valve
 Gland Supply Steam De-superheating and Temperature
Control Stations
 Gland Steam Condenser
 Gland Steam Condenser Vapour Exhauster
15.3 Operation of the Gland Seal System
The Gland Seal Steam may be supplied from a range of sources,

typically, from an auxiliary steam range, the Cold Reheat line
after the NRV or the IP Steam Main after the IP Superheater. As
load and steam flow through the Turbine increase the gland seal
steam is drawn from stop and control valve spindle leakage and
the glands themselves and the system first becomes self
sustaining and then, finally, the excess steam being provided
has to be drawn off to the condenser.
The Gland Steam Header Pressure is normally maintained by a
Supply Pressure Control Valve and an Exhaust Pressure Control
Valve.
As a greater amount of leakage steam is progressively supplied
to the packing line from the HP Glands the Gland Steam Supply
Pressure Control Valve is ramped closed. A period of overlap
occurs during which the Gland Steam Exhaust Pressure Control
Valve begins to open but the Gland Steam Supply Pressure
Control Valve has not yet fully closed. As the Gland Steam
Supply Pressure Control Valve closes fully the Gland Steam

Exhaust Pressure Control Valve is further ramped open as
required to maintain the Gland Steam Header Pressure at set
point (typically around 1.08 barg).
To prevent thermal stress at the turbine glands the temperature
of the gland sealing steam is maintained above set-point by:
 the operation of a steam line drain as temperature falls
and
 the use of de-superheating spraywater as temperature
increases.
De-superheating is normally controlled by a Temperature

Control Valve that open progressively to admit de-superheating
spraywater with increasing temperature. Gland Steam Supply
temperature is typically in the range 300-320 Deg C.
The Gland Seal Supply Steam is often prevented from passing to

the Gland Steam Header if the temperature is below 270 Deg C
by the automatic closure of the Supply Isolating Valve (also < 10
Deg Superheat) and the opening of the Drain Trap Bypass Valve
(< 30 deg Superheat).
The Outer pockets of the Turbine Glands are placed under a

negative pressure by the Gland Steam Vapour Exhauster, which
draws air and any steam migrating to the outer pocket into a
Gland Steam Condenser.
The Gland Steam Condenser is normally the first Regenerative

Heat Exchanger in the Steam/Water Cycle.
Condensate flows through the Gland Steam Condenser Tubes,
Gland Steam is condensed in the shell and the drainate is
passed back to the condenser through a steam trap
arrangement.
Failure or isolation of the gland steam drainate to condenser
drain line will result in an increase in water level within the
drain line. A high drainate level will be relieved to waste through
a barometric leg, which incorporates a non-return valve to
prevent air flow back into the system.
Any condensate forming in the Gland Steam Exhaust to the
Gland Steam Condenser line is drained to waste through a loop
seal (or water filled barometric leg). The water filled loop seal is
provided from the Condensate Extraction Pump Discharge line.
The Gland Steam Vapour Exhauster discharges to atmosphere.

Provision is made to isolate and bypass the Gland Steam
Condenser and Vapour Exhauster and to exhaust the outer
gland pockets directly to atmosphere if required.
15.3.1 Typical Gland Steam System Alarms.
The following are typical gland steam alarms:
 Gland Steam Condenser Level Low

 Gland Steam Condenser Level High
 Gland Steam Header Pressure Low
 Gland Steam Supply Temperature High
 Gland Steam Header Temperature Low
Note: The loss of gland sealing steam while the condenser is still
under a vacuum condition could result in cold air ingress into
the turbine cylinders, which may in turn affect the turbine
differential expansion.
15.4 Turbine Bearings and Lubricating Oil System

Throughout the power industry, extensive use is made of
rotating machinery such as electric motors, pumps, fans, mills,
turbines and generators. In each of these machines the rotating
shaft is carried on a replaceable bearing surface. The replaceable
bearing surface (or bearing) is subject to wear and may be
removed and replaced after a finite period without sacrificing the
shaft itself or the bearing housing.
The forces exerted on a shaft are dependent on the function and
design of the machine and may be directed in either a radial or
axial plane relative to the shaft.
In order to prevent excessive shaft movement, which could allow
rotor components such as pump and fan impellers, motor and
generator windings and turbine blades to come in contact with
the stator or casing, bearings must be designed to transfer pure
radial loads, pure axial (or thrust) loads, or a combination of the
two, between the shaft and the bearing housing and, if
necessary, allow for shaft movement due to expansion and
contraction and shock loading.
A wide range of bearings is available for use within the industry.
15.4.1 Journal Bearings

The journal bearing is one of the most simple bearing forms.
A journal is that part of a shaft (or axle) carried by a bearing and
a journal bearing simply consists of a machined section of shaft,
(the journal) rotating inside a cylindrical bearing bush. The
space between the two is partially filled by a lubricating fluid.
At rest the journal rests on the bearing face, however, when the
shaft begins to rotate, lubricant must be supplied to the journal
to preventing direct contact between it and the bearing surface.
Journal bearings are sometimes called sleeve, Babbitt, or poured
bearings and may have bearing surfaces manufactured from a
number of different materials including Babbitt metal, carbon,
Teflon, brass or sintered brass alloys. Babbitt metal is most
commonly used for steam turbine and large pump and fan shaft
bearings.
Babbitt metal is an anti-friction metal first produced by Isaac
Babbitt in 1839, however, the term has come to apply to a whole
class of silver-white bearing metals, or "white metals” which
consist of relatively hard crystals embedded in a softer matrix, a
structure important for machine bearings. “White metals” are
composed primarily of tin, copper, and antimony, with traces of
other metals added in some cases and lead substituted for tin in
others.
Journal bearings can only support a radial load and are most
commonly used in applications that require, or allow, a degree of
axial movement or expansion, such as experienced in steam
turbines.
Babbitted journal bearings come in two basic designs: plain
sleeve and tilting pad.
Plain journal bearings have a fixed geometry (no moving parts)
and consist of a horizontally split shell into which the bearing
metal is cast before being machined to conform to the shaft
contour.
Tilting pad bearings have Babbitted pads (or shoes) which fit into
the bearing shell and can tilt to accommodate the oil film
generated during rotation.
Plain Journal Bearing Tilting Pad Journal Bearing
Figure 135: Simplified diagram of Plain and Tilting Pad Journal Bearings
There are two major subcategories of tilt pad bearings: rocker

back and spherically seated (ball & socket).
Rocker back bearings have a pivot (a radius, rib, hardened
button, or some other pivoting mechanism) on the back of the
bearing pad. The pads are located in a precision-toleranced
outer shell.
Figure 136: Tilting Pad Journal Bearing showing bearing shell, hardened
spherical button, front and rear of bearing pad and method of mounting pads.
15.4.2 Journal Bearing Vibration Monitoring

A shaft supported by journal bearings will move relative to the
bearing housing as various forces are imposed onto the shaft,
however, the oil film tends to damp out, or attenuate, high
frequency vibration (such as may be experienced during
cavitation) making bearing case- mounted sensors ineffective in
identifying vibration.
Journal bearings can also have a significant effect on the
machine’s dynamic characteristics as the oil film acts as a
complicated set of springs and dampers and may be a major
factor in the vibration of turbo-machinery.
Instability caused by the oil film in journal bearings is called
non-synchronous whirl or oil whip.
In order to provide effective vibration monitoring of a journal
bearing, a non-contacting type vibration transducer, (also called
a displacement, eddy current, or proximity sensor) is required.
This type of sensor measures the relative vibration of the shaft
as well as the relative position of the shaft with respect to the
bearing clearances.
15.4.3 Thrust Bearings

The function of a thrust bearing is to carry the axial thrust
imposed on a rotating (or stationary) shaft by such mechanisms
as:
 The mass of the rotating parts of a vertically mounted
machine (bowl type coal pulverising mills, pumps etc)
 The reaction forces associated with axial flow fan impellers
and turbine blading
Many types of rolling element bearings can be used to
accommodate pure axial thrust and a combination of axial and
radial forces, however, the most common thrust bearing used to
carry thrust loads in steam turbines is very similar to the tilting
pad journal bearing.
Two types of thrust bearing have received universal acceptance
in the power industry:
 the Michell type bearing (an Australian design) and
 the Kingsbury type bearing (an American design)
Kingsbury developed the principle and was granted a patent in

1910. A. G. M. Michell (an Australian) simultaneously and
independently invented a bearing on the same principle.
Both are similar in design, the load in both cases being carried
by a wedge-shaped oil film formed between a shaft thrust-collar
machined or fixed to the main shaft and a series of stationary
pivoted pads, or segments, located in a support ring (see Figure
137).
The bearing pads accept the axial thrust imposed on the shaft
through a thrust collar machined or fixed to the main shaft and
transmit it to the bearing pedestal.
As the tilting pads are capable of accepting thrust in one
direction only the thrust bearing is normally provided with a set
of tilting pads on both sides of the collar.
The thrust bearing pedestal becomes the fixed point on a multi-
cylinder turbine shaft and shaft expansion and contraction takes
place around this point.
Given that turbine shaft seals, fixed and rotating blading and
inter-stage seals have relatively fine clearances only a limited
amount of axial movement of the shaft can be tolerated.
The thrust bearing is therefore monitored for wear and excessive
movement is alarmed and initiates a turbine trip.
Shaft Thrust Collar
Fixed Base Ring
Shaft
Levelling Plates
Pivot
Tilting Metal
Thrust Pad with
Oil Wedge Babbit Facing
Figure 137: Simplified Diagram Showing Components of Tilting Pad Thrust

Bearing
Figure 138: Kingsbury Thrust Bearing showing tilting pads
15.5 Turbine Lubrication

15.6 Function of a Lubricant
The primary function of a lubricant is to interpose a film on the
two surfaces moving in contact with each in order to reduce the
coefficient of friction between the surfaces and minimise wear.
Friction is independent of surface area but varies in direct
proportion to applied load and is dependent on the texture of the
two surfaces in contact.
When viewed through a microscope the surfaces of mating
bearing and shaft materials, considered to be very smooth, are
shown to have rough, uneven surfaces. The hills and hollows
that make up this roughness of surface are known as asperities.
Without some form of lubrication, the two contact surfaces will
tend to bind or seize to some degree when sliding or rolling
contact is made between them. For a shaft bearing the
coefficient of friction between the two surfaces will be at its
greatest during start up, low speed periods or high load
conditions when lubrication of the two surfaces is minimal and
the asperities are most likely to come into direct contact with
each other resulting in material displacement and adhesion.
Shaft Surface
Bearing Surface
Figure 139: Simplified Diagram of Material Surfaces Showing Asperities
Lubrication reduces friction, minimises wear, provides cooling

and excludes water and contaminants from bearing components.
The protection of rotating heavy machinery depends greatly on
the effective operation and supervision of lubricating oil systems
and bearings.
15.7 Establishment of Oil Film
The thickness of a lubricating oil film is generally a function of:
 viscosity,
 temperature and
 load.
Viscosity is the measure of an oil's resistance to flow.
The higher the oil’s viscosity the higher is the oil’s resistance to
flow.
A higher viscosity oil will normally result in greater film

thickness, however, too high a viscosity will increase frictional
load and energy consumption.
Using oil with too low a viscosity will result in a reduced film
thickness and an increase in machinery wear.
The degree to which an oil film is established between the shaft
and bearing surfaces is also dependent upon the mechanism by
which the film is being established.
Lubrication may be provided by:
 Boundary lubrication
 Hydrostatic lubrication
 Hydrodynamic lubrication
15.7.1 Boundary Lubrication

Boundary lubrication occurs when the lubricant film is only
sufficiently thick to fill the asperity cavities and become
adsorbed as a film on the moving surfaces, thereby preventing
surface contact.
During instances of boundary lubrication, the degree of friction
and wear between two bodies in relative motion is determined by
the properties of the bearing and shaft surfaces and the
lubricant.
There may be cases during the boundary lubrication process in
which the lubricant film becomes so thin that it is not possible
to completely maintain a fluid film between the surfaces and so
solid friction between the contact surfaces occurs.
This situation may be caused by:
 excessive loads, such as can be expected to occur during
start-up,
 low speeds, which are too slow to allow the formation of a
hydrodynamic oil wedge which would tend to separate the
surfaces, again, during start-up
 thin, or low viscosity, oil. (Note that a lowered viscosity can
be caused by the overheating of an oil)
Anti-wear and extreme pressure additives may be used to
enhance boundary lubrication.
15.7.2 Hydrostatic Lubrication

Hydrostatic lubrication requires the lubricant to be supplied at
pressure from an external source.
The lubricant is supplied (under pressure) to the bearing
surfaces through recesses located in the bearing bush. The
lubricant flows out of the recesses over the bearing faces and
back to a drain within the bearing pedestal.
Hydrostatic lubrication can support very large loads even at zero
rotational speed, as there is always full film lubrication. The
frictional losses of a hydrostatically lubricated journal bearing
are proportional to rotating speed and are, therefore, quite low at
start-up.
15.7.3 Hydrodynamic Lubrication

Hydrodynamic lubrication refers to the process within which the
viscous nature of the oil and the relative motion between the
shaft and the bearing surface cause the formation of a fluid film
(an oil wedge) that has sufficient pressure to lift the shaft and
separate the two surfaces.
Hydrodynamic lubrication is a function of shaft speed and oil
viscosity, and, as the shaft starts from rest, boundary
lubrication will be the only mechanism providing a lubricant film
until sufficient speed of rotation is reached to generate the
hydrodynamic process.
In order to establish and maintain hydrodynamic lubrication:
 There must be sufficient relative motion between the shaft
and the bearing surface
 There must be an uninterrupted supply of oil available to
the bearing.
15.8 Components of a Turbine Lubricating Oil System

The Turbine Lubricating Oil System is the most complex
lubricating oil system within the power station, the majority of
lubricating oil systems associated with power station auxiliaries
(such as feed pumps and large fans) would include similar
components.
Typical components of a lubricating oil system include:
 Main Lubricating Oil Tank

 Vapour Extraction Fans
 Main, Auxiliary and Emergency Oil Pumps
 Oil Pressure Accumulators
 Jacking Oil Pump
 Lubricating Oil Coolers
 Lubricating Oil Filters and Strainers
 A Side-stream Oil Purification System

 Supply and return valving, fittings and pipework
 Monitoring and Protection Instrumentation
Figure 140 shows a typical arrangement of the components of a

turbine lubricating oil system.
15.9 Main Oil Tank

The main oil tank must have sufficient capacity to house the full
oil capacity of the system when the system is shutdown and
drained back to the tank. During normal operation however the
tank will be in the order of 65% full, the remainder of the oil
being in circulation within the system.
The Lubricating Oil Tank is normally provided with local and
remote level indication and low/high level alarms. A heating
element may be provided in some cases.
Oil from the turbine bearings (and other sources) is returned to
the tank through a settling chamber formed by a weir. The
return oil overflows the weir to return to the main body of the oil
tank. The side-stream purification system takes its suction from
the bottom of the settling chamber.
15.10 Vapour Extraction Fans

A vapour extraction fan is installed on the Main Oil Tank to
remove oil vapour from within the tank and to provide a negative
pressure at the bearing pedestals. Maintaining the bearing
pedestals under a negative pressure prevents oil from leaking
from the pedestals and migrating along the shaft to hot turbine
components and turbine lagging. Several instances of oil fires
have been attributed to loss of a vapour extraction fan
immediately following a turbine trip and the subsequent
migration of oil along the shaft during turbine rundown.
To allow for loss of ac supply a standby dc extraction fan may be
provided or a valved bypass valve may allow the natural chimney
effect of the discharge pipework to maintain minimal suction
until supply is restored. The vapour extraction fans should be in
service while ever the lubricating oil system is in service.
The discharge of the vapour exhaust fan is often passed through
an oil demister to condense the oil vapour and return it to the
main oil tank.
To Seal Oil System Oil Pressure Switches

Oil Temperature
Lubricating Oil Header Transmitters
Shaft Bearings
Lubricating
Cooling Water
Oil Coolers with
In/Out
Bypass
Return Oil Sight Glasses

and Bearing Oil
Temperature Transmitters PCV
Accumulator
Oil Filters
Vapour Extraction with
Fans DP Alarm
Jacking DC Emergency AC Main Shaft Driven Main

Side-stream Oil Pump Oil Pump Oil Pump Oil Pump
purification System
Level
Weir Oil Heating Element Switch
Figure 140: Typical Arrangement of Turbine Lubricating Oil System
TechComm Simulation
15.11 Oil Pumps

There are many possible configurations of lubricating oil pumps
for turbines each being dependent on the degree of redundancy
demanded and economies of design. Typically a turbine will have
its oil supply met by a shaft driven oil pump, one or possibly two
AC Auxiliary oil pumps and a DC Emergency Oil pump.
Lubricating Oil Pumps are normally high volume low head
centrifugal pumps.
In addition to supplying normal lubrication needs for start-up,
running and shut-down of the turbine the lubricating oil system
may also supply the oil requirements for the Power and Governor
oil systems (stop and throttle valves), Seal oil system (hydrogen
sealing system) and Jacking Oil System (for lifting / floating the
turbine shaft prior to the turning gear being placed in-service).
Shaft driven oil pumps do not start delivering sufficient oil until
the turbine speed is above 2200 – 2500 rpm, therefore, AC
bearing oil pumps are required to supply turbine lubricating oil
during start-up until the turbine is close to rated speed and
during turbine shut-down (provided AC supply is available).
The Emergency DC Oil Pump is normally fed, through a non-
return valve, directly into the bearing oil system after the Main
Oil Filters and Coolers. This ensures that the discharge line of
the emergency supply is free of valves, which could be
inadvertently closed. The DC Motor is normally not protected
from thermal overload.
Should the shaft driven oil pump fail (low pressure) the duty AC
bearing oil pump will automatically start. Should the AC bearing
oil pump fail or should the pressure continue falling the DC
Emergency oil pump will automatically start. The DC Pump
must be manually taken out of service once normal oil supply is
restored.
15.11.1 Typical Oil Pressure Settings

Typical Oil pressure settings are:
 Normal Lube Oil Pressure 2.5 – 3.0 Bar
 AC Bearing Oil Pump (auto start pressure) 2.3 – 2.5 Bar
 DC Bearing Oil Pump (auto start pressure) 2.0 – 2.2 Bar
 Jacking Oil 150 – 170 Bar
 Power Oil 10 – 12 Bar
 Low Lube Oil Pressure Alarm 2.0 Bar
 Low Lube Oil Pressure Trip 1.5 Bar
15.12 Oil Pressure Accumulators

Accumulators may be fitted to the Main Oil Pump discharge
manifold in systems, which have duty and standby electric main
oil pumps. The main function of the accumulators in this case is
to maintain the lubricating oil pressure in the main oil pump
discharge line above the trip set point for sufficient time to allow
the Standby Oil Pump to start, run up to speed and reach a
point at which its discharge pressure is above the trip setting.
Figure 141 shows the manner in which the pressure in the
pump discharge line is maintained by the accumulators until
such time as the standby main oil pump is performing
satisfactorily. It can be seen that, without the accumulator to
maintain the line pressure the trip setting would be reached
before the standby pump discharge pressure had time to rise to
and exceed the trip point.
15.13 Jacking Oil Pump

The function of a jacking oil pump is to provide initial
hydrostatic lubrication which lifts the turbine shaft clear of the
bearing surface and provides a lubricant interface during low
speed barring gear operation and until the shaft speed is
sufficient to establish hydrodynamic lubrication (an oil wedge).
Jacking oil is supplied to each shaft bearing through a dedicated
path through the bottom bearing pad.
Due to the high pressure required to lift, and sustain hydrostatic
lubrication to, the turbine shaft, Jacking Oil Pumps are normally
positive displacement type pumps. Typical pump discharge
pressures are in the range of 150 – 170 Bar.
6.5
6.0 In Service Main Oil Pump

Trips
5.5
5.0
4.5 Pressure Switch for Standby Pump
Start Working Pressure Range of
4.0 Set at 4.2 Bar A Accumulator
3.5 Accumulator Discharge Pressure

3.0
Pressure in Bar A
Emergency Trip Device Set at 2.4 Bar A

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Standby Main Oil Pump Static Head in Main Oil Tank
-0.5 Starts
-1.0
-0.2 0 0.2 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Time in Seconds
Figure 141: Main Oil Pump and Accumulator Discharge Pressures following MOP Trip
TSQS/COUR/091 © TechComm Simulation, a Division fo Yokogawa Aust P/L
15.14 Lubricating Oil Coolers

Friction is the primary cause of heat being generated in a
bearing. Dependent on the method of lubrication, heat is not
necessarily generated by friction between the bearing and shaft
surfaces but by a continuous shearing action between the
rotating layers of oil. In addition to friction, heat may also be
conducted along the shaft on machines such as steam turbines,
ID Fans, coal pulverisers and other auxiliary machinery
operating at elevated temperatures.
Oil flows must be designed to ensure that sufficient lubricant
passes through the bearing pedestal to remove the heat
generated at the bearing and to maintain both the bearing and
bearing oil outlet temperatures below the level at which damage
may occur or deterioration of the oil begins. Steam turbine
bearing oil flows, for example, may be ten times greater than
that necessary to maintain normal hydrostatic/hydrodynamic
lubrication.
The heat absorbed by the oil is normally dissipated to
atmosphere through oil coolers designed to maintain an oil
temperature of approximately 40°C.
The heat exchangers may be water or air cooled with either two
100 % duty coolers or three 50 % coolers being provided for
redundancy. (For further information on Heat exchanger see
manual “Heat Exchangers - BOPMS/HE01”)
The temperature of the oil exiting the bearings is usually in the
range of 60 – 70°C and that of the oil exiting the coolers in the
range of 38 – 45°C.
The temperature of the oil leaving the cooler can be controlled by
either automatically regulating the flow of Cooling Water
supplied to the in service coolers or by maintaining a constant
coolant flow but by-passing a portion of the hot oil around the
coolers through a thermostatically controlled three-way
regulating valve.
15.14.1 Preparation of Oil Coolers for Service

Whenever the turbine is in service or rotating on turning gear,
extreme care must be taken when placing coolers in-service to
ensure the supply of lubricating oil to the bearings (and seals) is
not interrupted.
Out of service coolers must be fully primed and vented on the oil
side to remove any entrapped air in the cooler (particularly after
maintenance) and be pressurised to full working pressure before
the cooler outlet valve is opened.
© TechComm a Division of Yokogawa Aust P/L
This not only prevents any interruption to oil flow but also
avoids any sudden reduction in operating pressure, which can
cause a turbine trip or bearing damage.
The Cooling Water side of the heat exchanger must also be
primed to prevent air locking when placing in-service.
Out of service oil coolers, when not isolated for maintenance, are
kept in stand-by mode in preparation for a quick return to
service if needed. In this mode both Oil and CW inlet valves
remain open with outlet valves closed. The coolers are fully
primed and at working pressure. It is common to maintain a
small bleed flow through the out of service oil cooler to ensure
that the oil is close to normal operating temperature and
viscosity and available for immediate use if required.
15.15 Lubricating Oil Filters and Strainers

Filters and strainers are installed in main turbine lubricating oil
system and other large auxiliary drive lubricating oil systems to
remove solid contaminants and impurities.
The filters or strainers are normally duplicated to allow on line
change-over of the in-service strainer for cleaning or
maintenance, thus preventing down time.
The filter material is usually a fine wire mesh or for smaller
systems, adsorbent filter cartridges.
Differential pressure gauges and pressure switches provide local
indication of the filters cleanliness and remote alarming on high
DP.
Spring–loaded by-pass relief valves or commonly provided to
allow oil to bypass around blocked filters and so prevent an
interruption to the flow of oil.
15.15.1 Duplex Filters

Duplex filters consist of two independent filter cartridge
housings which allow parallel paths for the oil flow through a
ganged transfer valve.
This transfer valve allows each filter to be selected individually
and also, in the mid position, normally allows oil to flow to both
filters simultaneously.
A cross over and fill line is provided between the two filters. This
line should normally be open when the unit is in service and
both filters are available for service.
Power Plant Technology Module Version (5) March 2011 Page 253 of 436
A continuous air vent line is provided on each filter. These lines

are required also required to be open whenever the filters are
available for service. Figure 142 shows a simplified diagram of a
typical valving arrangement for a duplex filter.
Continuous Air Vent through Orifice

Plate to Main Oil Tank
Continuous Priming Line

with Orifice Plate
Filter Filter
Chamber Chamber
A B
Ganged Transfer Valve/s
Figure 142: Simplified Diagram of a Duplex Filter Valving Arrangement
By maintaining a flow of oil from the priming line through the

standby filter and exiting through the continuous air vent
(returning to the main oil tank) the standby filter remains full of
preheated oil at normal operating temperature and viscosity
15.15.2 Auto-Klean Strainers

A common, proprietary brand filter, the Auto-Klean strainer is
shown in Figure 143
An Auto-klean strainer consists of stack of metal discs or
strainer plates separated by thin star shaped spacers, which
provide a gap between adjacent discs.
As the oil passes between the discs, solid matter larger in size
than the space between the discs remains upon the periphery of
the disc stack.
The advantage of an Auto-klean strainer is that it can be cleaned
in-service by simply rotating an externally mounted handle
connected to the strainer plates and as the strainer plates are
rotated the accumulated solids are scraped off by stationary
scraper plates and collect in the bottom of the filter casing.
Periodically the sludge well is drained to a waste oil tank to clean

out accumulated sludge and contaminants and as part of
periodical maintenance the filter disc stack may be removed for
cleaning.
Auto-klean strainers can be supplied with modified disc stacks
capable of filtering out particles down to 25 microns in size.
Pressure gauges are fitted before and after the filter unit, to give
indication of the condition of the filter and alarm on a high DP.
Handwheel Rotates Disc Stack
against stationary cleaning blades
Sludge Well
Sludge Drain
Figure 143: Simplified Diagram of an Auto-Klean Strainer
15.15.3 Bearing In-line Strainers

In addition to the main oil filters each turbine bearing may be
provided with a strainer located within a retainer fitting. During
initial flushing of the lubricating oil system (during
commissioning or following a major outage) the strainers remain
in the retainers and are checked periodically to determine the
degree of contaminants being carried by the system. When it is
considered that the lubricating oil system is sufficiently clean,
the individual strainer may be removed and the rate of oil flow to
each bearing is adjusted to design setting.
15.16 Side-stream Oil Purification System

The oil passing through the lubricating oil system is likely to
encounter a range of contaminants, ranging from water and air-
borne dusts to metal chips and detritus from wearing surfaces.
Deterioration of the oil itself through over heating, oxidisation
and carbonising may also result in the formation of sludge.
If given sufficient residence time and low flow velocities within
the main oil tank, water and solid contaminants will eventually
settle out of the oil, forming a layer of sludge and water at the
bottom of the oil tank below the oil.
Bacteria may also be present which live at the interface between
the oil and water, feeding of the hydrocarbons and creating a
multi-cell culture that forms a large organic blanket (similar to
cabbage leaves or seaweed).
Oil Tanks are normally provided with sight glasses and manual
drain cocks or valves to allow the level of oil to be monitored and
any water at the bottom of the tank to be identified and drained
off.
A separate sludge compartment or settling section is sometimes
provided at the point of entry of the oil return line to separate
the contaminated oil from healthy working oil.
Gravity separation alone is not an effective means of oil
purification as it cannot remove all impurities and additional
side-stream oil purification systems are usually employed to
clean the main turbine lubricating oil on a continuous or
intermittent cycle.
Typically side stream purification is done by:
 An Oil/Water Perforated Disc Type Centrifuge
 A Turbine Oil Filter/Coalescer System
15.16.1 Oil Centrifuge

An oil centrifuge operates on the principle of centrifugal forces
acting on the different densities of oil and water/impurities. In
much the same way as impurities separate out naturally by the
force of gravity. A centrifuge imparts rotating centrifugal forces
to speed up the separation process. Water and impurities,
because of their higher densities compared to oil will separate or
be thrown out from the oil in the centrifuge.
Operation
Centrifuges may operate on a continuous “on-line” basis or
intermittently “as necessary”.
Centrifuges usually consist of a bowl which houses a stack of
perforated metal discs driven at high-speed by an electric motor
through a reduction gearbox, a heater to elevate oil
temperatures, and a small pump, which draws contaminated oil
from the bottom of the main oil tank. Contaminated oil is heated
and admitted to the centre of the rapidly rotating perforated
discs. Water particles, and the more dense impurities within the
oil, coalesce and are thrown out to the outside of the bowl.
The bowl is provided with two outlets, separated by a disc known
as a gravity or dam ring. One outlet discharges the water to a
small containment tank, which is level alarm protected to
monitor excessive waste or abnormal flows, the other directs the
main flow of clean oil back to the main oil tank.
When first starting the centrifuge it is necessary to prime the
bowl with water in order to establish a seal between the dam
ring and the oil. With the water seal established further water,
coalesced and thrown to the outer periphery adds to and exceeds
the seal water volume and is then discharged to waste.
Without the water seal, oil would fill the entire bowl including
the outer periphery and would be partly discharged through the
water discharge port to waste, until such time as a water seal
interface was re-established. It would be possible for the oil
centrifuge to attempt to pump out the entire main oil tank
through the waste water discharge.
The heavy impurities must be periodically removed and are
either flushed out automatically or the disc stack is
disassembled and cleaned manually through scheduled routine
maintenance (dependent on the make and model of centrifuge).
Additionally, centrifuges may need to be topped up with water
from time to time to make up for loss of water during operation.
Figure 144: Typical Lubricating Oil Centrifuge
15.16.2 Turbine Oil Filter/ Coalescing System

A Turbine Oil Filter/Coalescing System is used to remove water
and dirt from turbine lube oil by passing the oil through:
 A pre-filter
 A coalescing filter and separator screen
 A final polishing filter
Solid particulate contaminants are removed in the pre-filter
stage by high surface area pleated synthetic media cartridges
which tend to extend the life of the specialised filters
downstream.
Free and emulsified water is removed in the Coalescing Filter/
Separator stage in which the finely dispersed water passing
through the coalescer element coalesces and grows into larger
drops which fall from the filter surface and collect in the vessel
sump. The sump is fitted with a sight glass to indicate the water
level and the water is regularly drained from the vessel. A screen
separator prevents any small water drops from re-entering the
outflowing oil stream. Fine particulate solid contaminants are
also removed by the coalescer elements. The final Polishing
serves to remove any residual fine particles.
Figure 145: Package Turbine Oil Filter/Coalescer Unit
15.17 Supply and Return Pipework, Valving and Fittings

The Turbine Lubricating Oil Pumps discharge into a common
bearing supply header from which the individual supply to each
bearing is adjusted.
Oil from the individual bearings passes through a sight glass
before entering a common return header which gravity feeds
back to the main oil tank.
Jacking oil, supplied to the bearings returns through the same
sight glass and return line as the lubricating oil.
Local jacking oil pressure and lubricating oil return temperature
is provided at each bearing.
Figure 146 shows a typical jacking oil and lubricating oil service
to a turbine bearing. The lubricating oil supply regulating device
and the return oil sight glass can be seen along with the jacking
oil pressure and lubricating oil return temperature indication.
The whole oil reticulation system is carried on hangers and
mounts throughout its length.
Numerous flanges and fittings are provided.
General inspections should regularly be carried out to ensure

the continued integrity of the whole of the lubricating oil supply
and return pipework.
Figure 146: Typical Lubricating and Jacking Oil Service to a Turbine Bearing
15.18 Monitoring and Protection Instrumentation

Typical instrumentation used for monitoring and protection
within a steam turbine lubricating oil system includes the
following:
 Main Oil Tank level – normally alarmed on high or low level

 Main and Auxiliary Oil Pump Discharge pressure – low
pressure initiates and alarm and start-up of Standby Pump
or Emergency Oil Pump
 Bearing Oil Header pressure – initiates an alarm and
possible trip of Turbine on extreme low pressure
 Lubricating Oil Cooler Oil Exit Temperature – normally
alarmed on high or low value
 Individual Bearing Oil Exit Temperature – normally alarmed
on high value
 Individual Bearing Vibration – while vibration monitoring is
not strictly a part of the lubricating oil system
instrumentation, high bearing vibration may be due to
changes in the lubricating oil viscosity or loss of lubricant
flow and the oil system should be checked as part of a
response to a bearing high vibration alarm
Figure 147: Typical Array of Oil Pressure Switches and Pressure Gauges
15.18.1 Nominal Turbine Oil Operating Temperatures

Typical turbine oil operating temperatures are in the order of:
 Normal Operation 38 – 450Deg C

 Turning Gear Start Permissive >250Deg C
 High Limit 480Deg C
15.19 Removal of the Steam Turbine Lubricating Oil System from

Service
The Steam Turbine Lubricating Oil System should remain in
service while ever the turbine shaft is rotating.
During a unit shutdown the machine should normally remain on
barring until the HP turbine inlet 50% casing metal temperature
is less than 1500Deg C.
Once barring is discontinued lubricating oil system may be
taken out of service providing the Bearing Metal temperatures
continue to be monitored and the system is re-started if any
bearing metal temperature rises to 1000Deg C.
16. Condenser
16.1 Function of the Condenser
Modern Steam Driven Power Stations operate on the

Regenerative Rankine Cycle in which the working fluid (usually
high quality feedwater) is admitted as a liquid to the condenser
(for deaeration before it passes through the feedwater heaters
and economiser), changed into a superheated vapour (within the
boiler) and returned to a liquid within the condenser (after
converting a major portion of its heat to work in the turbine).
The working fluid is retained and re-used continuously.
The primary function of the Turbine Condenser is therefore to

retain and recycle high quality feedwater by condensing the
turbine exhaust steam and providing a storage area from which
the condensate can be drawn for re use in the boiler.
The design of a condenser should ensure that the total steam

flow through a turbine at maximum continuous rating can be
effectively condensed. The conditions under which the working
fluid is condensed, however, have a significant bearing on the
efficiency of the cycle.
During the condensation of the steam of steam within the

condenser, the following processes occur:
 The exhaust steam from the turbine is collected and contained
within an enclosed vessel (the condenser steam space)
 A cooling medium is introduced into the condenser (within the
tube nest).
 The transfer of heat from the steam to the cooling medium
results in the condensation of the steam.
 The mass flow, the inlet and outlet temperature of the cooling
medium and the temperature differential between the inlet
and outlet temperature of the cooling medium (i.e. the
amount of heat transferred to the cooling medium) determine
the saturation temperature of the steam.
 A reduced pressure is created within the condenser steam
space equal to the vapour pressures exerted by the contents
of the space.
 Provided there is no air or other non-condensable gases within

the steam space the resultant vapour pressure will be equal
to that of the steam alone. (Steam as a saturated vapour at
38 deg C has a vapour pressure of approximately 7 kPa
absolute)
In the process of condensing the steam it can be seen that the
condenser performs a second function: that of lowering the back
pressure within the condenser.
This decrease in backpressure has the following effects on the
Steam flow through the Turbine:
 increases the work available to the turbine
 increases the plant efficiency
 reduces the total steam flow required for a given plant output.
The lower the cooling water temperature, the lower the back
pressure, therefore it is important to maintain the cooling water
temperature at the lowest possible value within design limits.
16.2 The Condenser as a Deaerator

It is important to remove the non-condensable gases that would
other wise accumulate in the Steam/Feedwater/ Condensate
system.
The non-condensables are mostly air that leaks in from the
atmosphere through components of the cycle that operate below
atmospheric pressure, such as the condenser. Other non-
condensable gases can also be generated within the
Steam/Water cycle, these include:
 gases released by the decomposition of water into oxygen and
hydrogen by thermal action
 gases produced by chemical reaction between water and the
materials of construction.
 gases generated by the decomposition of chemicals used in
the feedwater treatment protocol, which are carried over with
the steam
The presence of non-condensable gases in large quantities has
the following effects on equipment operation:
 They raise the total pressure of the system because the total
pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of the
constituents. Thus in the condenser the pressure will be a
sum of the saturation pressure of steam, determined by its
temperature, and the partial pressure of the non-
condensables. (An increase in condenser pressure lowers
plant efficiency).
 They blanket the heat transfer surfaces of the condenser

tubes resulting in a decrease in heat-transfer coefficient and
further reduce condenser efficiency.
 The presence of some non-condensables results in various
chemical activities. Oxygen causes corrosion, most severely in
the steam generator (boiler). Hydrogen, which is capable of
diffusing through some solids, causes hydriding. Hydrogen,
methane and ammonia are also combustible.
The process of removing dissolved oxygen by reheating the
condensate or feedwater is called deaeration.
Most power stations include a regenerative deaerating feedwater
heater within the steam /feedwater cycle but whether or not a
plant has such a dedicated feedwater deaerator it is essential
that the condenser, as the primary point of feedwater makeup,
carries out initial deaeration.
In order to effectively deaerate the condensate within the
condenser three basic criteria must be met:
 Sufficient dwell time of the condensate within the condenser
must be available to allow the process to be carried out
effectively
 The distribution of the steam and falling condensate must
allow intimate mixing of the two separate phases. The cold
condensate falling from the lower condenser tubes must have
sufficient falling height to the hotwell to allow scrubbing
steam to reheat and deaerate the condensate.
 An effective means of removing the air and non-condensable
gases without compromising the condenser backpressure
must be provided
Figure 148 shows a typical path for the air and non-condensable
gases.
Steam enters the top of the condenser and begins to condense
liberating non-condensable gases. The air and gases continue to
flow toward the cold end of the condenser.
A portion of the steam entering the condenser is directed away
from the tube nest to the bottom of the condenser where it then
comes in contact with the falling condensate. The condensate is
reheated and releases further dissolved oxygen, which combines
with the air and gas passing through the air cooling section
before entering the vent duct leading to the air extraction
equipment. Between 6 and 8% of the tubes in the centre of the
tube nest form the air cooler section, which is partitioned from
the main steam flow.
Figure 148: Schematic Diagram of Condenser Showing Air and Non-

Condensable Gas Path
16.3 Condenser Air Extraction system

The functions of the Air Extraction System are to:
 extract air and non-condensable gases from the condenser
prior to admission of steam to the turbine
 continuously remove air and non-condensable gases from the
condenser during operation of the turbine.
Steam is not admitted to the Turbine until after the Turbine
glands have been sealed and condenser vacuum has been
established. To establish condenser vacuum, the air present in
the condenser is normally evacuated in two stages. Initially, the
Hogging or Quick Start ejector (a low efficiency, high capacity
unit) is placed in service to quickly remove the bulk of the air
from the condenser steam space. The Hogging Ejector typically
establishes a backpressure in the order of 20kPa absolute before
the main vacuum unit is placed in service to establish and
maintain an operating vacuum of approximately 6kPa absolute.

The Hogging Ejector may then be taken out of service.
To carry out the above tasks Turbine Condensers are usually
fitted with two air extraction units each having a distinct duty:
 A low efficiency, high capacity unit used to quickly establish
an initial vacuum of approximately 20 kPa (abs). Often called
any of the following:
 Quick Start Ejector
 Booster Ejector
 Hogging Ejector
 One or more higher efficiency, low capacity units capable of
establishing and maintaining a vacuum of approximately 6
kPa absolute while ever the turbine is in service.
16.4 Types of Air Extraction Unit.

Air Extraction Units may be either steam operated (Steam Jet Air
Ejectors) or mechanical (Vacuum Pumps)
16.4.1 The Steam Jet Air Ejector

The Steam Jet Air Ejector consists of a venturi nozzle through
which a jet of high velocity steam is directed, creating a vacuum
at the throat, and drawing air from the condenser into the steam
jet stream through ports in the wall of the throat.
A single stage non-cooling type Steam Jet Air Ejector, consisting
of a single venturi nozzle is commonly used as a Hogging Ejector.
The steam air mixture is ducted through a silencer directly to
atmosphere. As the steam is also passed directly to atmosphere
this type of air ejector has poor efficiency.
A main air ejector usually consists of two or three steam jet
ejector, mounted in series on a surface type condenser cooled by
a flow of condensate. The ejector steam and extracted air vapour
mixture passes over the surface of the tubes where the steam
vapour is condensed and returned to the condensate system
while the air is cooled and vented to the next stage of air ejection
or to atmosphere in the case of the final stage. As each
successive stage of air ejection discharges into the suction of the
next a lower final vacuum can be created.
Steam In
Air In
Steam and Air Mixture
Figure 149: Single Stage Steam Jet Air Ejector
Figure 150: Section through Two-Stage Steam Jet Air Ejector
Vacuum Pumps
Mechanical vacuum pumps provide an alternative to the Steam
Jet Air Ejectors and have a number of advantages including:
 Independent of steam supply
 quieter in operation
 can be operated in automatic mode
 similar operating cost to steam jet air ejectors.
Disadvantages include higher initial and ongoing maintenance

costs.
Vacuum pumps may be of the reciprocating (piston or
diaphragm) or rotary type (sliding vane, liquid ring, or eccentric
rotor). Two 50% duty pumps may be provided with both being
used together for hogging duty and a single pump being used to
maintain vacuum once it is established.
From Figure 151, which shows the relative performance of steam
jet and vacuum pump air ejectors it can be seen that vacuum
pumps have good hogging capacity at start up.
950
700
Vacuum Pump
Volumetric
Hogging Ejector
Capacity in
l/sec 470 Main Ejector
Start Up Range
Operating Range
235
0.35 1.7 3.5 10 35 101

Pressure in kPa Absolute
Figure 151: Typical Air Ejector and Vacuum Pump Performance Curves
16.5 Condenser Construction

With the circulating cooling water load as well as the condensate
storage in the hotwell the condenser carries a considerable
weight. The condenser also has to withstand the external force
exerted by atmospheric pressure while ever the condenser is
operating under a negative pressure. The construction of the
condenser must therefore be quite robust. The main shell of the
condenser is generally of welded fabricated steel plate
construction suitably stiffened by internal and external ribs to
form a self supporting construction capable of withstanding the
external air pressure. The shell may be mounted on support
springs between the condenser feet and the foundation plate to
prevent adverse forces being applied to the turbine or supported
from the sides. Jacking blocks may be fitted as part of the spring
assembly to allow the weight of the condenser to be rigidly
supported when subjected to condenser flood checks in which
the water level is raised considerably higher than normal
operating level.
Most condensers are underslung with the turbine exhausting
downward into the condenser, however axial exhaust turbines
with the condenser mounted after the final stage of the turbine
are not uncommon.
Smaller condensers tend to be cylindrical in shape to maximise
strength (the condenser being a pressure vessel) however as size
increases the shape tends toward a rectangular design in order
to maximise space.
16.5.1 Condenser Tubes

In general, the layout of the condenser tubes is determined by
the manufacturers’ design philosophy with emphasis on
minimising pressure losses from turbine exhaust to the air off-
take and maximising heat-transfer rates.
The choice of material for condenser tubes is normally based on

the quality of the water passing through the condenser and a
compromise between high initial cost and reduced downtime due
to tube failure. Lost revenue due to downtime caused by tube
leaks or other causes, particularly in larger units, can usually
justify the use of more exotic and expensive materials.
In addition to having corrosion resistance, good heat transfer
characteristics and strength to withstand external steam and
water impingement, the tubes must also be designed to
withstand pressure being exerted from within the tubes
(pressures of 400-550kpa being common within closed cooling
water systems and pressures of 140-200kpa within syphon
assisted open systems).
For freshwater service Admiralty Metal is regularly used while for
seawater; copper-nickel, titanium or specially formulated
stainless-steel tube materials can be used dependent on
allowable initial cost.
16.5.2 Condenser Tube Supports

Tube supports are provided within the condenser to prevent
excessive tube vibration, which can cause rubbing between
tubes, circumferential cracking on individual tubes and ultimate
tube failures if the tube support system is inadequate. Vibration
is most likely to occur during low water temperature operation,
when the steam entering the condenser can reach sonic
velocities, causing severe flow-induced vibration.
Where provision exists to bypass steam around the Turbine
directly to the condenser during start up and shut down the
condenser must be designed to accommodate the high-energy
steam without damage to condenser tubing, structural members,
or the low-pressure end of the turbine. Baffles and shrouding are
often used to protect the tubes from direct impingement of the
steam and steam conditioning is carried out by expansion and
water spray drenching of the steam at the point of entry into the
condenser.
16.5.3 Explosion Diaphragms

Condensers are normally operated at pressure at or below
atmospheric and therefore are designed to resist implosion
rather than explosion. To prevent damage due to positive
internal pressure condensers are fitted with explosion
diaphragms, normally designed to relieve at 35kPa above
atmospheric pressure.
The diaphragms can be of several different types including:

 Water Sealed Lead Disc (designed to rupture and lift when
pressure is exceeded)
 Fixed Knife and Diaphragm (The diaphragm first bulges
before driving itself onto the fixed knife which pierces the
membrane allowing it to rupture)
To ensure the condenser is maintained at or below atmospheric
pressure the vacuum breaking valve should remain open until
the air extraction equipment is placed in service and air
extraction has begun.
Drainage to the condenser should be regulated and drains
cooling sprays should be placed in service prior to placing the
turbine in service.
16.5.4 Flexible Connections

A marked temperature difference can occur between the turbine
and the condenser and differences in movement due to
differential expansion between the two can occur. For small
units the condenser may be supported on springs and rigidly
connected to the turbine. As size increases movement due to
temperature difference between turbine and condenser is
usually accommodated by a stainless-steel bellow or rubber belt-
type expansion joint. To accommodate differential expansion
between condenser shell and tubes, a flexible diaphragm or
other expansion elements can be installed. Flexible diaphragms
are also common as part of the connection between external
pipework and the condenser (Cooling Water Inlet and Outlet
Conduits and Condensate pump to hotwell connections)
16.5.5 Condenser Cooling Water Flow

Condensers may be of a number of different flow configurations
dependent on the maximum quantity of steam flowing through
the turbine and the cooling medium flow and temperature.
Common configurations include:
 Single Pass
 Multiple Pass
 Divided Water Box
Single pass condensers with small diameter tubes are more
suited for sites where there is no shortage of water while two
pass condensers with large diameter tubes are more suited to
sites where water supply is limited.
A divided water box allows the cooling water to be directed into
parallel flow paths each of which can be independently isolated
for inspection and maintenance while the turbine and condenser

remain in service.
Figure 152 shows a simplified diagram of a single pass
condenser. The flow path is simple and the design can be used
in transverse or parallel configuration.
Figure 148 shows a divided water box condenser with two
individual passes.
Steam Inlet
Tube Support Tube Plate
Plates
Inlet Water Outlet
Box Water Box
Cooling Water Cooling Water

Inlet Outlet
Figure 152: Simplified Diagram of a Single Pass Condenser
16.6 Water-Box Fouling and Use of Ball Cleaning Systems

Water Quality and tube cleanliness are major factors affecting
turbine performance. Two common problems reducing cooling
water flow through the condenser tube nest are:
 Plugging
 Fouling
Plugging
Marine life and debris such as leaves and plastic sheeting
carried into the cooling water system can deposit on the face of
the inlet water-box tube plate effectively plugging individual or
sections of tubes. Effective screening of the water supply inlet
can reduce the incidence of plugging while using a suitable
system of valving to carry out backwashing or flushing of the
tube plate can remove material covering the tube plate.
Fouling
Fouling, a build up of a surface layer of various substances on
the inside of the cooling water tubes, will reduce the ability of
the tubes to transfer heat effectively. Fouling can be caused by a

number of different mechanisms including:
 silt
 marine or freshwater crustaceans
 algae and slime
 products of corrosion
 scaling
To regain the necessary heat transfer rate, fouled tubes must be
cleaned by forcing a plug or brush through each tube to scour
the fouling material from the tube surface. Normally this would
require the condenser pass to be taken out of service. An
alternative solution is to ensure that excessive fouling does not
occur by carrying out in service cleaning on a regular basis
using a recirculating ball cleaning system. In such a system a
large number of sponge rubber balls with an abrasive coating are
fed into the cooling water inlet conduit, carried through the
tubes by the water flow, collected at a specially designed strainer
in the cooling water outlet conduit and pumped by a retrieval
and recirculating pump back into the inlet conduit to be used
again. Continual use of the recirculating ball cleaning system,
however, will shorten tube life and therefore the systems are
generally used intermittently.
16.7 Access to Condenser

The condenser consists of two separate sections the steam space
and the water space. Each is classified as a confined space and
access to each requires specific procedures to be adopted prior
to and during entry.
16.8 LP Turbine Exhaust Spray Cooling System

During periods of low load and when coming into service there is
reduced steam flow through the LP cylinder. This reduced steam
flow causes the last few rows of blading to do work on the steam
and not the other way around. Due to this fact of imparting work
on the steam the last few rows of blading can overheated and
premature failure is likely. To prevent this overheating a system
of sprays have been installed around the circumference of the LP
turbine exhaust. This system of sprays is referred to as hood
sprays and they direct spray water (from the condensate
extraction pump discharge) onto and around the last few row of
LP cylinder blading keeping them within normal temperature
range.
The hood spray system is fully automatic and cuts in when the
exhaust steam temperature of the LP cylinder reaches the
predetermined value. The system is also fitted with a manual
bypass valve should the automatic system fail.
17. Condensate System

During normal operation of a Steam Turbine Driven Power Plant
the working fluid, high quality feedwater, is continuously
recirculated through the components of the plant.
Feedwater is fed into the steam generator (boiler) where it is
converted to steam. The steam flows to the turbine where its
heat energy is converted to mechanical energy in turning the
turbine rotor. Passing through the turbine the low pressure
exhaust steam is condensed in the turbine condenser and the
condensate is returned to a storage vessel to provide a supply for
the feedwater pumps to continue the cycle.
The Condensate System comprises the items of plant primarily
involved in the removal of the condensate from the condenser
hotwell and transportation of the condensate to the feedwater
storage vessel. The Condensate System must be designed to
carry the condensate flow demanded by the Steam/Water Cycle
at all loads up to and including maximum continuous rating
(MCR) of the Steam Generator and Turbine.
Typical components of the Condensate System may include any
or all of the following:
 Condensate extraction pumps
 Condenser level control system
 Minimum condensate flow control system
 Low pressure regenerative heat exchangers (including
moisture extractors, steam jet air ejector surface
condensers, gland steam condensers, low pressure
feedwater heaters, deaerators)
 Reserve feedwater tanks
 Chemical dosing injection system
 Water quality sample
In addition to transporting the condensate to the feedwater
storage vessel the condensate system also provides condensate
for a number of secondary functions including any or all of the
following:
 Condenser flash-box spraywater
 LP turbine exhaust hood sprays
 Turbine bypass steam to condenser spraywater
 Condensate extraction pump gland sealing
 Condenser vacuum breaking valve sealing water
 LP turbine gland sealing steam attemperator
17.1 Condensate Extraction Pumps.

The level of condensate in the condenser hotwell should be such
that operation of the condensate system can continue for several
minutes following a reduction of steam flow to the condenser yet
must not be so high as to affect the performance of the
condenser by covering condenser tubes.
The duty of a Condensate Extraction Pump is unique in that it
must draw from the Condenser Hotwell, which is under a
vacuum, and discharge against system resistance to the
feedwater storage vessel.
Multi stage centrifugal pumps are most commonly used for the
task. Pump glands must be sealed to prevent air ingress into the
condensate system (seen initially as a high dissolved oxygen
content in the condensate).
17.2 Condenser Level Control

Several methods may be used to control the condensate flow
from the condenser including:
 Condensate Extraction Pump Speed Control
 Condensate Extraction Pump Flow Control
Constant flow pumps discharging either through a pressure
sustaining and flow control valve to the feedwater storage vessel
or a recirculating line to the condenser (dependent on condenser
level) provide the most common configurations.
On rising condenser level the flow control valve will open to
forward condensate to the feedwater storage vessel.
Condensate dump valves may be fitted to the condensate system
where salt contamination of the condensate through condenser
tube leakage is considered likely. Where such a valve is fitted to
the system it may be forced open by the control system to dump
condensate to waste should the condenser level rise above
normal operating limits.
On falling level the flow control valve will close and the
recirculating valve will open to the condenser to maintain the
level.
17.2.1 Minimum Condensate Flow Control System

A minimum flow must be maintained through the Condensate
Extraction Pump to prevent the pump from heating up to the
point where condensate may evaporate within the pump body
causing cavitation. Where such elements as moisture extractors,
steam jet air ejectors and gland steam condensers form part of
the condensate system a minimum flow may also be requires
through these heat exchangers to prevent damage or system

failure.
To ensure the required minimum flow is always maintained
through the pump, the recirculating valve to the condenser
remains partially open at a preset value until such time as the
flow downstream of the flow control valve is greater than the
minimum flow requirement of the pump.
17.3 Low Pressure Regenerative Heat Exchangers

Condensate can be used to provide the coolant in a number of
heat exchangers as it passes to the feedwater storage vessel.
Where the fluid being cooled is steam from the steam/water
Cycle the heat exchangers are said to be regenerative due to the
fact that heat lost by the steam is gained by the condensate and
returned to the cycle.
Typical Regenerative Heat exchangers include:
 Moisture extractors,
 Steam jet air ejector surface condensers,
 Gland steam condensers,
 Low pressure feedwater heaters,
 Deaerators
17.3.1 Moisture Extractors

As steam passes through the turbine it continually gives up heat
until, as it approaches the final low pressure stages of the
turbine the wetness fraction of the steam is approaching
saturation point. The final blades of the LP Turbine are the
largest of all the blading and the tip speeds of these blades are
the highest of the turbine. These blades can easily be damaged
by impact with free water droplets in the steam flow. To prevent
such damage the heavier water laden steam is drawn from the
periphery of the last rows of blades and led through large bore
piping to a surface tube condenser cooled by the flow of
condensate through the tubes. The drainate from the moisture
extractors returns to the condenser through a barometric leg
and the heat from the condensing steam is transferred to the
condensate.
17.3.2 Steam Jet Air Ejector Surface Condensers

Multi- stage Steam Jet Air Ejectors, used as vacuum
maintaining ejectors, incorporate inter-stage cooling. This
usually takes the form of a shell and tube heat exchanger with
condensate flowing through the tube nest. The steam, after
passing through the air ejector nozzle and entraining the air, is
condensed on the outside of the tubes and the drainate is
returned to the condenser. The heat from the condensing steam

is transferred to the condensate passing through the tubes.
17.3.3 Gland Steam Condensers

The outer pockets of the Turbine Labyrinth Glands are placed
under a slightly negative pressure by an exhaust fan located on
the body of the gland steam condenser and exhausting to
atmosphere. The exhaust fan draws air migrating from the
outside of the turbine glands and steam migrating from the
inside of the glands into the gland steam condenser where the
steam is condensed over a shell and tube type heat exchanger.
Condensate passes through the tubes, gland steam is condensed
on the outside of the tubes and the air is exhausted to
atmosphere. The heat from the condensing gland steam is
transferred to the condensate passing through the tubes and the
gland steam drainate is returned to the condenser.
17.3.4 Low Pressure Feedwater Heaters

Steam is drawn off (or bled) from the steam turbine for two
reasons:
 To reduce the total amount of steam flowing through the
final stages of the turbine.
 To allow regenerative heat transfer to take place between
the steam and the condensate. Regenerative heat transfer
is more efficient and reduces losses to the cooling water in
the condenser.
Low Pressure Feedwater Heaters are generally surface type shell
and tube heat exchangers. The condensate flows through the
tubes and the steam bled from the turbine condensers on the
outside of the tubes within the shell. Drainate formed by the
condensing steam is returned to the condenser hotwell.
17.3.5 Deaerators
A Deaerator can be described as a special purpose low pressure
feedwater heater. The deaerator:
 Is the last feedwater heater in the condensate system
 Forms an elevated feedwater storage area thereby
providing both the net positive suction head and the water
supply demanded by the boiler feedwater pumps
Deaerators in general are heat exchangers of the contact type.
Steam, either from an auxiliary steam range or bled from the
turbine, is admitted to the deaerator through distributor
manifolds while the condensate is sprayed into the deaerator
shell. This allows the steam and water to be intimately mixed
greatly enhancing the deaeration of the condensate. Air is vented
from the deaerator shell to atmosphere.
Being a contact type heat exchanger virtually all the heat from
the steam is transferred to the condensate.
17.4 Reserve feedwater Tanks (surge tank)

Where load demand may vary considerable during the operation
of a Power Plant the Condensate System may include a Reserve
Feedwater Tank (or sometimes called a surge tank). The function
of this tank is to:
 Absorb excess feedwater during periods of load rejection
when feedwater demand is reduced
 Supply feedwater to the condensate system when demand
is significantly increased
Excess condensate is directed to the Reserve Feedwater Tank
through a radial feed from the condensate system after the flow
control valve and prior to the Low Pressure Feedwater Heaters.
Condensate from the reserve Feedwater Tank is returned to the
Condensate System through the Condenser to allow it to be
deaerated before admission to the boiler (The Reserve feedwater
Tank being open to atmosphere through the tank vent).
17.5 Chemical Dosing and Water Quality Sampling

Condensate drawn from the Condenser Hotwell is sampled to
determine the water quality. Normal parameters that are
analysed include:
18. Main Cooling Water Systems

(Sometimes referred to as Circulating Water System)
The function of the Main Cooling Water System is to provide a
cooling medium to remove the major heat load being dissipated
from the turbine condenser (where turbine exhaust steam is
converted back to water or condensate) and selected turbine
auxiliary coolers.
The Main Cooling Water System consists of:
 a cooling water source ( River, Sea, Lake or Pond)
 a means of preventing debris from entering the cooling
water circuit (Debris Screens)
 a means of distributing the cooling water through the
system ( Cooling Water Pump/s)
 heat exchangers through which to transfer the heat from
the turbine exhaust steam and auxiliaries to the
circulating cooling water
 a heat sink to which the heat taken from the condenser

and auxiliary coolers is dissipated (ultimately, the
environment).
18.1 Types of Main Cooling Water System

The classification of a Main Cooling Water System is determined
by whether the cooling water is:
 discharged from the cycle after passing through the heat
exchangers ( Open System)
 retained within a cycle (Closed System)
 partially discharged and partially retained (Combined
System).
18.1.1 Open (or Once Through) Cooling Water System
A typical Open Cooling Water System draws from a large water

source such as the sea, a river or a lake. The water makes a
single pass through the system and is returned to the source
where heat is dissipated to the general environment. The inlet
and outlet points are selected to ensure that the heated water
being discharged is not re-entrained in the supply stream.
Where a lake is the source, inlet and outlet canals, natural
features such as headlands and promontories and artificial
barriers are often used to ensure that the residence time of the
discharged water within the lake is kept as long as possible to
allow for maximum cooling to take place before the water is
reused. Although natural cooling within a lake is accomplished
by evaporation, radiation and convection, the cooling rate is
quite slow and therefore the volume and surface area must be
very large for the lake to act as a continuous heat sink for a
power station.
Figure 153 shows the components of an Open Cooling Water
System. The only power demands on the system are those
associated with running the Main Cooling Water Pump(s) and
Debris Screen (if rotating rather than fixed screen).
Steam to LP
Cylinders
Condenser
Debris
Cooling Water Pump
Screen
Condensate
Pump
Water Source – River Sea or Lake
Figure 153: Basic Components of an Open Cooling Water System
Thermodynamically, the Open Cooling Water System is the most

efficient means of transferring heat, however, the lack of
availability of large areas of surface water or environmental
regulations limiting the use of such areas often prevent their use
as power station cooling ponds. In such cases the Closed Cooling
Water System is employed.
18.1.2 Closed Cooling Water System

A typical Closed Cooling Water System retains the cooling water
within the cooling circuit and therefore must incorporate an
effective means of transferring heat gained within the cycle to an
external heat sink. The most common means of doing this is to
incorporate a Cooling Tower in the circuit.
Water is drawn from a holding basin at the base of the Cooling
Tower, is pumped through the condenser and other heat
exchangers and discharged to a Cooling Tower Cooling Cell.
Within the cooling tower cell the heat from the water is
transferred to the air stream passing through it, the damp warm
air is discharged to atmosphere and the cooled water is returned
to the holding basin to continue the cycle. Figure 154 shows the
basic components of a Closed Cooling Water System.
Steam to LP Cylinders
Return Water Flow
Air In
Make Up Water
Cooling
Water Pump
Debris
Screens
Figure 154: Basic Components of a Closed Cooling Water System
18.1.3 Combined Cooling Water System

A combined Cooling Water System may be used for a variety of
reasons:
 Seasonal variation in rainfall creating periods of high and
low water supply availability
 Restrictions placed on maximum return water temperature
 Shared use of a single source with others, resulting in
intermittent use
Figure 155 shows a Combined Cooling Water System. During
times of unlimited access to the water source this system would
operate in the Open Mode with the Cooling Tower idle. During
times of restricted access to the water source the system would
operate in the Closed Mode.
Condenser
Condensate Pump
Cooling Water
Pump
Make Up Water Pump
Figure 155: Combined Cooling Water System set up for Open or Closed
Operation
Figure 156 shows an Open Cooling Water System with a Cooling

Tower included in the cooling water discharge line. The limiting
factor in this system’s design is the return water temperature.
During times of low load running when return water
temperatures are below the maximum allowable the system will
discharge directly to the water source with the Cooling Tower
idle. As the transferred heat load from the condenser increases
the Cooling Tower will be placed in service and, dependent on
the cell arrangement, cooling tower fans will progressively be
placed in service as required, to maintain the temperature of the
water returning to the water source within design limits.
Warm water to Cooling Tower
Condenser
Cooling Tower Basin

Condensate Pump
Cooling Water Pump Cooled Water

returned to
Water Source
Figure 156: Cooling Tower Included in an Open System to Reduce Return Water
Temperature
18.2 Components of the System
18.2.1 The Cooling Water Source

For economic reasons Power Stations are normally located as
near as practicable to the resources they rely upon. This usually
means that the provision of an adequate supply of cooling water
has already been negotiated at the design stage and the Power
Station will be located adjacent to a sea side or fresh water lake
or have access to a pumping quota from a nearby river.
Inland Power Stations are more likely to rely upon river water
makeup to a Closed Cooling Water System than to have
exclusive use of an inland Lake as a cooling medium. It is the
Cooling Towers associated with a Closed Cooling Water System
that will now be examined in more detail.
18.2.2 Cooling Towers

Cooling Towers are Air/Water Heat Exchangers in which the
water to be cooled is brought into intimate contact with a stream
of ambient air resulting in a transfer of heat from the water to
the atmosphere. Heat transfer occurs through:
 Sensible heat exchange, seen as an increase in the air
temperature
 Latent heat exchange, in which a portion of the water is
evaporated and lost from the cooling water circuit, taking
with it the extra heat load required to create the
water/steam phase change. (This accounts for the major
part of the heat loss from the returning cooling water).
A small portion of water is also lost from the system due to drift
or entrainment in the air stream. This water has to be replaced
from a make up source, which is usually colder than the return
water temperature, resulting in a reduction of the overall cooling
water temperature (although not caused by heat transfer as
such)
The type and size of cooling tower used will depend upon:
 The amount of heat rejected by the turbine and auxiliary
plant at maximum load.
 The average and extreme conditions of ambient
temperature and humidity experienced at the Cooling
Tower site.
 The design supply and return cooling water temperatures
for the Cooling Water System (which are related to the
mass flow of cooling water and the condenser design)
Cooling Towers may be of a Natural or Fan Assisted Flow design.
A Natural Draft Cooling Tower relies on what is termed as a
“stack (or chimney) effect” to create a rising air flow through the
tower. This “stack effect” is produced by the warm, less dense air
being driven from the top of the tower as it is displaced by the
cool, more dense air entering the base.
Fan Assisted Cooling Towers incorporate a mechanical fan to
promote a flow of air through the Tower.
18.2.3 Natural Draft Cooling Towers

The driving pressure, which maintains the air flow through a
Natural Draft Cooling Tower, is dependent on the difference in
densities between the inside and outside air and the height of
the tower. As the difference in densities is often quite small, the
height of the tower becomes the most important design criteria.
This increased demand for height brings with it problems in

construction due to a need for superior strength and resistance
to the high wind loading that can be directed against such a
large surface area.
The hyperbolic shape (shown in Figure 157) offers the most
suitable profile for strength and wind resistance.
The performance of Natural Draft Cooling Towers is poor in hot
dry inland areas where low relative humidity conditions are
common and the air density outside of the cooling tower may not
be high enough to displace the moisture laden air inside the
tower. Natural Draft Cooling Towers are, however, well suited to
locations with consistently high relative humidity, a cool, humid
climate and a high winter power demand.
High initial costs tend to relegate the Natural Draft Cooling
Tower to higher output Power Stations where long term gains
made from the non use of mechanical fans offset the initial cost.
Warm Air Out
Hot Water
Distribution
Drift Eliminators Warm Air System
Out
Hot Water In
Fill
Cold Air In
Cool Water Collected in

Cooling Tower Basin
Cool Water Out
Figure 157: Cutaway View of Natural Draft Cooling Tower
18.2.4 Fan Assisted Cooling Towers

Where initial cost, climatic conditions and available space
become a concern an alternative to Natural Draft type Cooling
Towers must be found.
By reducing the total height and size of a cooling tower, the
natural “Stack effect,” which induces air flow is also reduced and
it becomes necessary to use a fan to create the required air flow.
Fan assisted cooling towers provide an alternative to the natural

draft type, having a lower initial cost, but incurring an ongoing
cost associated with fan usage.
Fan Assisted Cooling Towers may be of a Forced or induced
Draft type
18.2.5 Forced Draft Cooling Towers

The fan (or fans) in a Forced Draft Cooling Tower is in the air
stream entering the tower. This design allows:
 greater ease of access to the fans for inspection and
maintenance
 reduced fan power demand due to the drier less dense air
being passed by the fan
But incurs the following disadvantages:
 heat generated by the fan is added to the Turbine Heat
Load within the Cooling Tower
 a portion of the Hot Air and Moisture from the Cooling
Tower discharge can be re-entrained into the Fan intake
and recirculated
 difficulty is encountered in maintaining even air
distribution through out the tower
 as the tower is pressurised leakage can occur from the
casing
 during cold weather operation in winter, frost can
accumulate around the fan intake
Owing to the above disadvantages, the majority of Fan assisted
Cooling Towers are of the Induced Draft Type.
18.2.6 Induced Draft Cooling Towers.

The fan in an Induced Draft Cooling Tower is placed at the top of
the Cooling Tower above the Hot Water Distribution System. The
fan draws air from the surrounding area through the open sided
base of the tower and induces it to flow through the water
distribution system before discharging to atmosphere above the
tower.
Cooling Towers can be either cross-flow or counter-flow.
A Counter-flow Cooling Tower (shown in Figure 158) draws air
into the tower and directs it to flow vertically upward through
the falling water curtain and fill.
A Cross-flow Cooling Tower (shown in Figure 159) draws air into
the tower horizontally while the water curtain is falling vertically.
Warm Air Out
Fan Cowl
External Fan
Drive Unit Induced
Draft Fan
Hot Drift
Water In Eliminator
Hot Water Fill

Distributor Material
Cool Air In Cool Air In
Cool
Water Out Cool Water Collected in Cooling Tower Basin
Figure 158: Counter-flow Induced Draft Cooling Tower
Warm Air
Out
Fan Cowl
Hot Water External

Distributor Fan Drive
Hot Water
Induced Unit
In
Draft Fan
Cool Air Cool Air

In In
Air Entry
louvres
Fill
Material
Cool Water
Out Cool Water Collected in Cooling Tower Basin
Figure 159: Cross Flow Induced Draft Cooling Tower
18.2.7 Hot Water Distribution Systems

Hot Water, returning from the condenser, is pumped to the
Cooling Tower under pressure and evenly distributed throughout
the cooling tower cells. This ensures maximum contact and
maximum heat transfer between the air and water. The
distribution system does this by breaking the flow into fine
droplets (Spray Distribution) and/or reducing the velocity of the
water flow into the tower (Gravity Distribution).
Spray Distribution uses a grid of spray distributor nozzles fed
through branched piping taken from the main inlet manifold.
The spray system allows maximum wetting of the Cooling Tower
and enhanced water/air stream contact. Spray Distribution is

used mainly on Counter-flow Cooling Towers (see Figure 158).
A Gravity Distribution system first reduces the return water
velocity by discharging from the return pipework into a basin
above the cooling tower fill. The hot water, with a reduced head,
then flows through a grid of orifices. Diffuser heads can be
inserted into the orifices to give the required spray pattern on to
the fill material below. Gravity Distribution is used mainly on
Cross Flow Cooling Towers (see Figure 159).
18.2.8 Cooling Tower Fans

Cooling Tower Fans may be of either the centrifugal or axial flow
type. Centrifugal fans operate against increased discharge heads
and so are more likely to be used for forced draft Cooling Tower
applications. Axial flow fans are most prominent in Induced
Draft Cooling Towers where they are capable of moving large
volumes of air for a relatively low power demand.
18.2.9 Air Flow and Water Temperature Control

Air Flow through the Cooling Tower can be regulated by a
number of mechanisms:
Fan speed adjustment
 Fan Blade Pitch adjustment (axial Flow Fans)
 Shutting down and placing fans in service as air flow
demand dictates
As the Heat Load transferred to the Main Cooling Water System
may vary dependent on the total steam flow being passed to the
Turbine Condenser and the load being contributed from the
Auxiliary Heat Exchangers, Cooling Towers for larger installation
tend to be of a multi-cellular construction. Each Cell is fitted
with its own fan, hot water distribution system and “wet deck” or
Fill.
This allows the Cooling Tower power demand to be ‘turned down’
during times of low heat transfer demand. Fans can be
selectively taken out of service or fan blade pitch changed to
reduce the total air flow through the tower to prevent overcooling
of the water. Where multiple Main Cooling Water Pumps are
provided (each with less than 100% flow capacity) cooling water
flow can be altered by varying the number of pumps in service.
18.2.10 Cooling Tower Basin

Cooling Tower Basins for Power Stations are generally made of
concrete and form the holding pond for the Main Cooling Water
in a Closed Cooling Water System. The Basin in initially filled
from an external source (Sea, lake or river) and the operating
level is maintained from the same source. The Basin’s size
should be calculated to allow the system to operate without

makeup for sufficient time to carry out regular in-service
maintenance.
The Cooling Tower Basin is normally fitted with the following:
 Valved Cooling Water Makeup Supply Line
 Valved Drain Line
 Overflow Line
 Main Cooling Water Pump Forebay (Usually of a greater
depth than the main basin area to prevent pump vortexing
and cavitation)
 Debris Screens at the pump forebay entry
 Chemical Dosing Facilities
 Facilities to monitor Water Quality and blowdown
Where on site water resources are limited Cooling Tower Basins
have been used as an emergency source of water for Fire
Fighting. Alternate valved pipework is installed to supply the Fire
Fighting Pumps’ suction.
18.2.11 Cooling Tower Makeup

Water is lost from the Main Cooling Water Circuit due to:
 Evaporation Losses in the Cooling Tower (approximately 1
to 1.5% total Cooling Water flow rate)
 Drift Losses from the Cooling Tower ( approximately 0.02
to 0.03% total flow rate)
 Blowdown from the Cooling Tower Basin to control the
concentration of dissolved solids (approximately 0.2 to 1.5
% total Cooling Water flow rate dependent on allowable
concentration of solids)
All these losses must be made up from the primary water source
to allow continuous operation of the power plant. As an example:
the cooling water makeup to a 1000MW Power Plant closed
cooling water system with a circulating cooling water flow of
45000 litres/second (l/sec) could range from 550 to 1500 l/sec.
18.2.12 Blowdown and Chemical Dosing

With an evaporation rate of 1 to 1.5% the water within the
Cooling Tower Basin would have a concentration of solids of 2 to
2.5 times that of the makeup water with every 100 cycles of the
basin’s volume through the system. Dependent on whether the
primary source is sea water, lake or river water the initial
concentration of solids will vary. Chemical analysis of the water
will determine the allowable concentration levels and the degree
of blowdown required to maintain acceptable concentrations
within the system. If the total concentration of solids reach

saturation point scaling will occur within the cooling water
circuit and the heat exchange capacity of the system will
deteriorate. It is therefore necessary to continually remove a
percentage of the cooling water from the circuit and to replace it
with makeup water with a lower solids concentration.
Air moving through the Cooling Tower carries with it dust and
debris which is washed from the air by the cooling water. This
silt enters the system and, if the water is not treated to prevent
it, precipitates out, forming a film over the heat exchange
surfaces.
Biological contaminants in the form of marine and fresh water
molluscs and crustaceans, water resident plants, algae and
bacteria can cause fouling and corrosion within the systems
pipework and the heat exchange surfaces.
Cross-flow and Counter-flow Cooling Towers without air entry
louvres tend to grow more algae due to the increased amounts of
sunlight entering the tower.
Breakdown and decomposition of biological material can
generate Hydrogen Sulphide and Carbon Monoxide, which
readily combine with water to form corrosive solutions.
To counter the above scaling and corrosion effects, anti-scalant
and anticorrosion chemical dosing is normally carried out (if
required) on a regular basis with dedicated dosing pumps
delivering a metered dose from chemical storage tanks.
Biological control tends to be irregular in the form of “shock”
dosing to prevent molluscs etc from developing a learned
response and subsequently withdrawing themselves from the
dosing stream prior to the dose being delivered.
18.2.13 Cooling Tower Wet-down System

Where the main structural components of the cooling tower are
made from wood a Wet-down System is normally installed. Such
a system uses low pressure sprays to douse the cooling tower
internals and prevent dry-out and distortion of the wooden
structure during periods when the cooling water circuit is out of
service. The risk of fire within the cooling tower is also reduced
by keeping the wooden structure damp.
18.2.14 Circulating Water Pumps

Cooling Water Pumps may be of the Centrifugal, Axial Flow or
Mixed Flow types dependent on the total System Discharge Head
and mass flow required. Axial Flow pumps are well suited to
Open Cooling Systems while Centrifugal Pumps perform well in
Closed Systems.
18.2.15 Debris Screens

Depending on the water source a variety of debris screens are
used to prevent fouling of the pumps and heat exchangers by
large particulate matter.
Where salt or fresh water molluscs and crustaceans are plentiful
care must be taken to prevent a build up of shells and grit
within the system. In such cases the intake from the water
source needs to be screened and where a cooling tower forms a
component of the system a further debris screen needs to be
added at the Cooling Tower Basin Outlet.
Screens can take the form of:
 Fixed Screens with a means of raking the debris from the
screen and discarding it to waste
 Rotating Screens with a self cleaning water spray which
flushes water borne fauna and debris to waste
 Removable Series Screens, which allow any one screen to
be removed and cleaned while subsequent screens remain
active in the flow path.
The condition of the screens may be monitored by the
installation of a differential pressure switch across the screen
with alarm contacts included to initiate an automatic self-
cleaning action or to inform plant operators when the differential
pressure has reached a preset value and action must be taken.
Heavily fouled screens can have a pronounced effect on cooling
water flow to the extent that the pump flow can exceed supply
resulting in a reduction in the level of the pump suction forebay
and possible pump cavitation and tripping out of service.
18.3 Auxiliary Cooling Water Systems

In addition to the Main Turbine Condenser there are many other
heat exchangers removing minor heat loads from operating plant
throughout the Power Station Site. It is common practice to use
a secondary or Auxiliary Cooling Water System to remove and
dissipate the heat from these heat exchangers.
The Auxiliary Cooling Water System design can include any of

the following:
 separate closed system completely divorced from the Main
Cooling Water System
 closed system which includes a heat exchanger cooled by
a branch line from the Main Cooling Water System
thereby transferring its heat to the same heat sink as the
Main System
 Open System with the heat exchangers cooled directly
from a branch line off the Main Cooling Water Supply Line.
shows a typical Closed System utilising a heat exchanger
between the Main and Auxiliary Cooling Water Systems.
Expansion /Head Tank
Auxiliary Cooling Water Out Main Cooling

Water Inlet
Plant Heat
Exchangers
Main/Auxiliary
Cooling Water Heat
Exchangers
Main Cooling
Auxiliary Water Outlet
Cooling
Water Inlet
Auxiliary Cooling
Water Circulating
Pumps
Figure 160: Auxiliary Cooling Water System Utilising Main/Auxiliary Cooling

Water Heat Exchanger
In a system such as that shown in Figure 160 the recirculating

Cooling Medium is usually of a high quality (eg. Demineralised
Water). Provision is made for the addition of makeup and for the
expansion of the system through a raised head tank which also
serves to maintain a positive suction head on the circulating
pumps. Chemical dosing and/or other methods of water quality
maintenance and control may also be used dependent on the

circulating fluids in the heat exchangers to be cooled.
System pressures within Auxiliary Cooling Water System Heat
Exchangers normally maintain a positive pressure differential
between the fluid being cooled and the fluid coolant to prevent
contamination of the primary fluid should a leak occur within
the heat exchanger. An example can be seen in a Lubricating Oil
Cooler. The system pressure of the Lubricating Oil would be
higher than the Auxiliary Cooling Water Pressure to ensure any
leakage would result in oil migrating into the cooling water
circuit rather than vice versa. The higher pressure system is also
placed into service before the cooling circuit and removed from
service after the cooling circuit
Typical Heat Exchange Circuits served by the Auxiliary Cooling
Water System can include but are not limited to:
 Turbine Lubricating Oil Coolers
 Turbine Control Oil Coolers
 Generator Seal Oil Coolers
 Generator Air Coolers
 Boiler Feedwater Pump Coolers
 Air Compressor Coolers
 Steam and Hot Water Sample Coolers
Glossary of Terms
Dry Bulb The air temperature as normally measured using a
Temperature mercury type thermometer.
Wet Bulb The air temperature as measured by a sling
Temperature psychrometer.
Sling Psychrometer A thermometer held in a frame with a piece of damp
gauze covering the mercury filled bulb. As air passes
over the wetted gauze (by rotating the device rapidly)
water evaporates and cools the bulb resulting in a lower
reading than would be seen on a dry bulb thermometer
at the same location. The lower the humidity the greater
the difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures.
At 100% humidity Wet and Dry Bulb temperatures are
the same.
Dew Point The temperature at which the water vapour in the air
begins to condense.
Approach The difference between the temperature of the cold
water out of the cooling tower and the ambient wet bulb
temperature
Range The difference in temperature between the hot water in
and cold water out of the cooling tower.
19. Water Treatment and Water Systems

19.1 Impurities and Contaminants in Water
The prime source of all water is from the precipitation of
moisture that has evaporated from the seas, oceans and general
land mass.
The evaporated water molecules form clouds and these clouds
tend to include a range of fine particulate such as dust, fumes,
smoke and ash.
As the moisture condenses and falls as rain or snow it also
mixes with, and dissolves, gases from the atmosphere.
Rainfall studies have shown the rain samples to have significant
amounts of dissolved minerals and gases and a pH varying from
neutral to medium acid (7.1 to 3.5).
As the rain falls or snow begins to thaw the water flows through
rock strata, picking up dissolved and suspended mineral solids,
over land covered in vegetable and animal matter, picking up
chemical waste from insecticides, herbicides and fertilisers,
organic waste and bacteria and past towns and cities picking up
a range of industrial, commercial and residential waste
products.
When plants and algae die their remains gradually sink and are
consumed by aerobic bacteria. This results in a reduction of the
level of dissolved oxygen. Eventually, often near the bottom of a
lake, virtually no oxygen remains and the water is said to be
anoxic. Under these conditions anaerobic bacteria flourish.
Anaerobic bacteria often produce foul-smelling compounds,
which cause the water to become extremely unpleasant. Such
compounds include:
 hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
 Thiols (Thioalcohols) these are similar to alcohols but
contain a sulphur ion rather than an oxygen. (RSH) and
 ammonia (NH3)
It can be seen that, following the interaction with any or all of
the above contaminants, the end result is far from pure water.
The following table sets out the main contaminants to be found
in raw water and highlights the effect the contaminant has:
Contaminant Effect
Compounds Add to the solids content of water and
forming Sulphates tend to form a residual scale
(SO4 )--
Compounds Add to the solids content of water, tend
forming Chlorides to form a residual scale, increase the
(Cl )- corrosiveness of the water
Compounds Add to the solids content of water, tend
forming Nitrates to form a residual scale
High concentration can cause
methemoglobinaemia in infants
Is useful in the control of boiler metal
embrittlement
Compounds Causes mottling of tooth enamel.
forming Fluorides Is used in some water supplies as a
F - means of controlling dental decay
Compounds of Add to the solid content of the water.
Sodium Na + When combined with hydroxyl ions OH –
can cause corrosion in boilers under
certain conditions.
Silica SiO2 Forms scale in boilers and cooling water
systems. Can be carried over with steam
to form insoluble deposits on turbine
blading
Iron (can be Forms a reddish or brown deposit on the
present as Fe + surface of water carrying pipework and
ferrous ions or boiler tubes.
Fe ++ ferric ions
Manganese Mn ++ Forms a black deposit on the surface of
water carrying pipework and boiler tubes.
Aluminium Al +++ Can cause deposits in cooling water
systems and contribute to complex boiler
scales
Carbon Dioxide Causes corrosion in water lines and
CO2 particularly steam and condensate lines
Ammonia NH3 Forms a complex soluble ion which
causes corrosion of copper and zinc
alloys
Hydrogen Causes corrosion and has an offensive
Sulphide H2S odour (rotten egg)
Contaminant Effect
Oxygen O2 Causes corrosion in water pipework and
boilers
Thiols Similar to alcohols but contain sulphur
(Thioalcohols rather than oxygen.
RSH) R- SH where SH refers to the sulphur
hydryl group of compounds
19.2 Turbidity
The term Turbidity refers to how clear the water is. The greater
the amount of total suspended solids (TSS) in the water, the
higher the measured turbidity.
The flow rate of the water body is a primary factor in TSS
concentrations. Fast running water can carry more particles and
larger-sized sediment while slow moving water normally allows a
greater percentage of silt and particulate to precipitate, forming
bottom sediment.
In areas that are subject to monsoonal flooding or high seasonal
variation in rainfall, the Total Suspended Solid concentrations
will vary cyclically through the year, having high concentration
during the wet season but low concentrations in the dry season.
In such cases chemical dosing rates and sludge blowdown
frequency within clarification plants will require regular
adjustment to meet this cycle.
19.2.1 Impact of Turbidity on Humans

The major effect of turbidity on humans goes far beyond its poor
aesthetic quality (dirty water looks unhealthy).
Turbidity may be composed of organic and/or inorganic
constituents, with the organic particulate harbouring micro-
organisms such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, which
increase the possibility of the end user contracting waterborne
disease. Inorganic constituents have no notable health effects.
Particulate also provides an attachment site for heavy metals
such as cadmium, mercury and lead, toxic organic contaminants
such as PCBs, PAHs and pesticides.
The recommended maximum turbidity level for human

consumption is in the range of 1 to 5 NTU (as long as the
disinfection process can still be maintained at the top end of this
limit).
19.3 Water Borne Solids

Solids may be classified as organic or inorganic, dependent on
their origin and as suspended, settle-able, colloidal or dissolved,
dependent on the state they occupy within the solution.
19.3.1 Organic Solids

Organic solids include such things as animal or vegetable life,
dead animal matter, faecal matter, plant tissue or organisms,
but may also include synthetic (artificial) organic compounds
formed through the association of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
with nitrogen, sulphur or phosphorous.
The principal organic compounds present in domestic
wastewater are proteins, carbohydrates and fats together with
the products of their decomposition.
Organic compounds are subject to decay or decomposition
through the activity of bacteria and other living organisms and
are combustible.
19.3.2 Inorganic Solids

Exceptions to this characteristic are certain mineral compounds
or salts that, under certain conditions, can be broken down.
Inorganic solids include sand, gravel and silt as well as dissolved
mineral salts, which produce hardness in the water.
Inorganic solids are generally not subject to decay (although
some mineral salts, such as sulphates, can be broken down
under certain conditions).
In general, inorganic solids are non-combustible.
Solids can also be grouped depending on their physical state as
suspended solids, colloidal solids and dissolved solids, each of
which can include both an organic and inorganic component.
19.3.3 Suspended Solids

Suspended solids are solids that are visible and in suspension in
the water and can be removed by physical or mechanical means
(clarification, sedimentation or filtration).
19.3.4 Settle-able Solids

Settle-able solids are those that, if subject to a quiescent
condition, (are allowed to remain still) are of sufficient size and
weight to precipitate in a given period of time.
19.3.5 Colloidal Solids

Colloidal solids are solids that are not truly dissolved and yet do
not settle readily even after long periods of no movement.
Colloidal particles tend to possess the same electrical charge and
so resist agglomeration.
They can be removed through filtration but would place a high
load on the filter medium.
19.3.6 Measurement of Total Suspended Solids

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) are measured in mg dry weight/L.
The measurement procedure requires a known volume of water
to be filtered through a pre-weighed filter disc to collect all the
suspended material greater than 1 micron in size.
The filter disc is then dried at 103 to 105° C until the weight of
the filter no longer changes, indicating that all the water in both
the residue and the filter has been removed. The filter disc is
then re-weighed to determine the mass of the residue.
19.3.7 Dissolved Solids

Dissolved Solids are solids such as carbonate, bicarbonate,
chloride, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, organic ions, and other ions, which have been dissolved
in water and can pass through a filter (usually with a pore size of
0.45 micrometers).
These ions must be present in a set range of concentrations in
order to maintain water fit for aquatic life. Changes in Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS) concentration alters the density of the
water, which, in turn, affects the ability of water to flow into and
out of an organism's cells, therefore, if TDS concentrations are
too high or too low, the growth of many aquatic flora and fauna
can be limited, and death may occur.
High concentrations of TDS may also reduce water clarity,
contribute to a decrease in photosynthesis, combine with toxic
compounds and heavy metals, and lead to an increase in water
temperature.
TDS is used as one of the measures of drinking water quality,
because it represents the amount of ions in the water.
Water with high TDS often has a bad taste and/or high water
hardness, and could result in a laxative effect. Water with low
TDS can leach electrolytes out of the human body and have an
adverse effect, especially during exposure to a high temperature
climate or workplace.
19.3.8 Measurement of Total Dissolved Solids

To measure TDS, a water sample of known volume is filtered,
and the filtrate (the water that passes through the filter) is
placed in a pre-weighed dish. The water and dish are then dried
in an oven at 180° C, until the water is completely evaporated
and the weight of the dish no longer changes. The increase in
weight of the dish represents the weight of the dissolved solids,
which have been left behind by the evaporating water, and is
recorded in milligrams per litre (mg/l).
The TDS concentration of a water sample can also be estimated
from specific conductance if a linear correlation between the two
parameters is first established.
Depending on the chemistry of the water, TDS (in mg/l) can be
estimated by multiplying specific conductance (in micro-
siemens/cm) by a factor between 0.55 and 0.75.
19.3.9 Total Solids

The term "total solids" includes both the total suspended matter
and the total dissolved solids in water or wastewater, and is
related to both specific conductance and turbidity.
A measure of total solids (also referred to as total residue) can be
obtained by re-weighing a container after evaporation and drying
of a water sample (in this case the sample is not filtered).
19.4 Hardness
Hardness is due to the presence of multivalent metal ions
(cations), formed through the disassociation of mineral
compounds dissolved in the water. The compounds may be
alkaline or non-alkaline salts.
In fresh water the primary ions are calcium and magnesium;
however iron, strontium and manganese ions may also be
present.
19.4.1 Effects of Water Hardness

Hardness has a positive effect on water quality as far as aquatic
life is concerned due to its ability to lower the toxicity of heavy
metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium and zinc. As the water
hardness increases some of the heavy metal ions form insoluble
precipitates, dropping out of solution and reducing the amount
that can be taken in by the aquatic organisms.
Large amounts of hardness are undesirable mostly for economic

or aesthetic reasons. If a stream or river is a drinking water
source, hardness can present problems in the water treatment
process.
In a power station the hardness producing salts form scale
deposits on the inside of pipework, especially in heat exchangers
and boilers, resulting in loss of heat transfer ability, overheating
and the eventual failure of tubes within boilers.
Corrosion sites can also manifest themselves beneath the scale
deposits.
19.4.2 Measurement of Hardness

The modern day procedure for analysing water quality to
determine hardness uses potentiometric titration on a computer
aided titrimeter (CAT) with a copper ion-specific electrode.
A reference substance, EDTA, is used as a titrant.
Hardness is expressed in mg/L of CaCO3 (even though all the
hardness may not be due to CaCO3).
19.5 Conductivity
The conductivity of a solution is a measure of the amount of
total dissolved salts (TDS), or the total amount of dissolved ions
in the solution.
"Dissolved solids" refer to any minerals, salts, metals, cations or
anions dissolved in water. This includes anything present in
water other than the pure water (H20) molecule and suspended
solids.
Suspended solids are any particles/substances (such as wood
particles) that are neither dissolved nor settled in the water.
The unit of conductivity is micro-siemens per centimetre
(µS/cm).
19.5.1 Method of Measuring Conductivity

The conductivity sensor consists of two metal electrodes, located
1.0 cm apart, that protrude into the sample solution. A constant
voltage (V) is applied across the electrodes. An electrical current
(I) flows through the solution due to the applied voltage and the
amount of current flowing is proportional to the concentration of
dissolved ions in the solution - the more ions, the more
conductive the solution, resulting in a higher electrical current.
Distilled or de-ionised water has few dissolved ions and,

therefore, virtually no current flows across the electrode gap. The
theoretical conductivity of pure water is 0.055µS/cm or 5.5µS/m
Conductivity was previously measured in micromhos per
centimetre (µmhos/cm) until the late 1970s.
The numerical values of the two units are identical.
Conductivity measurement is affected by the sample
temperature: an increase in temperature causing a
corresponding increase in measured conductivity.
Most conductivity measuring instruments are, therefore,
provided with manual or automatic temperature compensation,
which adjusts the measurement to a standard reference
temperature of 25˚ C. The value of conductivity at this standard
reference temperature is known as “Specific Conductivity”.
19.6 Dissolved Oxygen

Oxygen is present in raw water as microscopic bubbles of oxygen
gas, called dissolved oxygen (DO).
The actual amount of oxygen dissolved in water can vary
markedly dependent on the source, the time of day, the time of
year and the weather.
There are several reasons for natural variation in dissolved
oxygen levels.
Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis in plants and
consumed during respiration and decomposition.
Photosynthesis occurs only during daylight hours, however,
respiration and decomposition occur throughout both day and
night. This difference alone can account for large daily variations
in Dissolved Oxygen concentrations. During the night, when
photosynthesis cannot counterbalance the loss of oxygen
through respiration and decomposition, Dissolved Oxygen
concentration may steadily decline. Reaching a minimum just
before dawn, when photosynthesis resumes.
Other sources of oxygen include the air and inflowing streams.
Air contains approximately 21percent oxygen, while water
contains a fraction of 1 percent oxygen.
At the air and water interface, this difference in concentration
causes oxygen molecules in the air to dissolve into the water.
When wind stirs the water to form waves a greater interfacing
surface area is created allowing greater oxygen diffusion to
occur.
Decreasing the temperature of water allows it to hold an

increased concentration of dissolved gas (such as oxygen).
Increased oxygen levels could therefore be expected in winter
whereas during the summer months, the amount of oxygen
present in the surface layer of a pond or lake may be limited by
temperature.
19.6.1 Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen can be measured using a submerged probe
with a gas permeable membrane. When the probe is immersed in
a sample, oxygen penetrates the membrane and is reduced at
the cathode. The current necessary to reduce this oxygen is
converted by the analyser to give the concentration of dissolved
oxygen in the solution.
Dissolved oxygen is measured in parts per million (ppm) or parts
per billion (ppb).
19.7 Water Treatment Processes

Before water from a raw water source can be used within the
power station feedwater and condensate system or within high
quality cooling water systems (such as stator water cooling
systems) the many contaminants previously described have to
either be removed or reduced to an acceptable level.
Feedwater Treatment usually consists of a number of processes,
which include, (in the following order):
 Pre-filtering
 Clarification
 Filtration
 Demineralisation
 Chemical Dosing
 Polishing
As an alternative process, Reverse Osmosis also has an
important role in water treatment
Each of these processes will be explained in turn with reference
to generic process plant and equipment.
19.7.1 Pre-Filtering
Pre-filtering normally involves the removal of large debris from
the water as it is drawn from its source.
This may include coarse, heavy duty, fixed screens, which
prevent such things as logs and branches, large clumps of weed
and general flotsam from entering the raw water pump bay.
A mechanical trash rake may be also included which allows the
coarse material caught at the screen to be removed.
Secondary, rotating debris screens may also be used to capture
finer material such as weed, large leaves, fish and small aquatic
animals.
The differential pressure across the secondary debris screens is
normally monitored to determine when the screen is becoming
blocked and it is then rotated and cleaned with a water spray.
The rejected material may be returned to the water source or
captured in a debris holding area.
Removable
Penstock Gate
allows raw water
Rotating Debris screen
Mobile Trash Rake inlet to be
removes debris that has
removes built up isolated passed through the
debris from coarse coarse bar screens
bar screens
River
or Lake
Raw Water enters through Raw Water drawn from

coarse bar screens Pump Bay to Clarifier
Figure 161. Simplified Diagram of raw water intake pre-filter devices
19.8 Clarification
Even after the pre-filtering process the raw water entering the
clarifier is likely to contain a high volume of suspended solids,
colloidal particles (less than 1 micron) and dissolved solids (less
than several nanometers).
Dissolved solids cannot be removed through the clarification
process however the colloidal and suspended particles can.
Three basic processes are used in the removal of suspended
particulate within the clarifier:
 Coagulation
 Flocculation
 Sedimentation
19.8.1 The Coagulation Process

Coagulation is the destabilisation of suspended colloidal
particles through the addition of a chemical reagent (coagulant)
to the water.
Colloidal particles are almost always negatively charged, and this
negative charge has the effect of preventing the particles from
amalgamating (like poles repel) therefore, coagulation is best
accomplished by the addition of positively charged metallic ions.
The end result is that the electrical charges on the colloidal
particles are reduced, the suspension is destabilised, and the
particles can be drawn together.
The most commonly used coagulants are aluminium (aluminium
sulphate or alum) and iron salts.
19.8.2 Flocculation and Sedimentation
The addition of coagulants is usually followed by mixing in a
flocculator to promote contact between the particles, allowing
particle growth through the sedimentation process called
flocculant settling.
In this phenomenon a rather dilute suspension of particles
begins to coalesce, or flocculate, and, as the coalescing particles
increase in mass they begin to settle at an increasing rate. The
amount of flocculation that occurs depends on the opportunity
for contact, which varies with the overflow rate, the depth of the
basin, the velocity gradients in the system, the concentration of
particles, and the range of particle size.
Adjustable speed motor drives pump

A simplified diagram
impeller and allows variation in floc
of a partial-floc recirculating clarifier is
Clarified water overflows
shown
recirculation below.
flow to collection channel
A portion of the and is pumped to
clarifier load can be
storage tank
recirculated
Raw Water
and Coagulant
enter clarifier Flocculent added to raw
water
Sample points located near

expected floc bed level
Floc bed forms at a point
where the velocity of the rising
water equals the velocity of
the falling floc
Motor driven scraper removes
sediment and carries it to
drain outlet
Figure 162. Simplified Diagram of a partial-floc recirculating Clarifier
19.9 Filtration
Filtration is, basically, the sieving of water to remove the finer
particulate which has been carried over from the clarification
process. Filters may be gravity or pressure fed.
19.9.1 Gravity Fed Sand Filters

The normal process associated with gravity fed sand filters
consists of passing the clarified water through a bed of graded
sand supported by a gravel sub-fill. An over-layer of anthracite
may be used to remove larger particulate and prevent blinding of
the sand (through packing of the surface layer with particulate).
The filtering medium is graded from coarse to fine in the
direction of water flow. A minimum bed depth is required (0.6 to
0.9m) to prevent the water from scouring a single path through
the medium and nullifying the filtration process.
Figure 163. Simplified Diagram of Gravity Fed Sand Filter
The differential pressure across the filter bed is monitored to

determine when the medium has picked up a maximum load of
filtered particulate. The bed is then taken out of service and
cleaned.
The cleaning process normally involves the following steps:

 Raw water flow through the filter is stopped
 The water level within the filter is allowed to draw down to
within a few feet of the filter bed
 The filter bed is agitated by passing compressed air through
nozzles located below the bed. This has the effect of
breaking up the particulate, which has caked on the
surface of the bed and freeing it from the medium. The
majority of the particulate is then kept in suspension within
the churning layer of water above the filter medium.
 Filtered water is allowed to backflow from the filtered water
storage tank through the filter bed to waste. The back
flushing water flow rate must be sufficient to expand the
filter bed volume by about 50%, in order to scrub the filter
and carry away the particulate, which had previously been
trapped by the filter medium, without carrying the sand

itself away to waste.
 After a specified time the back-flushing is stopped the filter
medium is allowed to resettle and the filter is placed back
into normal service.
Figure 164. Simplified Diagram of Sand Filter during Backwash
Care needs to be taken to ensure that sufficient water always

remains in the filtered water storage tank to carry out an
effective filter backwash. If there is insufficient head within the
tank and/or an insufficient quantity of water within the tank to
carry out an effective backwash the filter differential pressure
will be re-initiated within a short period of time, resulting in
further demand on the filtered water, leading to continuous
cycling of the filter through successive backwashes and a failure
of the filtered water storage tank to make-up any water (Filtered
water supplied to the tank ≥ water used in backwashing filter).
19.10 Pressure Filters
19.10.1 Sand and Multi-media Filters

The pressure sand filter is a virtually a cylindrical pressure
vessel filled with sand. Pressure filters may be vertically or
horizontally mounted. Clarified water is pumped through the
pressure filter into the raw water storage tank at a design flow
rate.
Conventional pressure filters are primarily composed of sand of
small grain size laid on a ballast bed, however, with very fine
grain sizes, only the surface layer is effectively used and the filter
soon becomes blocked. To overcome this problem, two or more
types of filter media, each having a different specific gravity and
grain size may be used.
Anthracite, with relatively large grain size is placed in the
surface portion of the bed to capture larger particulate while
sand of smaller grain size makes up the lower portion of the bed
and serves to trap finer solid particles. Graded silica and garnet
sands may also be used to optimise the filter throughput.
As with the Gravity Fed Sand Filter the differential pressure
across the pressure filter bed is monitored and the filter media
are backwashed to waste to remove captured particles when the
differential pressure reaches a set value. Air scouring may also
be provided to assist with the breaking up of captured
particulate on the surface of the filter bed.
19.10.2 Activated Carbon Filters

Activated Carbon filters contain ‘activated carbon or charcoal’
granules, which have a very high surface area and a large
capacity to adsorb organic matter.
Granular Activated Carbon is effective in removing chlorine and
chlorine related compounds, organic chemicals, tastes and
odours, halogenated organic compounds and other highly
dispersed contaminates. These impurities are not actually
filtered out but are removed by the activated carbon through a
process of adsorption (i.e. the contaminates actually adhere to
the surface of the carbon medium). In order to extend the useful
life of the activated carbon, water being processed through an
activated carbon filter should, therefore, first be pre-filtered
using a sand or multi-media filtration process prior to its contact
with the carbon media.
Activated Carbon filters may be backwashed to remove any
particulate caught in the granules and to re-distribute the
granules to allow increased contact between unused granules
and the water stream. The carbon granules need to be removed

and replaced, however, once their adsorption capacity is
reached.
There are numerous types of activated carbon, generally
designated by their source:
 Coal
 Wood
 Coconut shell
 Bone Char
 Lignite
 Bamboo
These various carbon compounds present different properties,
including pore structure, pore distribution, and hardness. The
choice of carbon type is dependent upon the application.
19.11 Demineralisation
Demineralisation is used to remove dissolved solids such as
metal chlorides, sulphates and carbonates from the clarified and
filtered water. These dissolved solids (or salts) are often referred
to as minerals and so the process of their removal from the water
is known as “demineralisation”. When salts such as chlorides,
sulphates and carbonates dissolve in water they tend to
disassociate into their ions, (cations+ and anions-). The
demineralisation process involves specialised resins, which have
the ability to carry either a hydrogen (H+) or hydroxyl (OH-) ion
and to exchange that ion for the corresponding ion associated
with the dissolved solids in the water being treated.
A typical series of reactions as a salt passes through the
demineralisation train would be as follows:
1. Sodium based salt dissociates within the water
NaCl → Na+ Cl-

Salt disassociates cation anion
2. As it passes through the cation resin
R (H+) + Na+ Cl- → R(Na+) + H+ Cl-

The Cation Resin exchanges its hydrogen ion for the cation
component of the salt, which is now bonded to the resin. The
hydrogen ion, now associated with the Cl- ion, tends to lower
the pH making the water acidic.
3. As water continues through the Anion Vessel
R (OH-) + H+ Cl- → R(Cl-) + H+ OH-

The Anion Resin exchanges its hydroxyl ion for the anion
component of the salt, which is bonded to the resin. The
hydroxyl ion- is now associated with the hydrogen ion +
forming H2O. The pH of the final water tends be neutral
Figure 165. Two Bed Two Tower Demineralisation Train
19.11.1 Degasification
The inclusion of a degasifying tower in the demineralisation train
has the advantage of removing unwanted gases such as carbon
dioxide and oxygen, which both contribute to corrosion in the
demineralised water pipework. Removing the carbon dioxide also
reduces the demand on the anion exchange vessel, located
immediately after the degasifier.
Released Carbon
Clarified and filtered Dioxide
water enters Vented to atmosphere
demineraliser train
Cation
Anion
Exchange
Exchange
Vessel
Vessel
Degasified
Water Tank
Low pH Water Demineralised water

exits Cation with close to neutral pH
Vessel exits Anion Vessel
Degassed Water Pump
Figure 166. Two Bed Three Tower Demineralised Water Train (Degasified Water
Tower Included)
19.11.2 Addition of a Mixed Bed Polishing Vessel to the Demineralised Water

Train
As the resins in the cation and anion vessels approach their
capacity, the chances of the disassociated salt ions finding a
resin with free hydrogen or hydroxyl ions to exchange becomes
more and more unlikely, especially if the water flow through the
resin has established a pattern which excludes some of the body
of resin. There is also an increasing chance of minor sodium slip
even before the resin becomes completely exhausted.
The addition of a mixed bed polishing vessel at the final end of
the demineralising train has an advantage in re-absorbing initial
sodium ion slip if it occurs and also provides a final opportunity
for ion transfer as the anion and cation resin reach their
retention capacity.
The mixed bed polisher consists of a heterogeneous mixture of
cation and anion resins within a single vessel.
Fan Vents Released

Carbon Dioxide to
Clarified and filtered Atmosphere
water enters
demineraliser train
Cation Mixed
Anion
Exchange Bed
Exchange
Vessel Polishing
Vessel
Vessel
Degasified
Water Tank

exits Cation with close to neutral pH
Vessel exits Anion Vessel
Degassed Water Pump
Figure 167. Two bed three tower demineralising train with additional mixed bed
polisher
19.11.3 Monitoring Water Quality

As conductivity is related to the ionic concentration of dissolved
solids in the water, a continuous sample of the demineraliser
exit product is taken and its conductivity is measured to ensure
that the final water quality meets set standards.
While ever water is flowing through the demineraliser the resins
will continue to exchange their hydrogen and hydroxyl ions until
they eventually become exhausted. If allowed to continue
operating in an exhausted condition the sodium ions, which
have replaced the hydrogen ions within the cation resin and
have the highest affinity for further exchange, will again leave
the resin and begin to exchange themselves with other cations
within the passing water stream. A sodium ion analyser may be
located at the exit of the cation exchange vessel to identify any
incidence of “sodium slip”.
To prevent operation of the demineraliser in an exhausted
condition the mineral load of the input water supply is
determined by analysis and the total flow of raw water carrying
that mineral load, that could be expected to match the ion
exchange capacity of the vessels’ resin charge, is calculated. The
flow of water through the demineraliser train is then monitored

and an alarm is initiated (throughput exceeded) to indicate when
the train is approaching its calculated exhaustion point. The
demineraliser train is then removed from service and the ion
exchange resins are regenerated.
19.11.4 Single Pass Demineralisation

Where filtered water is not produced as a specific intermediate
resource it is not uncommon to include a pressure filter at the
entry to the demineralising train. The clarified water is then
drawn directly from a holding tank and filtered as part of the
demineralising process. Potable water is produced by also
drawing directly from the clarified water supply through an
activated carbon filter and chlorination system.
Clarified water
enters the train Fan Vents Released
Carbon Dioxide to
Atmosphere
Cation
Pressure Exchange Anion Mixed
Filter Vessel Exchange Bed
Vessel Polishing
Vessel
Degasified
Water Tank

exits Cation Degassed Water with close to neutral pH
Vessel Pump exits the train
Figure 168. Demineraliser train with in line pressure filter
19.11.5 Regeneration of a Demineraliser Train

Once the demineraliser resins have reached their exhaustion
point they can be regenerated and used again. The regeneration
process involves passing a measured mixture of either caustic
soda (anion) or hydrochloric acid (cation) through the vessel to
reverse the process of ion exchange.
The concentration of the regenerating solutions is dependent on

the type of resin in use.
1. As the acid regenerating solution passes through the cation

resin
H+ Cl- + R(Na+) → R (H+) + Na+ Cl- ↓

The Cation Resin exchanges its captured metal ion (in this
case sodium) for an hydrogen ion. The sodium ion, Na+, now
associated with the Cl- ion, is flushed to waste when the
vessel is rinsed down after regeneration.
2. As the alkaline regenerating solution passes through the

anion resin
Na+ OH- + H+ Cl- → R (OH-) + Na+ Cl-↓

The Anion Resin exchanges its captured chloride ion for an
hydroxyl ion. The chloride ion, Cl-, now associated with the
sodium ion, Na+, is flushed to waste when the vessel is rinsed
down after regeneration.
After the regenerating solution has been passed through the

resin and regeneration is complete the resin is rinsed to waste to
remove any residual solution and then settled into a compact
bed with a settling rinse in the direction of water flow. It is then
available for further service.
The removal of silica within the anion resin bed is performed
partly by direct ion exchange and partly by polymerisation in
which it combines with SiO2 already on the resin. In the
regeneration process this silica must be de-polymerised and re-
dissolved before it can be removed. The de-polymerisation and
re-dissolving process is much slower than the normal metastasis
reaction of ion exchange but is assisted by an increase in
temperature. Too high an increase in temperature can, however,
result in softening and destruction of the resin beads. The
temperature of the regenerating solution, therefore, must be
carefully monitored.
19.11.6 Regeneration of a Mixed Bed Polishing Vessel

Due to the fact that two resins are contained within a mixed bed
polishing vessel the method of regeneration is more complex. The
two resins must first be separated before regeneration can
commence.
The normal regeneration process would include the following

steps:
 The vessel is backwashed, which serves to stratify the two
resins, which are of different densities
 A regenerating acid solution is then passed into the bottom
of the vessel, percolating up through the cation resin.
 A stream of water is passed across the cation/anion resin
interface within the vessel to prevent the acid solution from
migrating into the anion resin
 The cation resin is then rinsed to remove any excess acid
solution
 A regenerating alkaline solution is then passed into the top
of the vessel, migrating down through the anion resin.
 A stream of water is again passed across the cation/anion
resin interface within the vessel this time to prevent the
alkaline solution from migrating into the cation resin
 The anion resin is then rinsed to remove any excess
alkaline solution
 An air stream is then passed into the vessel to intimately
mix the two resins together
 A final rinse and compaction is carried out and the vessel is
returned to service.
19.12 Feedwater and Condensate Polishing

Mixed-bed Polishers are often included in the condensate system
to remove contaminants such as silica and corrosion products
transported with the condensate and to provide time to remove
the boiler and turbine from service following a condenser leak.
It is not uncommon to regenerate the condensate polishing
vessels at a point remote from the actual polishing plant
location. In such a case, the entire resin charge is transported by
a water stream to a regeneration vessel, where the regeneration
process, as described in the previous section, is carried out. The
regenerated and intimately mixed resins are then carried back to
the polishing vessel and it is again available for service.
19.13 Osmosis
Osmosis is the tendency of a solvent (water in the cases we will
examine) to pass through a semi-permeable membrane into a
solution of a higher concentration in order to equalise the
concentrations of the two solutes across the membrane. In other
words water from the weaker solution (hypotonic solution) will
tend to flow into the stronger solution (hypertonic solution) until

both solutions are of the same concentration (isotonic solution).
The force, which causes the weaker solution to flow to the
stronger, is called “osmotic pressure”.
A semi-permeable membrane is one in which atoms or molecules
below a certain size can pass through its pores but hose above
that size are prevented from passing through (they are too big).
Where one of the two solutions is pure water the two
concentrations will never be the same so theoretically the pure
water will continue to flow into the stronger solution until the
height of the stronger solution above the weaker solution
produces a static head equal to the osmotic pressure. At this
point flow ceases.
In the following example (Figure 169) an open tube is placed into
a beaker containing distilled water. The water rises up the tube
to the same level as that of the rest of the beaker.
Figure 169. Osmosis 1
A semi-permeable mebrane is now placed over the end of the

tube (Figure 170) and it is partialy filled with a salt solution up
to the same level as the surrounding distilled water.
Distilled Salt Solution

Water
Semi-permeable
membrane
The distilled water is forced by osmotic pressure to pass through

the membrane in an attempt to reduce the concentration of the
salt solution until eventually the static head of the column of
salt water equals the osmotic pressure (Figure 171). At this point
the process is halted.
Static head of salt

solution (hydrostatic
pressure) is equal to
osmotic pressure
In humans and plants osmosis is generally a beneficial process

whereby water is passed into our bodies through the intestines
or through cell walls in a plant.
If we drink salt water or if the soil around a plant is over
fertilised the high concentration of salts in the water actually
draws the water out of our bodies (or the plant cells) leading to
dehydration and possible death.
19.13.1 Reverse Osmosis

Reverse osmosis is the process of applying excess pressure to
the more highly concentrated solution so that the osmotic
pressure is overcome and the water then tends to flow back
through the membrane. The salt solution becomes even more
concentrated as the water is driven through the membrane until
the osmotic pressure exerted by the water in attempting to flow

back and dilute the final brine solution is equal to pressure
applied. At this point the reverse osmosis process stops.
Pressure applied to the salt solution is
greater than osmotic pressure causing
the water to pass out of the salt solution
through the membrane
Figure 172. Reverse Osmosis
While the principals of reverse osmosis are simple, in practical

terms, the RO process cannot go on indefinitely unless steps are
taken to ensure that the membrane doesn’t become clogged by
precipitated salts and other impurities forced against it by the
pressurized stream of feed water.
To significantly reduce the rate of membrane fouling, Reverse
Osmosis systems often employ cross-flow filtration, which allows
water to pass through the membrane while at the same time the
flow of concentrate sweeps rejected salts away from the
membrane surface.
The semi-permeable membrane used for the reverse osmosis will
also act as a filter if suspended solids are present in the feed
solution.
An in line pressure filter may be used to removed suspended
solids from the supply stream before they reach the reverse
osmosis plant.
Acid and scale inhibitor may be dosed into the salt laden water
to minimise the risk of precipitation in the plant and to prolong
the service life of the semi-permeable membrane. Dosing with
sulphuric acid lowers the brine solution’s pH to approximately
5.5 effectively preventing calcium carbonate deposition from the
concentrated reject stream and maximising membrane life.
Scale inhibitor is dosed into the brine solution to increase the
solubility and prevent precipitation of soluble salts such as
calcium sulphate.
Water passes through semi-permeable membrane
Brine solution with pH Brine solution

correction and scale leaves the
inhibitor enters reverse reverse osmosis
osmosis vessel under Brine solution tends
vessel at a higher
pressure to scour the
concentration
membrane as is
than when it
passes across its
entered
surface
Figure 173. Simplified Diagram of reverse osmosis vessel indicating flow

pattern of brine solution and water
19.14 Effects of Water Borne Contaminants on Condensate,

Feedwater and Boiler components
Condensate and feedwater systems experience corrosion from
two major impurities, carbon dioxide and oxygen.
19.14.1 Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide may find its way into the condensate system
through air leakage into the condenser and associate fittings,
especially during plant start-up, or from bicarbonate alkalinity
in the feedwater.
19.14.2 Oxygen
Most makeup water will contain approximately 9 ppm of
dissolved oxygen at room temperature; however, its solubility
decreases as the water is heated. Although makeup water is
normally fed into the condenser as the initial point of entry to
the system and undergoes a degree of deaeration within the
condenser, the propensity for the condenser vacuum to draw air
into the system through steam traps, condensate drains, vents,
and any other areas where air in-leakage can occur, exists.
Where oxygen is allowed to dissolve in the condensate corrosion
will occur.
The oxygen corrosion reaction is as follows:
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3

Iron Oxygen Ferrous Iron Oxide
The oxygen driven corrosion process occurs through a

differential aeration mechanism and results in pitting under
corrosion products. When carbon dioxide is also present, the
condensate pH is lowered and the low pH environment will
dissolve corrosion products, thus leading to additional
differential aeration cells in uncovered crevices.
19.14.3 Pitting
Accelerated localized attack due to the presence of dissolved
oxygen is likely to occur in areas of limited circulation. The
resulting corrosion is called pitting corrosion.
Pitting attack is caused by the creation of a special type of
galvanic cell called a differential aeration cell.
The differential aeration cell causes a current to flow through a
circuit, created in the metal, from an anodic zone to a cathodic
zone, as a result of depolarisation of the cathodic zone by
oxygen. The difference in potential is a result of the difference in

oxygen concentration at the two surfaces. Electrons are released
at the anode as it is oxidized and readily flow through the circuit
to the more oxygen rich cathode. Metal loss occurs at the oxygen
deficient zone.
Chloride ions also cause pitting of iron and steel causing small,
localised defects in the passivating oxide layer on the metal
surface. This small anodic site is surrounded by a large
cathodic area, which results in a high current density at the
anodic site, causing rapid corrosion of the metal. In some test
cases, deep pits have been observed within a few hours.
19.14.4 Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion is a type of pitting corrosion that occurs
specifically within the low flow region of a crevice.
Crevice Corrosion – starts in a pre-existing crack or crevice, such
as flanges with porous gaskets or the threaded section of a bolt
when subject to a leaking flange.
Gasket
Pipe Flange
Zone of high oxygen level due

to flow of water replenishing
Stagnant crevice produces
oxygen
zone of low oxygen level
Site of crevice corrosion due to

faulty gasket allowing liquid to
migrate from the pipe to the flange
face and create a zone of differential
aeration
Figure 174: Section through cooling water pipe showing typical mechanism for
producing crevice pitting
19.14.5 Acid Attack

Where an excess of hydrogen ions exist the acidic conditions
provide an ideal environment for general corrosion to occur with
localise wastage of the tube metal.
Acidic conditions can also create a methane gas at grain

boundaries, which will stress the tube metal and cause it to
fracture.
To prevent acid corrosion the condensate and feedwater pH is
maintained in the alkaline range.
19.14.6 Ammonia Corrosion

Although Copper corrodes at negligible rates in unpolluted air,
water, and deaerated, non-oxidising acids it is susceptible to
Ammonia corrosion. This would be of major importance in a
system such as the condensate system.
19.15 Scale Formation

Scale forming salts such as carbonates, sulphates, chlorides and
silicates of iron, calcium and sodium are not removed by
filtration and must be removed by other means, such as
demineralisation.
There is, however a small percentage of salts, which manage to
elude the ion exchange process and remain in the final end
product.
Condenser tube leaks remain the main source of salt
contamination with chlorides and silica being predominant in
coastal power stations and calcium sulphate and silicates being
more predominant in inland stations.
Calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, aluminium and silica are
common contaminants in boiler feedwater that can form
deposits.
The deposits usually fall into one of two types:
 Scale, which forms as a crystallised crust directly on tube
surfaces
 Sludge, which consist of various salts that have precipitated
to form a sludge of discrete and usually non- uniform
conglomerated particles.
Chloride salts cause severe corrosion of boiler tube surfaces,
particularly in high heat release areas. When chlorides are
present in combination with oxygen, accelerated rates of
corrosion occur.
19.16 Oil Contamination

Although it is most unusual to find as a feedwater contaminant,
oil may sometimes find its way into the system through
feedwater pump or steam turbine lubrication system leaks.
It is practically impossible to obtain a representative sample of

boiler water for oil testing.
Adverse effects attributed to oil contamination include:
 Tube warpage
 Tube rupture
 Localised overheating
 Foaming
 Priming
 Formation of scale
Compounded oils may contain animal fats, which are
saponsifiable in the presence of boiler water alkalinity, forming
soap and causing foaming within the drum. If carried over with
the steam the impurities may foul superheat tubes and turbine
blades, clog lines and traps and foul other heat transfer
surfaces.
If oil deposits on heat transfer surfaces it may carbonise
(dependent on the surface temperatures) and form an insulating
barrier, which reduces heat transfer and can result in localised
overheating of the tube metal. It also provides a site for the
further adherence of other scale forming products.
If the oil is allowed to volatilise and decompose it may form
gaseous hydrocarbons, which can contribute to hydrogen
embrittlement, or carbon dioxide, which associates with the
steam to increase the steam acid conductivity and carries over to
the condenser to cause acid corrosion in the condensate system.
19.17 Resin Carry-over

Although most polishing vessels within the condensate and
feedwater system are fitted with resin traps to prevent carry over
of any resin beads, some fine, broken resin may pass through
the strainers, become entrained with the condensate and enter
the boiler. The effect of minor resin slip would be small if
noticeable at all.
Should a large quantity of resin be discharged into the
condensate the effects on boiler pH, boiler acid conductivity and
condensate acid conductivity would be such that immediate
shutdown of the unit would be warranted.
Cation resin is highly acidic and can reduce the boiler water pH
to a point where the protective magnetite layer within the boiler
is destroyed providing an ideal surface for further corrosion.
19.18 Sodium Slip

If a polishing vessel is allowed to continue operating in an
exhausted condition the sodium ions, which have replaced the
hydrogen ions within the cation resin and have the highest
affinity for further exchange, will again leave the resin and begin
to exchange themselves with other cations within the passing
water stream. This condition is known as “sodium slip”. The
sodium, because it is not volatile will concentrate in the boiler
drum as sodium hydroxide.
19.19 Flow Assisted Corrosion

Most boiler and feedwater systems consist of carbon steel
pipework, which is prone to corrosion when in contact with
water. It is therefore necessary to maintain a chemical treatment
program that forms a stable protective surface on the pipework.
Unfortunately the water flowing through the pipework is
constantly trying to dissolve or erode the protective surface layer
and the higher the velocity, the more the protective layer is likely
to be removed. Thermal stresses may form cracks in the surface
layer, which then allows water to seep under the deposit, where
impurities can begin to concentrate. Multiple cracks can migrate
through the layer until sections finally break away and are
carried along with the water flow. Eventually bare metal may be
exposed, establishing a site for corrosion.
This corrosion process is known as Flow-Assisted Corrosion and
includes the combined mechanisms of mechanical wear or
erosion, followed by chemical attack or corrosion of the freshly
exposed surface.
19.20 Control of Corrosion
19.21 Chemical Inhibitors

There are two basic chemical inhibitors that are used for
minimising corrosion in condensate systems:
 neutralising amines and
 filming amines.
Neutralising amines are volatile, alkaline chemicals that increase
the condensate pH level. They offer protection against carbonic
acid attack, but do not completely prevent oxygen corrosion.
Filming amines form a barrier between the metal and the
condensate, preventing both carbonic acid and oxygen attack.
The choice between neutralising and filming amines, or both,
depends on the particular operating conditions. That is, if there
is air leakage into steam condensate lines, generally filming
amines are better suited, whereas in tight systems with low fresh
water make-up, neutralising amines are usually more practical.
19.22 Deaeration
Deaeration occurs according to two principles of physics. The
first can be described by Henry's Law, which states that:
“at a given temperature, the concentration of gas dissolved in a
solute is directly proportional to the concentration (or pressure)
of the gas above the solute”.
It therefore follows that if the pressure of the gas above the
solute is reduced the dissolved gas within the solute will
progressively be released.
The second principle that governs deaeration is the relationship
between gas solubility and temperature.
Simply stated:
“the degree of gas solubility in a solution decreases as the
temperature of the solution rises and approaches saturation
temperature”.
A deaerator utilises both of these processes to remove dissolved
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other non-condensable gases from
condensate and boiler feedwater.
Deaeration can occur in within the condenser itself and within a
deaerating feedwater heater (normally provided in the feedwater
circuit).
19.22.1 Surface Condensers and Deaerating Condensers

Conventional power plants discharge exhaust steam from the
final stages of the LP turbines to steam surface condensers.
The primary function of the surface condenser is to condense the
steam as efficiently as possible, deaeration is a secondary
concern.
Although surface condensers are designed to facilitate
deaeration as much as possible they still have inbuilt
constraints.
The flow of condensed steam (condensate) over the tube bundles
is not in a finely dispersed film but more a thick layer, especially
further down in the bundle.
The routing of part of the condensing steam through baffles to
provide a counter-flow reheating section in the tube nest does
assist with deaeration (or at least prevents re-absorption of
oxygen) and in some cases this is supplemented with sparge
steam heating of the hotwell to minimise condensate sub-
cooling.
The condenser is maintained at a negative pressure and,
therefore, apart from the absorption of oxygen while make-up
water is resident in feedwater storage tanks, the condenser
becomes the only point of entry for dissolved oxygen. After the
condensate pump discharge no air leakage into the condensate
system can occur.
The normal requirement for boiler feedwater is to have < 7ppb of
dissolved oxygen however surface condensers find it difficult to
meet this demand. Where a surface condenser is used it is
normal to have the condensate discharge to a pressure deaerator
before it is finally fed to the boiler.
Factors that influence the amount of deaeration carried out by a
surface condenser include:
 The pressure within the condenser (usually expressed as

backpressure or vacuum)
 The temperature of the condensate within the hotwell (this
is also related to the cooling water temperature and the
steam turbine exhaust temperature and pressure)
 The amount of make-up being added to the condenser from
a reserve feedwater tank (and the amount of dissolved
oxygen in this water)
 The degree of condensate recirculation
 The water level within the condenser hotwell
 The condition of the diffusion sprays within the condenser
 The concentration of non-condensable gases within the

condenser steam space.
LP Cylinder Exhaust
Hood
Neck
Transition
Piece
Shell
Air
Tube Bundle Extraction
Points
Water-box
division
Hotwell
Figure 175 Simplified Diagram of a Surface Condenser with a two pass, divided water-
box configuration, showing steam flow and air evacuation paths
In power plants consisting of combined cycle and cogeneration

plant there is a greater demand for make-up water to the
feedwater/condensate system (much greater than 3%). It has
become necessary for these plants to consider the incorporation
of a deaerating condenser to cope with the large make-up
volume with its associated high dissolved oxygen load.
A typical deaerating condenser incorporates a separate vacuum
deaerator into which the make-up feedwater is fed. The make-up
water is sprayed into the deaerator where it is intimately mixed
with steam from the condenser. The reduction of pressure
across the spray nozzle and the increase in the make-up water’s
temperature to near saturation temperature results in more
effective deaeration.
The make-up water then falls through a section of trays where
secondary de-aeration continues as steam continues to heat the
water further and prevent sub-cooling.
The final deaerated water then flows into the condenser where it
can be further heated with sparge steam in the hotwell.
19.22.2 Deaerator
Deaerators are basically regenerative, contact type, feedwater
heaters.
Pre-heated feedwater from the LP Heaters enters the deaerator
and is directed, in a finely atomised spray, into intimate contact
with a steam supply, quickly heating the feedwater to close to
the steam saturation temperature.
The reduction in pressure across the atomising nozzle and the
increase in solution temperature reduce the solubility of the
dissolved gases causing them to be liberated from the feedwater.
The liberated gases are cooled in the vent condensing section of
the deaerator and then vented from the deaerator (either to
atmosphere or to the steam turbine condenser). The heated
feedwater and condensed steam falls to a storage space at the
bottom of the deaerator or to an associated feedwater storage
vessel.
This system of deaeration can reduce the dissolved oxygen
concentration in the feedwater to less than 0.7 ppb, and
completely eliminate the carbon dioxide concentration.
Non-condensable gases
plus small steam plume
are vented to
Condensate enters atmosphere through the
Deaerator through vent condenser
atomising spray nozzles
Primary Deaeration Zone

Condensate is further heated by steam
and continues to be deaerated as it Steam enters Deaerator
and is directed by baffles
cascades through the deaerating trays
to flow through the
deaerating trays creating
a counter-flow path with
Secondary Deaeration Zone
the cascading condensate
Deaerated condensate and

condensed steam fall to the
feedwater storage tank below
Figure 176 Simplified Diagram of a Deaerator
There are two major types of deaerators:

 the tray type and
 the spray type.
In both cases, the major portion of gas removal is initially
accomplished by spraying relatively cold makeup water into a
steam environment.
The primary deaeration process which occurs at the point of
entry of the condensate to the deaerator can result in a
reduction of the dissolved oxygen content to 20-50 ppb, while
the continued intimate mixing of the steam, which causes an
increase in water temperature to close to the saturation
temperature of the steam further reduces the oxygen content to
≤7 ppb.
During normal operation, the vent to atmosphere must be

regulated to maintain a continuous discharge plume. Excess
throttling of the vent will result in an accumulation of non-
condensable gases in the deaerator, which will tend to blanket
the steam space and reduce the efficiency of the deaeration
process.
19.22.3 Chemical Deaeration using Oxygen Scavengers

While much of the dissolved oxygen can be removed by
mechanical means, oxygen scavengers are generally required to
complete the process.
As their name implies, oxygen scavengers are compounds, which
react with dissolved oxygen in aqueous solution.
Hydrazine was widely used for this application because of its
cost, volatility and ability to form magnetite on steel surfaces,
however, it has fallen from favour due to its possible
carcinogenic nature.
The list of possible oxygen scavengers now includes such
chemicals as:
 Hydrazine
 Carbohydrazide
 Isoascorbic Acid
 Hydroquinone
 Sodium Sulphite
 Methylethylketoxime (MEK)
 Diethylhydroxylamine (DEHA)
Unlike hydrazine, which is a volatile chemical that breaks into

gaseous components and follows the steam cycle through the
boiler and turbine, Sodium Sulphite reacts with oxygen to form a
solid sodium sulphate, which adds to the total dissolved solid
content of the boiler water, necessitating blowdown to maintain
TDS concentrations within limits.
19.22.4 Blowdown
The process of pre-treatment, filtration and demineralisation is
designed to remove the majority of all dissolved solids within
boiler feedwater makeup.
There is however a limit to the amount of solids that can be
effectively removed and as a result some solids find there way
into the boiler. Minor condenser leaks may also contribute to the
level of dissolved solids concentrating in the boiler.
Within the steam/water drum the concentration of dissolved

solids will continue to increase as the feedwater is evaporated. A
quantity of makeup water is supplied to the system to replace
losses due to blowdown, steam consumption in auxiliary plant,
steam and water sampling and general steam leakage, adding to
this concentration.
As the concentration of total dissolved solids increases it will
have the effect of:
 Forming scale on the heating surfaces of the tubes
 Partially carrying over with the steam flow
 Causing foaming within the steam water drums, which in
turn can result in increased carryover of solids laden water
with the steam.
 Both silica content and boiler water conductivity due to
TDS are controlled by continuous or intermittent blowdown
and initial water quality.
To limit the concentration of total dissolved solids in the boiler
steam/water drum the boiler water conductivity is monitored
and a percentage of the water is removed or “blown down” to
waste to maintain the conductivity within set limits.
Blowdown may be continuous, through a dedicated continuous
blowdown line connected to the boiler drum, or on demand.
Phosphate treatment would normally demand continuous
blowdown while all volatile treatment would only require
intermittent blowdown.
19.23 Steam and Water Sampling and Analysis

In general practice sample conditioning and sample analysis
equipment is mounted within a rack (Wet Analysis Rack) to allow
all samples to share a common cooling and drainage system and
to provide a common data collection point.
Figure 177 Typical Wet Analysis Rack
Before each sample is passed to the analysing equipment the

temperature, pressure and flow must be regulated to provide
stable conditions for analysis.
The typical sample path during conditioning is as follows:
 Samples are taken from their point of origin through a

master isolating valve (or master and martyr isolating valve
set if the sample has a high pressure point of origin)
 The sample enters the Wet Analysis Rack through a primary
isolating valve.
 From here it is taken through a primary cooler before
passing to a secondary or martyr isolating valve. The
primary cooler uses Closed Cooling Water as the cooling
medium.
 A blowdown valve is provided in parallel with the martyr
isolating valve to allow the sample line to be blown down to
drain as and when required.
 Following the martyr isolating valve the sample is taken to a
Pressure Reducing Valve which can be adjusted to maintain
a set pressure down stream of the valve of 1.0-1.5 Bar.
 The sample then passes through a second cooler, cooled by

chilled water. The final sample temperature should be
approaching 25 deg C.
 Temperature and pressure are monitored after the second
cooler.
 A grab sample valve is provided to allow laboratory samples
to be taken at any time the sample flow is established. The
grab sample line discharges into a common drain trough.
 The sample then passes to a flow control station where the
flow is regulated to 50 - 75 cc/ min. Where multiple
parameters are being analysed the sample is split into
multiple streams each passing through an independent flow
control station.
 From the flow control station the sample passes to the
appropriate analysers
 The samples are led to a common drain to waste as they
exit the analysers.
Sample Lag Time

It should be noted that the sample analysis does not give a real
time indication of the water or steam condition but rather lags
the actual condition by the time it takes for the sample to move
completely through the sample line. This could be calculated by
determining the total volume of the sample line (cross sectional
area x length) and dividing by the combination of the measured
sample flow (each 50-75 cc/min) multiplied by the number of
sample streams being analysed plus the grab sample flow.
Response to changes in sample conditions should bear this in
mind. Continuing to dose at an increased or decreased rate until
the sample parameter reaches the set point will result in
overshooting. The dosing rate should therefore be progressively
tuned as the parameter set point is approached.
Sample Supply Line
Sample Inlet Primary

Isolating Valve
Sample Inlet
Sample Inlet Martyr
CCW Blowdown Valve Isolating
Valve
Pressure
Reducing Valve PRV
Primary Cooler
cooled by a closed cooling
water system
Filter
T
Secondary Cooler
Chilled Water P
Cooled
Filter
Grab Sample
Isolating Valve
Relief Valve
Common Drain to Waste
Sample Flow Control Valve and

Analyser Flowmeter
Figure 178 Typical Sample Conditioning Flow Diagram
19.23.1 Sample Cooling

Analysing equipment normally provides a measured result based
on a standard temperature and/or pressure and, while analysers
may have inbuilt compensation, it is common practice to cool
the sample to close to the standard temperature (approximately
25 deg C) before sending it to the appropriate analyser.
Cooling may be done in one or multiple stages.
As the coolers can be subject to high temperatures, especially
when cooling steam samples, the cooling water should be such
that heavy scaling of the cooling coil does not occur. The primary
heat exchanger normally uses water from a filtered and
chemically treated Closed Cooling Water System as the cooling
medium. The heat exchangers are of various sizes, dependent
on the source of the sample. For example, HP Drum, HP
Superheater, IP Superheater samples have a larger heat
exchange surface area.
Where the sample cannot be cooled to the required temperature
using the closed cooling water medium a secondary cooling coil
may be installed. The secondary heat exchangers may be cooled
by a chilled water circuit provided by a dedicated Chilled Water
System.
19.23.2 Samples Taken for Analysis
The following table shows typical samples taken from a power
station steam water cycle, the analysis carried out, and the units
associated with each analysis parameter:
Sample Parameter Unit
Condensate Pp Discharge pH pH
Dissolved O2 ppb
Specific Conduct us/cm
Cation Conduct us/cm
Deaerator Inlet pH pH
Dissolved O2 ppb
Deaerator Outlet or pH pH
Economiser Inlet Dissolved O2 ppb
Hydrazine Residual
Boiler Water pH pH
Silica ppm
Specific Conduct us/cm
Saturated Steam Sodium ppb
Silica us/cm
Reheat Steam Cation Conduct us/cm
19.23.3 Specific and Cation Conductivity Analysis

Pure water is a non-conductor and should therefore have a very
high resistance or a very low conductivity depending on which
parameter we wish to measure. As the purity of the water is
decreased through the addition of dissolved solids etc. the
conductivity of the solution increases
Specific conductivity is the direct conductivity of a sample
solution measured in micro-siemens per centimetre (us/cm).
Cation or acid conductivity is the same measure after the sample
has been passed through a cation ion exchange resin column.
Passing the sample through a cation ion exchange resin column
has two effects:
1. Dissolved ammonia, as the NH4+ ion, is removed from the
sample, thereby removing the masking effect of ammonia
and providing a more precise indication of other impurities
in the sample.
2. By the replacement of their metal ion with a hydrogen ion,
dissolved salts are converted to their corresponding mineral
acids (e.g. NaCl (salt) is converted to HCl (hydrochloric acid))
which have a much higher conductivity for the same
concentration. Hence the acid or cation conductivity
provides a much more sensitive measure of impurities in the
sample.
The quality of the condensate as it is taken from the hotwell
should be quite high, however the carryover of ammonia tends to
create an artificially high conductivity. Specific Conductivity is
therefore monitored to allow ammonia (pH) control while Cation
Conductivity is monitored to provide an enhanced means of
detecting condenser tube leaks.
Typically Condensate would return a specific conductivity in the
range of 500 – 700 us/cm and a cation conductivity in the range
of 30-50 us/cm. Under Condenser leak conditions the specific
conductivity may rise slightly to 700-800 us/cm however the
cation conductivity may increase to 300 us/cm, an increase that
could not fall to be noticed.
Drum water tends to increase significantly in dissolved solids as
the steam is continuously evaporating and leaving the solids
behind. An allowable limit of dissolved solids is determined and
the drum water is blown down either intermittently or
continuously to maintain the water quality within the limit.
Steam flowing from the boiler drums should be of a high purity.
High carryover over of solids with the steam usually indicates a
problem with high concentrations of dissolved solids in the
drum, high drum water levels or foaming in the drum.
Drum water is therefore monitored using specific conductivity

whereas steam purity is monitored using cation conductivity
The higher quality water is tested for purity using Cation
Conductivity as the parameter, the lower quality is tested using
Specific Conductivity as the parameter.
19.23.4 Dissolved Oxygen Analysis

Oxygen reacts with iron and other metals to form a metal oxide.
Oxygen, dissolved in boiler water having traces of chlorides or
solids can cause pitting corrosion of metal surfaces.
An analysis of the dissolved oxygen level is normally taken at the
condensate pump discharge and before and after the deaerato
19.23.5 Condensate and Feedwater pH Analysis

Low pH is one of the most common causes of localised corrosion.
Volatile, alkaline, neutralising chemicals such as ammonia and
morphaline are traditionally used to control low pH. They
function only to neutralise and are effective only against
corrosion initiated by a low pH.
When fed into the boiler they volatilise and carry over with the
steam to dissolve in the condensate.
An analysis of pH is normally taken at the condensate pump
discharge, the deaerator inlet and outlet and at the steam/water
drum
19.23.6 Silica Analysis

High levels of silica form an adherent scale. Above 4Mpa silica
begins to volatilise and may be carried over to the after boiler
and turbine sections of the plant.
Silica can hideout in a boiler at high pressure, not showing up in
boiler water analysis, and then re-dissolve in the boiler water at
lower pressures exhibiting a high concentration and increasing
the risk of carry over.
Silica analysis is carried out on condensate and boiler water
samples and normally at the outlet of demineralisation plant.
19.23.7 Sodium Analysis

Providing the demineralised water is of good quality and the
demineralising train is not experiencing sodium slip, the
saturated steam sodium analyser should give the first indication
of a condenser tube leak.
20. Chemical Dosing

The chemicals dosed into the condensate/feedwater circuit may
include:
 Phosphate – to reduce scale formation and to control drum
water pH
 An oxygen scavenger
 Amine (neutralising and/or filming) to act as a condensate
pH control agent and/or provide an inert layer on the
surfaces of the condensate pipework.
 Oxygen
20.1 Chemical Dosing Equipment

Apart from oxygen dosing which takes the form of a gaseous
feed, typical Condensate or Feedwater Chemical Dosing
installations consists of the following for each chemical being
dosed:
 A Chemical Dosing Tank complete with:
– an agitator mixer driven by an electric motor
– tank level indication
– a low level switch to prevent pump operation and
initiate an alarm
– overflow and drain line
– a demineralised water makeup line
 Chemical Dosing Pumps complete with:
– suction and discharge valves
– a suction strainer
– discharge non return valve
– discharge pressure gauge
– discharge pressure relief valve
Because of the need for chemicals to be dosed in measured
amounts and at high pressures dosing pumps are normally
positive displacement piston type pumps.
Dosing rates can be varied by adjustment of the length of stroke
of the pump piston and variations in the speed of the dosing
pump motor.
21. Electrical Generation and Distribution

21.1 History of the Generator
In 1831 Michael Faraday discovered the principle of
electromagnetic induction. This discovery paved the way for the
development of the electric generator. In 1888 Sir Charles A
Parsons developed the first ac turbo-generator with his name
still synonymous today with the Parsons Turbine manufacturing
plant in England.
Development continued and by 1922 generator capacities had
increased to 20MW (small by today's standards) with the
introduction of solid forging and improved construction
techniques. In the late 1940's 60MW machines were produced
by replacing air-cooling with low pressure hydrogen. Generator
output reached 245MW when both stator and rotor conductors
were cooled with hydrogen. Further development of water-cooling
of the stator conductors along with higher pressure hydrogen
cooling of the rotor has allowed construction of 1000MW
generators.
21.2 Principle of Generators

The basic principle of a generator is a magnetic field and an
armature assembly with relative motion between the two. Either
the magnetic field or the armature may be rotated to produce the
electromotive force (emf). Electromotive force is the voltage
produced and is measured in volts.
In modern generators it is more practical to rotate the magnetic

field (known as the 'rotor') as it is smaller in size, has only two
sliprings and operates at a lower voltage therefore requiring less
electrical insulation. The armature assembly constructed of a
large magnetic iron core and windings (conductors) is the
stationary component of the generator and is called the 'stator'.
Small generators usually employ permanent magnets for the

magnetic field poles while high output generators will require
electromagnetic field poles. The electromagnetic field used in
power station generators is constructed of an iron core with
wound coils and when direct current (dc) is passed through the
coils a magnetic field is created within the iron core causing it to
become a magnet.
21.3 Electromagnetic induction

Voltage is induced in a conductor when there is relative motion
between that conductor and the lines of force of a magnetic field.
The voltage produced is referred to as electromotive force (emf)
and is the result of the principle of electromagnetic induction.
The production of an emf by electromagnetic means is the sole
purpose of a generator. To achieve this the foundations for the
generator design must be developed from the fundamental
principles of electromagnetic induction.
For the production of a voltage by electromagnetic means there
are three fundamental requirements:
 conductor/s available for a voltage to be induced in
 magnetic field within the locality of the conductor
 relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic
field.
Figure 179 shows all three requirements for the production of an
emf.
Milli
N S voltmeter

Magnetic lines of flux
Figure 179: Conductor moving down through a magnetic field
21.4 The simple generator

There are two different designs for generators:
 rotating armature construction
 rotating field construction
Figure 180 shows the two different designs for the simple
generator. They are both single phase generators; three phase
generation will be discussed later in this module.
Generator output
terminals
Sliprings
(2a) Rotating armature
Figure 180: Two designs for simple generator
In Figure 180(a) the conductor loop is rotated through a

magnetic field cutting the magnetic lines of flux. In Figure 180(b)
the magnetic field is rotated within the stationary conductor loop
causing the magnetic lines of flux to be cut. With both designs
the emf is induced in the conductor loop.
Even though the simple rotating field type is the preferred

construction for power station generators the rotating armature
was the first implemented and we will use it to describe the
principles of electromagnetic induction.
21.4.1 Principles of electromagnetic induction through a rotating armature

When the conductor loop is rotated within the magnetic field of
the permanent magnet poles an emf is induced into that
conductor loop. A sliding electrical connection is provided in the
form of sliprings and carbon brushes to provide a path to and
from the external circuit. Individual sliprings are connected to
opposite sides of the conductor loop.
Note: The sum of the voltages induced into the loop is twice that
of a single conductor as the loop is essentially two conductors
connected in series, with the instantaneous voltage of each
conductor being of equal magnitude and of opposite polarity.
With the resultant emf changing direction twice for each 360
degrees of rotation the generated voltage and consequently the
output from the sliprings takes the form of and alternating
current (ac).
Figure 181: Single phase sine wave alternation
21.5 Generator Construction

Although all generators work on the same principle their
construction has undergone many changes in an effort to
improve their reliability, efficiency and compactness
21.5.1 Rotor construction

The two most popular types of rotor construction for modern
generators are the:
 salient pole
 cylindrical (or non salient pole)
21.5.1.1 Salient pole construction

The salient pole type of construction is the most economical type
of construction and is used for slow speed generators (usually
500-1000rpm). Hydro-electric applications employ this type of
construction as well as small diesel generator installations.
The term salient refers to protruding. With this type of

construction a cylindrical cast iron or steel ring frame (boss)
with good magnetic properties has a shaft inserted through the
axis centre and bolted to the outer circumference of this boss are
solid pole shoes. Coils are wound around these pole shoes to
form the completed pole. Each pole is separated from the
adjacent pole and has its own field winding. All the pole
windings are connected in series with every second one being
reverse connected so as to give alternate north and south poles.
An end on view of a salient pole rotor is shown in Figure 182
while a side view is shown in Figure 184
If you refer to Figure 183 you can see that the pole faces of a
salient pole rotor are shaped so that the air gap is reduced at the
pole centre while being larger at the pole tips. This method of
construction produces a stronger magnetic field at the centre of
the pole which assists in inducing a sinusoidal waveform.
Cylindrical Pole shoe

cast iron or
steel ring
frame
Sliprings
Pole winding
Rotor shaft
Figure 182: Salient pole rotor
Pole shoe
Pole winding
Line of stator Air gap
Figure 183: Pole shoe with winding
Pole shoe
Pole winding
Rotor shaft
Sliprings
Figure 184: Side view of salient pole rotor
The number of poles actually installed around the circumference

of the boss will depend on the speed of the machine and the
frequency required.
Example:
A generator is to operate at 375rpm supplying a 50Hz system.
Calculate the number of poles required to be installed onto the
rotor.
The equation for calculation of frequency, speed or number of
poles is:
nP
f
60
Where: f = frequency (HZ)
n = rotor speed (rpm)
P = number of pairs of poles
By transposing the equation to make 'P' the principle we get:
60 f
P
n
60  50

375
= 8 pairs of poles (or 16 poles)
21.5.1.2 Cylindrical construction

Steam turbines operate with greater efficiency when operated at
higher speeds. Unfortunately the salient pole type of
construction is unsuitable for this high speed operation due to

greater centrifugal force associated with its large diameter.
This requirement for a high speed rotor that could handle the
greater centrifugal forces led to the introduction of a small
diameter cylindrical rotor. As the diameter of the rotor was
reduced the length of the rotor had to be increased to maintain
the same electrical output.
This cylindrical rotor is constructed as a single forged alloy steel
casting into which are machined deep axial slots. These axial
slots run the entire length of the rotor and accommodate the
rotor windings. A diagram of a rotor forging without any winding
conductors is shown in Figure 185.
The winding conductors usually made up of continuous copper
strip are insulated and formed into a number of oblong frames of
suitable dimensions. Once formed they are laid into the
machined slots and then retaining wedges or dovetail keys are
driven in from either end to prevent the winding from exiting the
shaft when subjected to centrifugal force. Figure 186 shows an
enlarged view of a single machined slot with the winding
conductor inserted and the retaining wedge installed.
Once the conductors are installed connections to complete the
winding are carried out at each end with the start and finish
tails being brought out to the sliprings. A cylindrical rotor with
rotor windings installed is shown in Figure 187.
Rotor shaft
Machined slots
Cooling holes
Rotor forging
Figure 185: Cylindrical rotor forging
Rotor forging
Wedge
Insulation
Conductor
Figure 186: Rotor machined slot with conductor and retaining wedge inserted
Connections to
sliprings
Wedges installed in
machined slots
Rotor winding
Figure 187: Cylindrical rotor with rotor winding installed
The rotor windings are suitably supported within the rotors

machined slots by the retaining wedges but the section of
winding that protrudes each end of the rotor forging need also to
be supported. This is achieved by the shrink fitting of retaining
end covers or more commonly called end bells. These end bells
are normally manufactured from non-magnetic alloy steel and
during operation are subjected to high stresses. Dovetail groves
are often machined into the ends of these end shields for the
provision of counterweights. A rotor showing the end bells
installed is shown in Figure 188.
End bells
Figure 188: Cylindrical rotor with end bells fitted
Apart from the rotor being constructed of the forging, windings

and end bells it also has a shaft with a series of stepped
diameters to accommodate:
 hydrogen (or air) blowers
 journal surfaces for gas seals
 coupling for turbine drive and exciter drive shaft
 sliprings
 journal surfaces for bearings
Rotor conductors Magnetic lines

of flux
Air gap
Rotor N
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
S
Stator conductors
Stator iron
Figure 189: Magnetic flux path through generator
21.5.2 Rotor excitation

The excitation system is the means we use to regulate the
voltage output of the generator. When a generator is connected
to a large electricity grid and operating in parallel with a number
of other generators a variation in the excitation which causes an
increase or decrease in rotor field current causing a change in
MVar or reactive power output of the generator. Provided normal
excitation conditions are established the megawatt or real power
output of a generator is entirely dependent on the input power to
the steam turbine (i.e. steam conditions)
Excitation current is regulated to maintain a generator terminal

voltage to suit power distribution system requirements under
changing conditions.
The excitation system consists of a number of components:

 Pilot exciter (high frequency generator)
 Automatic voltage regulator
 Rectifier/s
 Main exciter
 Sliprings
 Rotor field
All these components will be covered in detail in section 8.1.6
when we cover the automatic voltage regulator. In this section
we will only give an overview description.
The excitation system starts with the pilot exciter which usually
has a permanent magnet rotor. In some cases the pilot exciter
has an electromagnet type rotor which is excited with dc from
the station batteries.
The pilot exciter is connected to the same shaft as the main
exciter and generator and this can be seen in Figure 190. This
common shaft is rotated at 3000 rpm for 50Hz output and 3600
rpm for 60Hz output.
The electrical current produced by the pilot exciter is passed
through the automatic voltage regulator (AVR). The AVR
regulates the input excitation to the main exciter depending on
generator output demands. Output from the main exciter is then
rectified prior to being passed through the sliprings and into the
rotor windings.
The AVR is installed in the system immediately after the pilot
exciter as lower currents are present at this location and
therefore permitting the AVR to be a cheaper and more compact
unit.
Rectifier
Generator
Sliprings
AVR
Main
Exciter
Generator
Pilot
Exciter
Main Exciter
Sliprings
Figure 190: Simplified diagram of excitation system
21.5.2.1 Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

The AVR is the device that regulates the terminal voltage of the
generator. It can be operated in manual control (not
recommended and only used in emergency) and fully automatic
control (preferred mode).
There are a number of different methods employed to carry out
the function of the AVR but the result is the same for each case.
A simplified method of operation is shown in Figure 28.
The operating principle of the AVR shown in Figure 28 is as
follows:
The electrical output from the pilot exciter is firstly rectified. It is
then passed through the resistance bank and beam balance to
the positive slipring of the main exciter. The negative slipring is
connected directly back to the pilot exciter.
As the terminal voltage of the generator increases the voltage
sensed by the VT increases. This causes the current flowing
through the beam balance operating coil also to increase. With
this increase in current in the operating coil the magnetic
strength increases and attracts the beam balance towards it. As
this happens the contacts on the beam balance move in a
clockwise direction to the next terminal thus increasing the
resistance in the circuit to the main exciter sliprings. This
causes a reduction in excitation strength to the main exciter and
then the generator rotor, which, in turn, reduces the generator
terminal voltage. Conversely if the generator terminal voltage
falls the operating coil has less magnetic attraction and the
beam balance moves in an anti-clockwise direction under the
influence of the spring attached to the beam balance. The causes
the beam balance contacts to move to the next terminal and
reduce the resistance in the circuit. With this reduction in
circuit resistance the circuit current increases causing an
increase in excitation in the main exciter and generator rotor
causing the generator terminal voltage to rise.
After either an increase or decrease the system will find a point
of equilibrium and remain at that point unless the generator
terminal voltage is changed by system requirements or
adjustment of the set point.
The set point for generator voltage is adjusted on this system is
by rotating the knurled knob to either increase or decrease
spring tension on the beam balance.
This explanation of how an AVR operates is an exceptionally
simple one and is not used on modern generators but the
principle is the same. Modern AVRs are fully electronic and have
increased features and redundancy incorporated into them for
greater reliability.
Voltage
Transformer
Operating
Knurled
Coil Knob
Terminal Spring
Beam balance
Contact
Resistors Flexible
lead
Pivot Point
Rectifier
Main
Exciter
Generator
Pilot
Exciter
Main Exciter
Sliprings
Figure 191: Simplified AVR
A later trend in excitation control is to eliminate the pilot exciter

and main exciter completely and substitute these with a static
excitation system consisting of an excitation transformer,
automatic excitation regulator (AER), pulse amplifier (PA) and
thyristor rectifier. A simplified diagram of this system is shown
in Figure 192.
Voltage
Transformer
Excitation
Transformer
Generator
Circuit Breaker
AER
Generator
Sliprings
PA
Thyrister Generator
Rectifier
Figure 192: Simplified diagram of an automatic excitation regulator
The advantage of this system is that it is cheaper and has no

moving part; but the disadvantage with is that excitation power
must come from the electrical grid and therefore black start
ability is not available.
21.5.2.2 Brushless excitation

Some generator manufacturers offer a brushless excitation
system. A diagram of this system is shown in Figure 193 and a
description of operation follows.
With brushless excitation the pilot exciter is a normal permanent

magnet rotor construction. The AVR is installed in the same
location as for slipring construction but the main exciter is
constructed with the main field as the stator and a three phase
wound rotor. Installed in the shaft is a set of rectifiers that
supply the generator rotor with dc excitation.
Rectifier
AVR
Generator Rotor
Pilot
Generator
Exciter
Main Exciter
Rotor
Figure 193: Brushless excitation
21.5.3 Stator construction

The stator of a large modern generator is constructed of three
main components:
 Outer frame
 Iron core
 Windings
21.5.3.1 Outer frame

The outer frame is of welded steel plate construction. It is rolled
and welded to form a cylindrical shape and is gas tight.
Depending on whether the generator is either hydrogen or air
cooled will determine the actual construction strength. For air
cooled generators a lighter construction is employed as this type
of generator only operates slightly above atmospheric pressure
where as a hydrogen cooled generator operates at 300-400kPa
above atmospheric pressure. The construction technique is the
same for both only more robust for hydrogen cooled generators
to accommodate the greater pressure. A diagram of an alternator
stator is shown in Figure 194.
Figure 194: Outer frame of generator
21.5.3.2 Iron core

The iron core contains the stator windings (conductors) and is of
laminated construction. A number of thin (approximately
0.5mm) high quality silicon steel laminations are assembled
together to form a segment. Many segments separated by
spacers (to allow for cooling) are then tightly clamped together
with end plates to complete this iron core. The clamping end
plates are of a non-magnetic construction so as not to become
part of the flux path.
Attachment of the iron core to the outer frame is by means of

spring plates. These spring plates dampen out frequency
vibrations generated in the iron core being transmitted to the
outer frame.
21.5.3.3 Windings
Insulated stator conductors are tightly packed into the
longitudinal slots of the laminated iron core and secured with
wedges. Overhanging coil ends are lashed down with insulating
material to insulating blocks bolted to the iron core end plates.
Both ends of each phase of the stator windings are brought out
to the generator terminals, which can be situated on either the
top or bottom of the outer casing (depending on manufacturer).
Three of these terminals form the three phase conductors that
connect to the generator transformer. The other three terminals
are connected together to form the neutral or star point of the
generator.
The stator conductors are formed into a coil to make up each

phase and can be either solid construction (low output
generators) or of the hollow tube construction (high output
generators). A solid type construction is shown in Figure 195
while a hollow tube type is shown in Figure 196.
Lamination
Wedge
Insulation
Solid
Conductor
Figure 195: Solid stator conductor
Lamination
Wedge
Insulation
Hollow Tube
Conductor
Figure 196: Hollow tube type stator conductor
The benefit of a hollow tube type conductor is that a cooling fluid

can be passed through the centre of the individual conductor to
remove unwanted heat. With this type of construction the
physical size of the generator can be greatly reduced whilst
maintaining the megawatt output.
21.6 Generator Bearings and lubrication

The rotor shaft is supported by two white metal journal bearings
similar to that used on the turbine rotors. These horizontally
mounted bearings are of a split type construction and bolted to
the endplates of the outer casing. All joints are gas tight and the
bearings are insulated to stop the flow of induced shaft current
through the bearing surfaces. If these induced shaft currents
were allowed to flow through the bearing faces they would be
extensively damaged by pitting caused by electrical arcing.
Lubricating oil for the bearings is supplied from the turbine

lubricating oil system and jacking oil systems. For more
information about these systems refer to the turbine manual of
this series.
Prior to placing the generator and turbine on turning gear the

rotor must be lifted by the jacking oil system to create a layer of
oil sufficient to prevent any contact between the white metal
bearings and the rotor shaft. For more information about this
system refer to the turbine manual of this series.
The exciter and pilot exciter bearings also receive lubricating oil
from the turbine lubricating oil system but are not supplied with
jacking oil due to their significantly lighter construction.
21.7 Generator Cooling Systems

A generator operates with a high magnetic field and a high
current density producing unwanted heat, due to copper losses
in the conductors (both rotor and stator) and due to iron losses
in the iron core. This heat must be removed or the insulation will
be damaged and failure of the generator will occur. As the size of
the machines increases so too does the amount of heat
generated and requiring to be dissipated.
Industry standards define the maximum allowable temperatures
for stator and rotor windings, and these standards tend to limit
the size of the generator, dependent on their means of cooling.
The first generators to go into commercial service were simple
air-cooled machines. As the capacity of the machines increased,
however, it became necessary to produce generating sets with a
high power output and a relatively compact construction,
manufacturers have been forced to devise more effective cooling
systems.
There are now several methods of generator cooling employed in
the industry. These include:
 Totally enclosed air cooling (This is used on nominally

smaller capacity units up to 160MVA, however, large
capacity, air cooled generators in the order of 500MVA
are currently on the market employing a sophisticated
inner cooler ventilation system)
 Totally enclosed hydrogen cooling with or without
supplementary stator water cooling (above 50MVA)
 Liquid Cooling
NOTE: Between 50 and 160MVA the choice of cooling methods
varies between manufacturers above a nominal 160MVA
hydrogen cooling is the most prominent method used.
Most modern high-output generators have a combination of
cooling systems with the rotor being cooled by hydrogen, which
is circulated through the generator frame by fans integral with
the generator rotor, and the stator being cooled by a flow of high
quality demineralised cooling water, which is circulated by an
external pumping system.
Some generators, even as large as 500MW capacity, however,
still utilise air cooling.
21.8 Totally Enclosed Air Cooling

A large number of modern, small and medium capacity
alternators employ the totally enclosed air cooling method.
Air cooling has the advantage of minimal capital cost due to the
absence of a need for special shaft sealing mechanisms and the
constant make-up demands of a hydrogen cooling system.
The internal cooling air circuit is sealed to ensure that airborne
dust can be excluded from the cooling system and therefore does
not deposit on the windings or in the ducts. If dust is allowed to
accumulate on the windings the heat transfer process is
hindered and the dust layer can absorb moisture and/or oil
leading to failure of the insulation.
A totally enclosed system also ensures that moisture contained
in normal ambient air is not allowed to enter the alternator
provided that the alternator is initially charged with air of a low
dewpoint.
The alternator cooling circuit consists of the following

components:
 The alternator frame and enclosure
 Shaft mounted circulating fan/s
 Cooling passages through the stator and rotor
windings
 Heat exchangers
The alternator frame not only acts as the support for the stator
assembly but also acts to reduce noise transmission and to
provide a passage or passages through which the cooling air
circulates. Baffles and partition walls direct the cooling air
through a path designed to ensure optimum heat transfer is
maintained within the alternator. Typical single and double pass
cooling circuits are shown in Figure 197. Shaft mounted fans
within the alternator frame are used to ensure that a positive
cooling air flow is maintained through the cooling circuit while
ever the alternator is in service.
Figure 197: Axial Fan mounted on a generator rotor shaft
In some cases counterweighted dampers are used within the

cooling circuit to allow the fan to run up to speed under a no
load or minimum load condition. As the fan reaches normal
operating speed the discharge pressure of the fan forces the
damper closed and the entire cooling circuit is then connected to
the fan discharge. Radial ventilation ducts form part of the stator
core and allow the cooling medium to pass through the stator
from the air gap to the cooling passages within the outer
alternator frame.
Axial ventilation ducts are formed at the bottom of the rotor slots
below the windings and radial ventilation holes are formed
through the winding bundles to allow a passage for the cooling
medium throughout the rotor. Figure 198 shows the flow path
through the rotor while Figure 202 shows the general pattern of
flow throughout the alternator.
Figure 198: Section through Rotor showing the axial and radial ventilation
passages
Heat exchangers are required to remove the heat from the

internal cooling circuit and dissipate it to atmosphere through
an external cooling medium. This may be through an air to air or
an air to water heat exchanger.
Figure 199: End view of alternator with air/air heat exchanger
As the output of the generator increases the choice of water/air

heat exchangers becomes more prominent.
The heat exchangers are located within the alternator frame
either side or bottom mounted. The air circuit may be directed
through a single pass of the heat exchanger or through multiple
passes to maximise heat transfer throughout the alternator.
Figure 200: Showing finned tube water cooled heat exchanger. Note the drain
and vent lines provided on the inlet and outlet manifolds
The cooling water is normally filtered water supplied from the

turbine auxiliary cooling water system, but may be supplied by
an independent cooling water system.
The generator air cooler inlet and outlet water-boxes are fitted with vents and
drains to allow any entrained air to be vented from the system and to
allow the coolers to be drained for maintenance (See flanged
connections in
Figure 200).
Liquid detectors are provided in the lower points of the frame to
monitor any ingress of water into the generator due to tube
leakage from the coolers.
The cooling water inlet and outlet temperature and the air
temperature within the frame are normally monitored with an
alarm being initiated if high temperatures are detected.
Figure 201: End view of alternator enclosure showing the bolted access doors
to the water-cooled heat exchangers mounted within
Figure 202: Typical single and two pass air cooling circuits showing passage of
air through the rotor and stator elements
21.9 Totally Enclosed Hydrogen Cooling
21.9.1 Characteristics of Hydrogen as a Cooling medium

Following experimentation with various alternative cooling media
including helium and hydrogen, around 1937, hydrogen became
the cooling medium of preference in larger machines.
Hydrogen gas has a higher thermal conductivity and heat
transfer coefficient than air but a much lower density, (7.00:1
1.35:1 and 0.07:1 against air in each case) therefore it acts as a
much better heat transfer medium than air when applied to
cooling the internal components of the generator.
In addition, pressurised hydrogen is a better electrical insulator
than air, and hydrogen is not an oxidising agent.
Hydrogen is readily obtained in unlimited quantities, is inert,
non-explosive and will not support combustion when mixed with
air in concentrations less than 4% and greater than 70%.
Increases in generator output of 20% were gained by the
replacement of air with hydrogen at a pressure slightly higher
than atmospheric pressure 3 kPag (to prevent air ingress into
the frame). As the density of the hydrogen was increased
through increasing the pressure of the gas, further gains in heat
transfer and related generator output were made. Typical
hydrogen pressure in modern day generators vary from 2 to 4.5
barg
21.9.2 Hydrogen Gas Safety

In considering hydrogen as a cooling medium there was a
concern for hydrogen fires, a concern, which air and helium did
not share.
It was considered, however, that as long as adequate safety
precautions were maintained, hydrogen could be used effectively
in an enclosed cooling system.
Hydrogen Gas forms an explosive mixture with air in
concentrations between 5% and 70% Hydrogen.
The intensity of the explosion caused by ignited hydrogen/air
mixture varies sinusoidally, having zero values at 0% and 70%
Hydrogen.
The actual pressure of the gas mixture also affects the intensity
of an explosion should one occur.
To ensure that a condition does not occur that will create a
possible explosion and to reduce the intensity of the explosion,
should one occur, the following precautions must be carried out:
 Carbon dioxide is used as an interface between Hydrogen

and Air whenever the generator is to be de-pressurised
and opened to atmosphere or re-pressurised after being
filled with air at ambient conditions.
 During the purging phase the pressure within the
generator frame is decreased to 0.1 to 0.2 bar
21.9.3 Components of the Hydrogen Gas System

The components of the Hydrogen Gas System include the
following:
 Hydrogen Gas Supply
 Hydrogen Dryer
 Gas pressure/purity monitoring unit
 Carbon Dioxide Supply
 Supply and vent valves and pipework
 Hydrogen Circulating Fan
 Water/Oil leakage detectors
21.9.4 Hydrogen Gas Supply

A makeup supply of hydrogen gas must be available to the
hydrogen cooling system to allow the pressure and purity of the
hydrogen gas to be maintained while ever the generator is in
service and/or filled with hydrogen.
Makeup supply is normally taken from storage banks of
compressed hydrogen bottles connected to supply manifolds.
The storage bottles themselves may be replenished by an
external supplier or refilled from hydrogen generating plant
located on site.
The supply pressure from the hydrogen bottles to the alternator
frame may be automatically regulated by a manually set
pressure regulating valve or, alternatively, by a reducing valve
provided in parallel with the pressure regulating valve.
The pressure of the storage bank and the pressure downstream
of the pressure reducing station are normally monitored.
21.9.5 Hydrogen Gas Dryer

The dewpoint of hydrogen within a generator is normally
maintained in the order of –25 C in order to prevent internal
moisture generated corrosion and failure. This would normally
necessitate the inclusion of a hydrogen dryer as part of the
hydrogen system.
A number of types of dryer are available in the industry,

heatless, regenerative dryers, desiccant dryers, and refrigerant
dryers. Any one of these could find an application as a hydrogen
dryer, however, because water freezes and can no longer be
removed from the system at temperatures below 0 C, refrigerant
fryers are not normally used.
Within the generator frame, the hydrogen circulating fans create
areas of low and high pressure at their suction and discharge
respectively.
By locating the hydrogen dryer supply and return pipework
between the high and low pressure sections of the generator
frame a gas flow is induced through the dryer whenever the
alternator shaft is rotating at synchronous speed and the shaft
mounted circulating fans are in operation.
Unless a dedicated circulating fan is incorporated into the dryer
circuit, drying cannot take place with the generator out of
service.
21.9.6 Hydrogen Gas Pressure and Purity Monitoring

The cooling quality of hydrogen gas is proportional to its density
and therefore the pressure it is under within the generator
frame.
Reduction of pressure results in a reduction in cooling capacity.
The pressure of the gas is therefore constantly monitored to
ensure that optimum gas density is maintained within the
frame.
Maintaining hydrogen gas purity is of paramount importance
due to its loss of performance as a cooling medium and its
likelihood of falling into an explosive range if the loss of purity is
caused by its mixture with oxygen.
The purity of the hydrogen gas within the generator frame is
normally monitored by passing a sample of the gas through an
analyser.
As carbon dioxide is used as an interfacing agent when gassing
up and degassing the generator, it is most common for the
analyser to have several functions and to be able to monitor
hydrogen purity and the concentrations of hydrogen and carbon
dioxide in air.
The suction side of the analyser can therefore be connected to
either of two suction lines, one taken from the upper portion of
the generator and used for hydrogen purity analysis during
hydrogen filling,the other, taken from the bottom section of the
generator and used for analysis of the gas purity while CO2 is
being used as an interfacing medium between hydrogen and air.
During normal operation the lower detection point should be

used as lower purity hydrogen will tend to be more dense than
high purity hydrogen and a reduction in purity should be evident
first in the lower portion of the frame.
Although different limits may be placed on purity at different
power station sites, hydrogen purity should be maintained above
93%.
During normal operation of the generator the small amount of
seal oil migrating into the generator frame may carry some
entrained air and moisture with it. This air and moisture will be
released from the seal oil as it migrates to the defoam tank and
will eventually cause a deterioration in hydrogen purity. In order
to maintain hydrogen purity it may be necessary to bleed off a
portion of the gas while making up the gas volume with pure
hydrogen from the cylinder bank.
In some installations a constant, regulated bleed is maintained
through bleed lines directed to atmosphere through a flow
regulating valve, an oil mist separator and a flowmeter.
Figure 203: Hydrogen Bleed Station showing regulating valves, flowmeters and
oil mist separators
21.9.7 Carbon Dioxide Supply

Carbon Dioxide is used as an inert interfacing agent when filling
the generator frame with hydrogen or air.
The Carbon Dioxide Supply usually consists of banks of storage
cylinders attached to a supply manifold. The storage cylinders
may be replenished by an external supplier or by a bulk carbon
dioxide facility within the station site.
It should be noted that the gas discharge pipework temperature
can be below freezing point and contact between skin and the
pipework may result in the skin freezing to the pipework causing
frostbite injury to the affected area. Appropriate safety
precautions should be taken during operation of this equipment.
During purging the introduction of carbon dioxide may be
allowed to cease once the carbon dioxide reaches a purity <75%.
The detection of carbon dioxide purity must be taken from the
upper sampling point in the generator frame.
21.9.8 Hydrogen Gas Cooling Circuit

The hydrogen cooling circuit includes paths through the stator
and rotor windings (see previous diagram of air cooled
circulation paths) where heat is gained and a path through the
hydrogen coolers where heat is dissipated. To ensure a positive
flow through the circuit two fan impellers are mounted on the
generator rotor shaft and each draws a portion of the hydrogen
from the cooler and passes it through the generator windings
and back to the windings. This circuit creates a high and low
pressure area within the generator frame while ever the machine
is operating at rated speed.
The hydrogen dryer takes advantage of the two different pressure
zones to establish a hydrogen flow through the drying chamber.
Banks of hydrogen coolers are normally provided at the side or
top of the generator frame. The cooling medium is normally high
quality demineralised water from a closed cooling water system.
Contamination of the Generator frame can occur due to a failure
of the hydrogen coolers, causing a water leak into the frame, or
failure of the hydrogen shaft seal allowing oil ingress into the
frame. In either case leakage must be detected. Detection points
are normally tapped into the generator frame at each end of the
generator adjacent to the seals. These detectors should be
regularly checked and the quantity and type of liquid found in
them should be logged.
21.9.9 System Monitoring and Alarms

The following parameters associated with the hydrogen gas
system would normally be monitored:
 Hydrogen Gas temperature
 Hydrogen Gas Purity
 Hydrogen Gas Pressure
 Hydrogen Supply Bank Pressure
 The amount of liquid within liquid detectors
21.10 Liquid Cooling

21.10.1 Stator Water Cooling
As the output rating of generators increases so the use of water
cooling for heat removal in the stator becomes more effective.
Stator Water Cooling is additional to the cooling still maintained
by hydrogen circulation around the stator and through radial
cooling passages within the stator.
In a water-cooled stator, demineralised water is circulated
through dedicated pathways built into the stator laminations.
The stator cooling circuit passes through the entire length of the
stator and is connected to the stator water supply and return
manifolds through insulated hoses (PTFE or other suitable
plastic).
The stator water system usually consists of the following
components:
 Stator Water Circulating Pumps
 Manifold Vent Tanks
 Filters
 Coolers
 Flow and Differential Pressure Measuring Equipment
 Conductivity monitoring equipment and demineralising
unit
 Stator water head tank and associated pipework
21.10.2 Stator Water Pumps and Circuit Components

The stator water cooling system is critical for maintaining the
generator within the limits of design operating temperatures and
would normally demand redundancy in its pumps.
The stator water pumps are usually ac motor driven centrifugal
pumps and are provided to circulate the stator water through
the closed stator water system at a head pressure slightly lower
than that of the hydrogen pressure contained within the
generator frame.
This has the effect of allowing gas to leak into the stator water
system rather than permitting stator water to migrate into the
generator frame.
Small and insidious amounts of hydrogen gas entering the
cooling water circuit may be detected by the incorporation of
float chambers above the generator inlet and outlet manifolds
and at the pump suction. Float operated alarm contacts are
made when a set volume of gas displaces the water in the
chamber. The frequency of alarms and the amount of gas vented
from the system to clear the alarm aids in determining the size of
the leak.
Filters are provided to remove any entrained particulate from the
system.
Heat from the Stator Water System is dissipated to atmosphere
through a heat exchanger. Usually the heat exchangers use
lower quality cooling water as the cooling medium. The supply
pressure of the auxiliary cooling water is lower than that of the
stator water system to reduce the likelihood of stator water
contamination if a leak in the heat exchanger occurs.
21.10.3 Stator Water Flow and Differential Pressure Measurement

In order to monitor the stator water system’s performance it is
common to include of flow measuring station in the supply line
to the stator. If stator water flow falls momentarily an alarm is
initiated and the standby pump is called into service, if the flow
fails an alarm and trip is initiated.
A differential pressure monitoring station, located between the
generator stator water inlet and outlet manifolds, serves to
detect excessive leakage within the generator frame and initiate
a trip of the generator.
21.10.4 Stator Water Conductivity Monitoring

The quality of the demineralised water must be high to prevent
current flow through the system. Metal pickup from the stator
pipework can result in an increase in conductivity with time. The
conductivity of the stator water is normally monitored and the
provision of a side-stream, mixed bed, polishing column allows
any dissolved solids to be removed and the conductivity to be
maintained within design limits.
21.10.5 Alternatives to Stator Water Cooling

Some modern generators are oil cooled. The stator winding, the
core, busbars, terminals, and structural members of the stator
are cooled with a fire-resistant dielectric liquid. The cooling
medium, special dialectric oils, can be mixed and a fire-resistant
quality can be applied to the mixture. The rotor winding has
direct cooling with distillate.
The fire-resistant dielectric liquid and distillate circulation is
provided by pumps, on a closed-loop system, with the cooling
liquids being cooled in cooling liquid/water heat exchangers.
Small generators (70MW) have been developed (1970-2000)
using high and low temperature superconductors in the stator
and rotor windings. These winding have employed liquid and
gaseous helium, liquid nitrogen and liquid argon as the cooling
medium.
Gas Collection Vessels

with
Automatic Vent Valves
Demineralised
Water Make-up
Stator Water Inlet Stator Stator Water Outlet

Manifold Manifold
Outl Stator Water
Rotoret Head Tank
head
er T
DP FS
F Tx
Side-stream Demineraliser
Stator
Water
DP Coolers
TCV A
1. P T Stator Water Pumps
CV
Stator Water Filters
Figure 204: Stator Water System
22. Seal Oil System

22.1 Function of the System
The function of the Seal Oil System is to provide a regulated
supply of oil to the Hydrogen Shaft Seals in order to prevent the
hydrogen held within the alternator frame from passing through
the same opening in the alternator frame through which the
main alternator rotor shaft passes.
In carrying out its task the seal oil provides:
• A hydraulic force which tends to seat the face of the seal on
the surface of the shaft
• A fluid interface between the seal face and the shaft that
prevents passage of the hydrogen to the outside air
• A supply of lubricant to effectively reduce friction loss and
wear of the mating seal and shaft surfaces
• A coolant supply which removes heat generated within the
seal and at the seal faces
The seal oil system should be placed in service before hydrogen
is admitted to the alternator frame and must be retained in
service until the frame is degassed to atmospheric conditions.
The seal oil system should also be placed in service before the
turbine/generator is rotated on barring gear.
22.2 Operation of the System

Filtered and cooled Seal Oil, regulated to a pressure slightly in
excess of the gas pressure within the generator frame, is
supplied by any of three supply pumps (2 main and 1 dc
emergency) to the hydrogen shaft seal on the exciter and turbine
ends of the generator.
The seal oil acts hydraulically to force the sealing surface against
the shaft surface while at the same time lubricating the sealing
surfaces and dissipating any heat produced between the mating
surfaces.
The majority of oil return flow from the seal migrates to the shaft
bearing side of the seal and mixes with the lubricating oil in the
bearing oil return line.
A small amount of oil will also migrate to the generator side of
the seal against the hydrogen pressure. This oil will return to the
seal oil system through the Hydrogen Side Drain Regulator.
The bearing housings associated with each seal are maintained
under a negative pressure by a vapour extraction fan and
exhaust line, which also incorporates a path for high volume
leakage of hydrogen to atmosphere in the event of seal failure.
22.3 Components of the System
The Seal Oil System is typically comprised of the following

components:
• Shaft sealing mechanism
• Main Seal Oil Pumps
• Emergency Seal Oil Pump
• Differential Pressure Regulators
• Seal Oil Cooler
• Seal Oil Filters
• Bearing side and Hydrogen side Seal oil return lines
• Vapour Extraction Fan
• Seal Oil to Hydrogen Differential Pressure Switches
• Associated Gauges, Switches, Transmitters and Elements
as required for operation and monitoring and control
22.3.1 Shaft Sealing Mechanism
The shaft sealing mechanism is provided for the purpose of

preventing hydrogen gas leakage from the generator along the
rotor shaft.
Several types of propriety type sealing mechanism are available
including:
 a radial oil film type sealing ring that seals directly against
the shaft journal
 an annular pad or ring that seals axially against a
machined or fixed collar on the shaft
Oil, supplied at a pressure greater than the pressure of the gas
within the generator frame, forces the sealing surfaces together
while at the same time providing lubricant to the seal faces.
In the case of the sealing ring a single oil supply provides both
the hydraulic pressure to force the seal against the shaft journal
and the coolant/lubricant flow to the seal face.
In the case of the collar type seal, two seal oil flows, through
separate pressure regulating stations, provide the hydraulic
annular pressure to force the ring against the collar (annulus oil)
and the coolant/lubricant flow to the seal face (face seal oil).
Seal Housing Proprietary Sealing

Ring
Shaft Journal Bearing
Hydrogen Pressure in Frame 2 - 4 Barg

Air Pressure at bearing < 0 Barg
Hydrogen Side Seal

Oil Drain
Labyrinth Seals
Hydrogen Side Seal

Bearing Side Seal Oil and Oil Drain
Bearing Oil Drain
Seal Oil Supply
at
Hydrogen Pressure + 50 kPa
Figure 205. Radial Oil Film Type Seal
22.3.1.1 Radial Type Seal

A radial oil film type seal (see Figure 205) consists of a seal
housing containing a pair of segmented bronze alloy or babbitted
steel rings. The segments are positioned against the side walls of
the seal casing and are held concentric with the shaft by
hydraulic pressure from the seal oil.
The seal rings have a bore diameter of only a few thousandths of
an inch greater than the shaft journal and are free to float
radially but are prevented from rotating with the shaft by stops
in the casing
Seal Oil, at a pressure of approximately 0.35 bar greater than
hydrogen pressure is supplied to the seal casing forcing the seal
against the shaft journal face. The oil then passes through a
space between the sealing rings to the seal face; from here it
flows axially along the shaft in both directions. It is the thin film
of oil that actually provides the seal between the hydrogen and
atmosphere.
The pressure across the seal face is not uniform, the alternator
side of the seal is at frame pressure (2 – 4 bar), while the bearing
side of the seal is under a slightly negative pressure. It therefore
follows that the flow path of the majority of the seal oil will be
toward the low pressure side, typical flows are in the order of 80
l/min to the bearing side and only 5 l/min to the alternator side.
Due to the fine clearances between the seal and the shaft
journal, failure to provide seal oil flow to the seals while the shaft
is rotating will result in overheating, binding and seizure of the
seals. A flow of seal oil is therefore required to lubricate and cool
the seal faces whenever the shaft is rotating, even when the
frame is de-pressurised to air at ambient pressure.
To prevent seal oil, which has migrated to the hydrogen side of
the seal, from entering the alternator frame, the alternator shaft
is also fitted with oil deflectors and labyrinth type oil seals. The
hydrogen side seal oil drain is located before the shaft oil seals.
22.3.1.2 Axial Collar Type Seal

In seal designs employing a seal ring and shaft collar two oil
supplies are provided; annulus oil and face seal oil.
Annulus oil is directed into an annulus in the seal ring and acts
as a hydraulic force to drive the seal against the shaft collar. It is
important that the annulus oil is supplied first when setting up
the seal oil system in order to ensure that the sealing faces mate
around the entire seal circumference. If the ring is slightly
skewed excessive oil flows will be seen at the seal face. Although
the annulus oil is predominantly a hydraulic medium a small
flow is allowed to be bled from the annulus to prevent
overheating of the oil at the seal.
As the function of the annulus oil is to maintain a hydraulic
force on the seal its pressure is regulated to maintain a set
positive differential between itself and the hydrogen pressure
within the alternator frame (Annulus Oil pressure > Hydrogen
pressure). Annulus oil pressure will therefore vary considerably
during periods when the gas pressure is allowed to increase or
decrease.
The Face Seal Oil is used as a lubricating and heat dissipation

medium. The pressure of the face seal oil is constant.
22.3.2 Seal Oil Pumps

Due to the need to supply a constant seal oil supply while ever
the generator frame is filled with hydrogen, redundant seal oil
pumps are required. Two 100% duty seal oil pumps are therefore
normally provided, (Duty (A) and Standby (B). These pumps may
be ac motor driven or a combination of ac motor and turbine
shaft driven.
The pumps take their suction from a convenient location in the
lubricating oil system.
Each pump is provided with suction and discharge isolating
valves and a non-return valve in the pump discharge.
One Emergency dc motor driven Seal Oil Pump is normally
provided to ensure seal oil supply is maintained on loss of all ac
supply.
The Standby Seal Oil Pump will automatically start on loss of the
Main Seal Oil Pump.
The Emergency Seal Oil Pump will start on loss of both the Main
and Standby Seal Oil Pumps and on Seal Oil Differential
Pressure falling to a low limit (typically in the order of 0.30 bar)
In some cases, should all pumps fail while the lubricating oil
system is still in service, low pressure backup oil supply from
the Turbine Bearing Oil System may be used to maintain supply
to the seals.
In such a situation, however, the hydrogen gas pressure should
be reduced to an appropriate value to ensure sufficient
differential pressure exists between the seal oil and hydrogen.
Figure 206: Main Seal Oil Pump Showing Differential Pressure Regulator, Relief
Valve and Associated Pipework
22.3.3 Differential Pressure Regulators

In order to prevent the hydrogen from escaping through the seal
the pressure of the seal oil must be higher than that of the
hydrogen within the alternator frame.
Seal oil differential pressure regulators are used to control the
pressure of the seal oil being supplied to the seals. If the
pressure is too high then excessive amounts of oil may pass into
the alternator side of the seal; if the pressure is too low then it
may not be sufficient to prevent an outflow of hydrogen past the
seal.
In the case of collar type seal separate regulators are provided
for the anulus and face seal oil supplies.
The Differential Pressure Regulator works on the principle of a
diaphragm or metal bellows being subjected to the generator gas
pressure on the upper side and the seal oil pressure to the seals
on the lower side. The bellows or diaphragm is connected to the
regulating valve spindle. An adjustable spring gives the required
amount of bias to establish the required differential pressure (in
the order of 0.3 to 0.5 bar). Should the gas pressure in the
generator frame increase at any time the pressure on the top
side of the bellows will increase, driving the spindle down slightly
and reducing the amount of seal oil being returned to the pump
suction header. This will cause a corresponding increase in the
seal oil supply pressure.
Under normal operating conditions, once the pressure regulator
has been adjusted to the required difference between hydrogen
and seal oil pressures it will maintain a constant pressure
differential through the complete range of hydrogen pressures.
Figure 207: Side View of Seal Oil Pumps showing Differential Pressure
Regulators, Relief Valves Suction and Discharge Lines
22.3.4 Seal Oil Cooler

Prior to reaching the shaft seal the seal oil passes through a heat
exchanger to dissipate heat from the system and to maintain a
set oil supply temperature (changes in oil temperature and
viscosity will effect the performance of the seal).
Coolers may be shell and tube type with the seal oil flowing
through the shell and the auxiliary cooling water flowing through
the tubes or they may be plate or air cooled fin type.
Typical outlet temperature from the cooler ranges between 38
and 43 Deg C
22.3.5 Seal Oil Filter

Filters are provided to remove any entrained particulate from the
system.
Duplex filters that provide for in service change-over from one
basket to the other without loss of seal oil flow are the most
common type of filter in use. A changeover handle allows in
service operation of either strainer basket. Vent and drain valves
are provided for venting and draining of the filter prior to
removal and cleaning of the strainer basket.
A differential pressure switch is provided to initiate an alarm on
a high filter DP (in the order of 0.5 bar). Response to high filter
DP and filter cleaning should receive a high priority.
Figure 208: Seal Oil Cooler showing Oil Inlet, Outlet and Bypass Valves and
Cooling Water Outlet Flow and Temperature Indication
22.3.6 Seal Oil Return Lines

The oil returning from the seals takes two independent paths,
the majority returns through the bearing side drain while a
minor amount returns from the hydrogen or generator frame
side of the seal.
Oil returning from the bearing housing side of the seal passes to
a loop seal oil tank before returning to the seal oil pump suction
side (or main oil tank). A vapour extraction fan is connected to
the loop seal to maintain the bearing housing under a negative
pressure and to remove any oil vapour or hydrogen present
within the bearing housing.
The oil returning from the alternator side of the seal may have
hydrogen gas entrained within it, therefore this oil is passed first
to a defoam tank or hydrogen side drain regulator before it is
allowed to mix with the oil returning from the bearing side of the
seal.
The function of the defoam tank is to allow the small quantity of
oil returning from the frame to settle for a period of time during
which the hydrogen gas is detrained from the oil.
The flow of oil from the defoam tank is regulated to maintain a
constant level of oil within the tank. This is done to form a seal
between the alternator frame and the seal oil pump suction
pipework. Should the seal within this tank be lost the frame can
connected to atmosphere through the loop seal oil tank and
associated vapour extraction fan resulting in a major loss of
hydrogen to atmosphere.
A float valve regulates the oil level to the centreline of the gauge
glass fitted to the tank. Excess oil is released to the Seal Oil
Pump suction header.
Level switches initiate an alarm if the oil level rises or falls to a
point outside the limits set either side of the gauge glass mid
point.
Figure 209: Hydrogen Side Drain Regulator showing Level Indication and
Manual Regulating Valve
When the gas pressure Hydrogen, CO2 or Air) in the alternator is

reduced the differential pressure across the seal face is reduced
and therefore the flow of seal oil to the hydrogen side of the seal
may increase. In such cases the level of the hydrogen side drain
regulator vessel should be carefully monitored and if necessary,
the drain may be manually operated to prevent overflow from the
seal drain into the generator frame.
22.3.7 Seal Oil Drain Level Switches

The Hydrogen Side Drain Lines from both the exciter and turbine
end of the generator are normally fitted with high level switches
to provide an alarm in the event of the oil level within the drain
lines rising to the alarm setting.
Excessive oil level could result in oil ingress into the generator
frame and fouling of the windings. High priority should be given
to this alarm especially in conjunction with a high level alarm
from the drain regulator.
Figure 210: Seal Oil Drain Level Switch
22.3.8 Liquid Detectors

Should the shaft seal face be damaged, allowing excessive flow of
oil to the hydrogen side of the seal a condition could exist in
which oil overflows from the internal drainage system to the
alternator frame.
Liquid detectors with alarm contacts are fitted to the lower
sections of the alternator frame to initiate an alarm should a
quantity of oil or water be detected.
22.3.9 Seal Oil Vapour Extraction Fan

In order to remove any hydrogen gas released from the seal oil
and to ensure oil does not migrate along the shaft out of the
bearing housings, the two alternator shaft bearing housings and

the bearing side seal oil return line are placed under a negative
pressure from a Vapour Extraction Fan.
The fan suction line may be provided with a valve to allow the
line vacuum pressure to be regulated to a set pressure.
The discharge of the fan is normally taken to atmosphere at a
high point for safety.
A parallel circuit incorporating a non-return valve is also taken
to atmosphere. Normally the check valve is kept closed by the
positive discharge pressure of the fan and the associated
negative suction pressure on the opposing side. In the event of
seal failure or loss of the fan the non-return valve will open to
allow hydrogen gas to vent to atmosphere.
Figure 211. Seal Oil Vapour Extraction Fan and Associated Pressure Gauge and
Check Valve
22.3.10 Seal Oil System Monitoring and Control

To assist with local inspection and monitoring of the system,
local indication is normally provided at a monitoring station
adjacent to the pumps and cooler.
This station typically includes the following:
 Seal Oil Temperature (ex Seal Oil Cooler)
 Seal Oil Pump Outlet Pressure (from common pump

discharge line)
 Backup Oil Line Inlet Pressure Indicator (from Lube Oil
Supply makeup Line)
 Seal Oil Supply Pressure (from Seal Oil Supply Line after
Filter)
 Seal Oil Pressure Test Indicator (from Seal Inlet Supply
Line)
 Auxiliary Cooling Water Temperature ex Seal Oil Cooler
 Seal Oil Filter DP
Figure 212 Typical Seal Oil Local Monitoring Station
Figure 213. Seal Oil Local Control Panel
22.3.11 Seal Oil Local Control Panel

Local control panels typically provide control stations for the
following:
 Seal Oil Pump
 Standby Seal Oil Pump
 Emergency Seal Oil Pump
 Vapour Extraction Fan
The Local Seal Oil Control Panel is normally provided with an

alarm fascia to enunciate the following alarms:
 Seal Oil Drain Level High (Exciter and Turbine Side)

 Generator Drain Regulator Oil Level High/Low
 Seal Oil Filter Differential Pressure High
 Seal Oil Differential Pressure Low
 Seal Oil Temperature High
 Seal Oil Pump Pressure Low
 Emergency Seal Oil Pump Lockout Position
 Seal Oil Pump Trip
 Emergency Seal Oil Pump Running
 Emergency Seal Oil Pump Overload
Figure 214: Typical Seal Oil System
23. Transformers
A Transformer consists basically of two coils wound on an iron
core. A transformer may be used either to increase or to decrease
an applied voltage.
Since transformers enable voltage levels to be changed for
efficient transfer of electrical energy, transformers are used
widely in the electrical and electronic industries. They are also
valuable in providing electrical isolation and coupling in specific
applications.
A transformer is a static alternating current (ac) machine. That
is, it is without moving parts and operates on the principle of
mutual induction.
23.1 Applications
Transformers - including autotransformers - are used in a
variety of applications. Some of these are listed below.
Double-wound transformers
 transmit and distribute electrical energy (to transmit electrical
energy cheaply we need high voltages; power transformers
provide this high voltage).
 reduce voltages for direct current (dc) power supplies
 provide magnetic coupling and impedance matching in electronic
circuits between amplifier stages
 connect instruments to high voltage and current circuits
 supply extra voltage to low voltage equipment.
Autotransfomers
 supply voltage to ac motor starting circuits.
 distribution system applications
 variable voltage applications
23.1.1 Step-up and step-down transformers

In those applications listed above, the transformers
(autotransformers included) can be one of two types:
 step-up type
 step-down type
Step-up transformers
Output voltage level is higher than the input voltage level
Step-down transformers
Output voltage level is lower than the input voltage level.
NOTE: The input to any transformer is always referred to as the
primary and the output from any transformer is known as the
secondary.
23.1.2 Double-wound transformers

Double-wound transformers, like any other type of transformer
can be step-up or step-down.
They are called double-wound transformers because they have
two electrically isolated windings or coils. The only connection
between the two windings is that of a magnetic coupling by
mutual induction.
23.2 Principle of Transformer Operation

Two windings are electrically isolated but are linked because of
mutual induction.
An alternating emf applied to the primary winding will cause an
alternating current in this winding. The magnetic flux that
results is also alternating and is concentrated in the iron core to
create a strong magnetic field around the core.
The windings are arranged to give the tightest possible flux
linkage and to minimise leakage flux. Each windings emf is
sinusoidal and the same frequency as the supply due to the
nature of the core flux which is common to both.
No load operation:
When the secondary winding is open circuit (no-load) a small
amount of current is present in the primary. This is due to the
difference between the applied emf and the emf of self-induction
(often referred to as magnetising current).
This no-load primary current:
 creates sufficient magnetic flux to induce the no-load
voltage in the secondary.
 lags the applied emf by almost 90° due to the highly
inductive nature of the primary circuit
Loaded operation:
When a load is connected to the secondary winding then current
will be present in this winding. This secondary current will
create flux that opposes the original flux and thus reduces the
overall core flux.
Primary winding emf of self-induction will therefore decrease and

create an increase in the difference between itself and the
applied emf.
Primary current will therefore increase and maintain reasonably
constant core flux and induced emfs for all load conditions.
23.3 Transformer Construction

Transformers must be constructed to ensure minimal leakage
flux and maximum mutual induction.
To achieve this, the two transformer windings are mounted on a
common iron core. The core is usually laminated. The
laminations are thin, high grade silicon steel sheets coated with
an insulating varnish then clamped together with windings
arranged to reduce leakage flux and ensure maximum mutual
induction.
23.4 Types of double-wound transformers

Three common types of double-wound transformer are available,
each is based on the particular winding arrangement it has:
 core
 shell
 toroid
23.4.1 Core type

Figure 215 shows a simplified diagram of a core type
transformer.
Changing magnetic flux 
Primary coil
Induced emf
ac
supply
Secondary coil
Figure 215: Simplified diagram of a core transformer
23.4.2 Shell type

Figure 216 shows a shell type transformer in which the two
windings are mounted on the same leg and then surrounded by
the remainder of the core. Figure 217 shows a simplified
diagram of a shell type transformer.
Figure 216 Shell type transformer
Changing magnetic flux 
ac Primary coil
supply
Induced emf
Secondary coil
Figure 217: Simplified diagram of a shell type transformer
23.4.3 Toroid type

Toroid (or toroidal) transformers are wound around a circular
core as shown in Figure 218. Toroid transformers are slightly
more efficient than core or shell type construction but more
involved winding procedures are required and initial cost to
construct is more expensive.
Figure 218: Simplified toroid type transformer
23.5 Winding connections

A practical transformer may have a variety of primary and/or
secondary tappings.
Primary winding tappings:

Allow for voltage drop compensation in transmission and
distribution systems.
Secondary winding tappings

Are used to provide several secondary voltages.
23.5.1 Three phase transformer connections

There are three types of winding that are common in three-phase
transformers: Star, shown in Figure 219; Delta shown in Figure
220 and Interstar (Zigzag) shown in Figure 221.
A1 A1
A2
B1 C1
B2
C2
B1
C1
Figure 219: Star connected transformer with voltage phasor
C2 A1
A1
C1 B1
C1 A2
B2 B1
Figure 220: Delta connected transformer with voltage phasor
A
A
Figure 221: Interstar connected transformer with voltage phasor
23.5.2 Tertiary windings

If neither of the main windings are delta a third set of windings,
connected in delta can be provided to accommodate this feature.
Such windings are called ‘Tertiary’ (being less significant than
the other two windings), and provide a low impedance path for
the flow of third-harmonic currents. For this reason they are
usually constructed from a substantial size of winding wire even
though they do not directly provide power to an external load.
In addition, tertiary windings can be included to provide power
to an additional load, which must be kept separate from the
secondary for reasons such as providing supply for
instrumentation and power-factor correction equipment. In this
case external connections would be made to the ends of the
windings at the terminals.
23.6 Parallel Operation of Transformers

Operating transformers in parallel is very common in the
transmission and distribution of energy throughout the world.
When transformers are operated in parallel, there are certain
conditions that must be met. These conditions are:
Transformer ratios must be identical.
If transformer ratios are not identical, then output voltages will
be different, causing currents to flow between the transformers.
These currents flowing between transformers are known as
circulating currents.
Polarities must be correct.
If the polarities are not correct, large circulating currents may be
set up.
The load characteristics must be similar.
That is, the voltage output variations that occur with changes in
loads must be the same. If these variations are different, again
there may have circulating currents.
24. Transformer Protection

The transformer is an intrinsic piece of electrical equipment that
performs the function of stepping-up voltages for transmission
purposes or stepping-down voltages for distribution and
consumption.
24.1 Transformer Protection Overview

Transformers are an essential part of any
transmission/distribution system. As with any expensive piece
of electrical equipment adequate protection must be provided to
ensure reliable long term operation and gaining greatest cost
efficiency.
In this section you will look at transformer faults and the
methods employed to eliminate or minimise the damage to our
equipment.
We will look at thermal characteristics of a transformer and
provide overheating protection by:
 winding temperature measurement
 control of cooling systems
 hot winding and hot oil alarms
 hot winding trip
Minimising or prevention of faults occurring within the

transformer due to winding or oil related defects by using a
Buchholz relay or to monitor:
 oil surges
 low oil level
We will employ methods for the protection against overcurrent
such as:
 fuses
 overcurrent relays
Protection against phase to phase and phase to earth faults by
installing:
 differential protection
 restricted earth fault protection
24.2 Transformer faults

Before discussing transformer protection schemes we must look
at the types of faults that can occur in a power transformer.
Through faults
These faults are those that occur external to the transformer but
due to their nature can cause overload conditions. The
transformer must be disconnected from the system if this
condition persists but only after a time delay to allow other
protective systems to clear the overload. This is done so as to
minimise disruption to supply by only isolating the section
causing the overload and not all sections connected to the
transformer.
Internal Faults
Internal faults fall into two categories:
Category 1: Electrical faults that cause serious damage and
must be cleared immediately are:
 phase to earth or phase to phase faults on the high or low
voltage terminals
 phase to earth or phase to phase faults on the high or low
voltage windings
 short circuit between turns of the high or low voltage
windings
 earth fault on a tertiary winding or short circuit between
turns of the tertiary winding. (additional winding other than
the primary or secondary)
Category 2: Minor faults that cause slow deterioration which

could eventually lead to a category 1 fault occurring. This
deterioration is caused by:
 poor electrical connection of conductors or a core fault (due
to breakdown of lamination insulation, clamping rings or
securing bolt insulation)
 coolant failure, which will cause a rise of temperature even
when the transformer is operating below full load conditions
 low oil level or reduced oil circulation, which can lead to
localised hot-spots on windings
 regulator faults and bad load sharing between transformers
operating in parallel. This causes overheating due to
circulating currents between the power transformers.
As mentioned earlier Category 1 faults are extremely serious as
they have the potential to cause a large amount of damage which
is very costly to repair. It is therefore extremely important that
Category 1 faults must be isolated as quickly as possible.
The methods for the protection for Category 1 faults are not
capable of detecting Category 2 faults and visa versa. It is
intended that the protection devices for Category 1 and Category
2 should supplement one another. These protection systems will
be discussed later in this section.
24.3 Overheating protection
24.3.1 Thermal characteristics of a transformer

Most power transformers do not operate under steady loading
conditions, but usually under daily cyclic loading and the service
conditions may vary widely from those specified.
Because of this it may be economical in selecting a transformer
to choose one of smaller rated capacity than the maximum load
envisaged, and allow for periods of overload with intervening
periods of low load.
It is stressed that any conditions given for overloading is based
on thermal consideration, and not on the economics of loading.
The copper losses increase as the square of the load increases,
and the increased current causes increased voltage regulation.
Permissible rating, expressed as a percentage of the rated kVA
are dependent upon the following:
 the cooling method used for the transformer
 the daily operating conditions such as the period of heavy
load, and the period of light load
 the temperature of the cooling air
 the thermal time constant of the transformer. This is the

time which would be required for a transformer,
experiencing rated kVA loading and in a cooling medium at
constant temperature to reach its final operating
temperature if the initial rate of temperature rise continued
without heat being dissipated due to cooling.
The effect of overheating on transformer insulation is
considerable and for a 100C increase above maximum operating
temperature; can reduce the normal life expectancy of the
insulation by half. Overheating of a transformer causes not only
thermal stressing of the insulation but an increase in the
windings resistance.
24.3.2 Winding insulation

Most power transformers use mineral insulating oil as the
cooling medium for the windings. There are also a small quantity
o transformers manufactured to be dry type. Since both of these
types of transformers have different insulation materials for their
windings we will consider each of them separately.
For oil filled transformers, the insulation material used conforms
to the temperature class of insulation A, and International
Standards set the following temperature limits for oil immersed
transformers and these are shown in Table 3.
Maximum operating temperature
Windings - temperature class 650C when oil flow is natural or forced

of insulation 'A' non-directional
700C when oil flow is forced and
directed
Oil 600C when the transformer is fitted
with a conservator or the tank is
sealed
550C when no conservator is fitted nor
is the tank sealed
Table 3: Temperature limits for oil immersed transformers
There is also a requirement for all transformers using air cooling

that the operating temperatures be reduced if the transformer is
to be operated at an elevation more than 1000 metres above sea
level. The percentage reductions vary between 2 and 5 per cent
depending on the method of insulation used. Again for specific
details reference should be made to the appropriate standards.
24.3.3 Temperature rise for classes of insulation

As has been stated, oil-filled transformers use class 'A'
insulation, however, there is a range of insulating materials that
are used for dry-type transformers. These have been
incorporated in Table 4.
Cooling Class of Temperature rise,

Part Method insulation maximum
Windings or Air A 600C

cores circulation, E 750C
natural or B 800C
forced F 1000C
H 1250C
Table 4: Maximum allowed temperature rise
In considering the ratings shown in Table 4 you should note that

dry type transformers be designed and tested to operate in
ambient within the values shown in Table 5.
Not less than -250C and no more than

Outdoors
400C
Not less than -50C and no more than

Indoors
400C
Average temperature in any day Not greater than 300C
Average temperature in any year Not greater than 200C
Table 5: Ambient temperature limits
24.4 Temperature monitoring devices

Thermal protection devices are designed to initiate an alarm or
alarm and trip of a power transformer for an excessive rise in oil
or winding temperature due to load conditions or the effects of
sludging of the insulating oil. Sludging of the insulating oil
occurs when it is subjected to high temperatures when in
contact with air and moisture. The greater the temperature and
the greater the area of oil exposed, the greater the sludge
formation.
The rate of sludge formation approximately doubles for each 80C
increase in temperature.
24.4.1 Winding temperature measurement

The winding temperature monitoring device shown in Figure 222
consists of a temperature detector bulb connected via a capillary
tube to a bourdon tube. The bourdon tube is connected via
mechanical linkages to a pointer which displays the temperature
on a meter face. This pointer is often connected to a number of
electrical contacts that can be set to various temperatures. At
these preset temperatures the contacts can initiate the
starting/stopping of cooling fans, starting/stopping of oil pumps,
initiate high temperature warning alarm or trip the transformer
circuit breakers.
For this type of device to accurately measure winding
temperature the temperature detector bulb is inserted into a
pocket in the uppermost section of the transformer tank. This
thin walled pocket is surrounded by a heating coil which is
supplied from a current transformer enclosed in the transformer
tank. The output from the current transformer is directly
proportional to the load on the transformer. This type of
temperature monitoring is very rapid in response to load
changes on the transformer.
The pocket the temperature detector bulb is inserted into may or
may not contain insulating oil. Majority of transformers do not
contain insulating oil but it is always a good idea to check the
specifications set down by the transformer manufacturer.
Typical temperature settings for operating fans, pumps, alarms
and trip switches:
Settings: start fans and pumps 850C

stop fans and pumps 650C
alarm 1000C
trip 1100C
Note: These figures are only typical and if any doubt refer to
manufacturers’ specifications.
Figure 222: Bourdon tube type temperature monitor
24.4.2 Operating principle of temperature monitoring device

Figure 222 shows a pocket immersed in the transformer tank. As
this heats up it causes the temperature detector bulb inserted
into it to also heat up. The mercury within the temperature
detector bulb expands causing a pressure increase. This
pressure increase is passed down the capillary tube to the
bourdon tube. The bourdon tube when subjected to an increased
pressure tries to straighten out. As the bourdon tube unfolds it
operates the linkage connected to the indicator disc.
The indicator disc has a pointer attached to it that reads actual

temperature on a temperature scale. As the actual temperature
pointer increases up the scale it pushes before it a maximum
temperature indicator. When the temperature decreases the
maximum temperature indicator remains at the point of
maximum temperature.
Attached to the indicator disc are a number of mercury switches

that can be preset to operate at different temperatures.
This type of temperature monitoring is very reliable and

completely self contained thus requiring no external power
supply for operation.
24.4.3 Oil temperature measurement

The oil temperature monitor is usually identical to that of the
winding temperature monitor. The difference is that the
temperature detector bulb may be in direct contact with the oil
or inserted into a pocket (filled with oil) similar to that of the
winding temperature monitor. The pocket in this instance does
not have a heating coil wrapped around it thus only relying on
the temperature of the oil for indication.
The disadvantage with this type of temperature monitoring is

that the transformer windings may be in overload condition for
some time before the oil temperature monitor detects this
situation. If the transformer is subjected to short term overload
conditions this type of monitoring fails to detect this and the
maximum temperature indicator will give false readings. If this
condition persists undetected the transformer is more likely to
failure due to deteriorating insulation.
The fact that oil temperature monitoring is slow to react to

winding temperature changes makes this type of monitoring less
preferred when planning transformer overload protection
schemes.
The advantage of this type of monitoring is where high ambient

temperatures exist or where it is necessary to keep a check on
the cooling system of the transformer. In this instance the
temperature detector bulb may be installed in the return line
from the cooling system thus giving early warning of cooling
system failure.
24.4.4 Electronic winding/oil temperature monitor

A relatively new system is in some circumstances replacing the
winding and oil temperature monitors. This system has a
temperature sensitive resistor inserted into the transformer tank
pocket instead of the temperature detector bulb. This
temperature sensitive resistor is wired into a bridge
configuration of an electronic circuit. The variation in resistance
of the temperature sensitive resistance is detected by the circuit
and operates such devices as fans, oil pumps, alarms and
tripping circuits. The temperature is also indicated on a digital
display which can be located locally, remote or both.
24.5 Transformer Cooling Systems

Before we can look at the control of cooling systems we must
look at the different type of cooling systems employed to
maintain transformer operating temperatures within acceptable
limits.
Air natural (AN)

This type of transformer has the windings surrounded by air and
relies upon the natural circulation of this air to cool the
transformer. This is shown in Figure 223.
Figure 223: Air natural transformer cooling
Air forced (AF)

Air forced type cooling has the winding surrounded by air and
this air if forced through the windings by the action of a fan or
bank of fans. This is shown in Figure 224
Figure 224: Air forced transformer cooling
Oil natural air natural (ONAN)

With this type of transformer the windings are surrounded by
insulating oil and this oil circulates through the windings; out
into the cooling tubes or fins and then back into the
transformer. Circulation of the oil is solely dependant on
convection. This is shown in Figure 225.
Figure 225: Oil natural air natural transformer cooling
An oil natural air natural transformer is shown in Figure 226.
Figure 226: Oil natural air natural cooling of a transformer
Oil natural air forced (ONAF)

With this type of transformer the windings are surrounded by
insulating oil and this oil circulates through the windings; out
into the oil cooler and then back into the transformer.
Circulation of the oil is solely dependant on convection. The air

however is forced through the oil cooler by a fan or bank of fans.
This is shown in Figure 227.
Figure 227: Oil natural air forced transformer cooling
A photo of an oil natural air forced transformer cooling system is

Figure 228: Oil natural air forced transformer cooling
Oil forced air forced (OFAF)

This system has the same features as the oil natural air forced
(ONAF) except for one change. The oil is no longer circulating by
convection but by the action of a pump or pumps. This is shown
in Figure 229.
Oil pump
Figure 229: Oil forced air forced transformer cooling
Oil forced water forced (OFWF)

This system is usually adopted for larger power transformers.
The oil is force circulated and this passes through a cooler that
is cooled by water. The water may be fresh or salt depending on
availability of supply. So as not to allow a leak of water into the
oil system the oil pressure in the cooler is always maintained
above that of the water pressure, thus if a leak occurs oil will
leak out rather than water leak in and contaminate the oil
system. This concern of water leaking into the oil system is
taken so serious that if the oil pressure falls below that of the
water pressure an alarm is initiated and the transformer may be
required to be removed from service until the fault is rectified.
The system layout is shown in Figure 230.
This type of cooling is generally reserved only for large power
transformers.
Water 'IN'
Water 'OUT'
Oil pump
Figure 230: Oil forced water forced transformer cooling
Natural cooling is satisfactory for transformers up to 15 MVA,

and is preferred because there is less maintenance needed on
the cooling system.
As the transformer size increases it becomes uneconomical to

rely on natural cooling and additional cooling systems are
required.
The additional equipment to be provided when natural cooling is

not sufficient is:
 Oil cooling which is generally of the radiator type, excepting
when water cooling is adopted.
 Oil pump and pipework if forced oil circulation is to be
used.
 Air blowers and ducts when forced air cooling is to be used.
More space is required to accommodate the radiator and air

blast methods than for water cooling. However a satisfactory
supply of cooling water may be difficult to obtain.
Transformers may be dual rated such as 11.5MVA when
operated as ONAN, but up to 23MVA when operated as an OFAF
transformer. It is important that the additional cooling
equipment be in operation on the higher rating. This equipment
can be controlled by a winding temperature monitor or an oil
temperature monitor or both. In some instances a current relay
supplied from a current transformer is used, but this is only
used in isolated cases.
The winding temperature monitor is usually fitted with a number
of contacts or switches and these normally initiate oil cooling
pumps, cooling fans, high temperature alarm and trip circuits.
The oil temperature monitor is set to operate the same
equipment as the winding temperature monitor but may or may
not include a trip contact.
The following values are a good guide to the setting values for
transformers not having forced oil circulation.
Transformers with oil temperature monitor only

Oil 700C - Fans start
Forced
Oil 800C - High temperature alarm Natural cooling
Oil 950C - Trip initiated cooling
Transformers with winding temperature monitor only
Winding 750C - Fans start

Forced
Winding 900C - High temperature alarm Natural cooling
Winding 1050C - Trip initiated cooling
Transformers with both oil and winding temperature monitors
Winding 750C - Fans start

Oil 800C - High temperature alarm
Oil 950C - Trip initiated Forced
Natural cooling
Winding 950C - Trip initiated cooling
Winding 1100C - Trip initiated
Note: The temperature at which the monitor contacts open to

stop fans and/or reset alarm is integral to the design of the
instrument. Normally a differential of approximately 150C is
expected between the initiating and resetting temperature, i.e.
fans starting at 750C would normally cut out at 600C.
It is general practice that both the winding temperature monitor

and the oil temperature monitor are both fitted with alarm
contacts but only one monitor controls the tripping circuit.
25. Oil and gas Protection Devices

25.1 Buchholz relay
As an insulation breakdown slowly develops in a transformers
winding it tend to produce gas from the oil or a disturbance in
the oil. The detection of such gas or disturbance is used as a
means of protection for a power transformer and this is achieved
by the use of a Buchholz relay. Smaller transformers are
sometime fitted with a pressure or surge relay.
Figure 231 shows a sectional view of a typical Buchholz relay,

and the method of mounting it in the oil pipe line between the
transformer main tank and the conservator is shown in Figure
232. The pipework from the conservator tank and the
transformer tank is usually on a gradient of approximately 00 to
100. This gradient ensures proper oil flow into the transformer
tank and correct operation of the low oil level trip (if fitted).
Accumulating gas caused by an insulation breakdown is trapped

in the upper part of the main chamber of the Buchholz relay.
This displaces the oil so that the float tilts causing the contacts
in the mercury switch to close. This condition does not call for
immediate isolation of the transformer. Note, air bubbles in the
oi1 circulation of a healthy transformer may also operate the
float (particularly after an oil change). For these reasons the
closing of the contacts of the mercury switch only initiate an
alarm. This float is also suitable for detecting low oil level.
When a major fault occurs in the transformer tank there is a

rapid build up of pressure and this causes a large movement of
oil from the transformer tank to the conservator and this
actuates the trip vane. The contacts of the trip vane mercury
switch are connected to the tripping circuit which isolates the
transformer.
If a transformer is producing gas and suspected of developing a

fault the accumulated gas from the Buchholz relay can be
collected and sent for analysis.
The analysis will determine not only if a fault is developing but
what type of fault.
Figure 231: Sectional view of a typical Buchholz relay showing signal and trip
floats as if the relay filled with oil
The lower float can also initiate a "low oil level" trip. The
Buchholz relay is constructed in such a manner that with the
screw inserted into the weir sufficient oil is trapped in the relay
to prevent the lower float from operating due to low oil level.
With the screw removed the low oil level trip is available.
In addition to the feature in the previous paragraph some

Buchholz relays have calibrated glass inspection windows to
permit visual inspection of the colour and quantity of
accumulated gas in the relay. This inspection window is not
normally fitted where a ground level gas receiver is installed. The
gas receiver is connected to the top of the Buchholz relay via a
small tube. A small isolating valve called a petcock is installed
on the receiver to allow a sample of gas to be taken without the
need to climb the transformer. On smaller transformers the
petcock is installed on the Buchholz relay and the need for a
ground level receiver is not required.
Some Buchholz relays have a drain plug to allow the relay to be

drained of oil during routine testing. If a drain plug is not
installed often a plunger is fitted to allow operation of the trip
float during this routine testing. Another type of trip testing is
via an air injection nozzle which is directed at the tripping vane
to test its sensitivity.
Figure 232: Diagram showing location of Buchholz Relay
25.2 Tank pressure devices

There are two types of tank pressure devices.
 Gas impulse relay
 Fault pressure relay
Both use a diaphragm for their operation and are installed on

the main or tap changer tank (or both) to detect a rise in internal
pressure due to a fault condition.
25.2.1 Gas impulse relay

This type is either a combined breather/pressure relief or just as
a pressure relief as shown in Figure 233. Both versions are
installed above the oil level. Under normal conditions the relay
acts as a breather, but if the transformer internal pressure
exceeds a predetermined rate a diaphragm operates and initiates
a set of contacts connected to an alarm or trip circuit. A flag
indicator is often installed on this type of relay.
Figure 233: Gas impulse relay
25.2.2 Fault pressure relay

This type of relay shown in Figure 234 acts in a similar manner
to the gas impulse type except that it does not act as a breather
and oil pressure acts directly on the device. For this relay to
operate correctly it is installed via a pipe directly to the
transformer or tap changer compartment.
Figure 234: Fault pressure relay
26. Power Station Electrical Supplies

26.1 Introduction
With older power stations the boilers were all connected to a
common steam main and the turbines operated from steam
taken off this common steam main. With this type of
configuration any turbine could be supplied with steam from any
boiler. This type of arrangement was called a range station.
Electrical systems within this power station configuration were
also common to all parts of the Power Station. There was
duplication of certain electrical supplies to ensure greater
reliability.
As boilers became nearly as reliable as turbines there were
benefits in linking one boiler with one turbine and this type of
configuration is today known as the ‘unit’. With the ‘unit’
concept came the idea of having ‘unit’ electrical supplies to
deliver greater reliability. There were still some common
electrical supplies not connected to the unit supplies and the
major ones are ash and dust handling, coal plant, lighting, lifts,
sewerage plant, circulating water screens, single and three phase
power outlets, hydrogen plant and common water pumps.
As you can see there became two separate but equally important
electrical systems within a modern Power Station. These systems
are the ‘unit’ electrical supply (often referred to as unit auxiliary
supply) and the common station electrical supply (usually
referred to as Station Services electrical supply).
As we progress through this module we will be introduced to the
principle features of each system.
26.2 Unit Auxiliary Supply

As a unit consumes between 4% and 7% of generated electrical
power to maintain itself in operation it is important that each
unit has an adequate and reliable electrical supply to ensure
greater unit and system stability.
There are several options available for supplying the unit
auxiliary electrical supply. These are:
 Separate steam, gas turbine or diesel driven generator
 Auxiliary generators coupled to main turbo/generator
 Connection from the switchyard busbars through
transformer/s
 Connection from generator terminals through transformers.
Separate steam, gas turbine or diesel driven generator

This system was expensive to install, had a high maintenance
requirement and if it failed the whole unit would be out of
service.
Auxiliary generators coupled to main turbo/generator

Once again this system had moving parts therefore maintenance
was required on a regular basis.
Connection from the switchyard busbars through transformer/s

This system eliminated the moving parts thus cutting down on
maintenance; but the draw back with this type of supply is that
if the switchyard lost supply due to a fault on the system then
all supply to the unit was lost and the unit would be tripped.
This is an undesirable situation as if all turbo/generators on the
system grid tripped then system recovery after a system blackout
would be made more difficult.
Connection from generator terminals through transformers

All three of the above systems have been tried but the one that is
favored today is the connection from generator terminals
through transformers (or unit transformer system). The
advantage with this system is there are no moving parts and
should the system grid have a major disturbance the unit can to
‘trip to house’ and supply its own auxiliaries from the generator
terminals in preparation for reconnection to the system grid and
a swift system recovery.
26.3 Unit transformer system

Figure 235 shows a typical arrangement for unit auxiliary
supply. It has been drawn as a single line diagram (three phase
circuits are represented by one line). Also to keep the diagram
less complicated isolators associated with circuit breakers are
not shown.
Figure 235 has only been draw for a two unit station; the
arrangement for a four unit station would be similar except for
an additional two switching bays within the switchyard and
interconnection from the station services to the other two units.
Let us first look at the switchyard shown in Figure 235. It is
comprised of two duplicated busbars and connected by three
switching bays. Each switching bay contains three circuit
breakers. Two generators are connected to the generator busbar
and two feeders connected to the feeder busbar.
As there are three circuit breakers per switching bay connecting
the feeder busbar to the generator busbar it is referred to as a
‘breaker and a half system’. With this configuration any single
circuit breaker in the switchyard can inadvertently open and

continuity of supply from any generator or to any feeder or
station services transformers will not be lost. Due to this added
reliability with relatively cheap cost of construction makes this
switchyard configuration a popular choice.
When the unit is in service the circuit breaker connecting the
unit auxiliary transformer and the 11kV unit auxiliary
switchboard would be closed. The circuit breaker connecting the
11kV unit auxiliary switchboard and the 3.3kV unit auxiliary
switchboard would also be closed along with the circuit breaker
connecting the 3.3kV unit auxiliary switchboard to the 415V
unit auxiliary switchboard. The bus coupler contained within the
415 volt unit auxiliary switchboard connecting the non-essential
section of the switchboard to the essential section would also be
closed. All circuit breakers from any station services supply
would be in the open position.
This configuration is know as ‘supplying own auxiliaries’ and is
With ‘supplying own auxiliaries’ mode of operation if the
generator becomes disconnected from the system grid it can still
supply it’s own units auxiliaries and a quick reconnect to the
system grid is possible.
Another method of supplying unit auxiliaries is from station
services. When using this method the circuit breaker connecting
the unit auxiliary transformer to the 11kV unit auxiliary
switchboard is open and the circuit breaker from either ‘A’ or ‘B’
station services switchboard is closed to energise the 11kV unit
auxiliary switchboard. The circuit breaker connecting the 11kV
unit auxiliary switchboard and the 3.3kV unit auxiliary
switchboard would also be closed along with the circuit breaker
connecting the 3.3kV unit auxiliary switchboard to the 415V
unit auxiliary switchboard. Connection from the station services
to the 3.3kV unit auxiliary switchboard and the 415V unit
auxiliary switchboard are generally only used during unit
outages when an upstream switchboard is out of service for
maintenance. This configuration is shown in Figure 237.
Feeder Feeder
330 or 500 kV Busbars
Feeder
Busbar
Generator
Busbar
Generator,
Unit or Main Station
Transformer Services
Transformers
11kV Station
No 1 Services No 2
Switchboards
G G
A
Unit
Auxiliary B
Transformer
To unit ‘2’ 11kV
Auxiliary
Switchboard
11kV Unit
Auxiliary
Switchboard 3.3kV Station
Services
Switchboard
To unit ‘2’ 3.3kV

Auxiliary
Switchboard
3.3kV Unit
Auxiliary
Switchboard 415V Station
Services
Switchboard
To unit ‘2’ 415V

Auxiliary
Switchboard
415V Unit G
Auxiliary
Switchboard Emergency 415V
Essential diesel generator
Non-essential
section of section of
Switchboard Switchboard
Figure 235: Typical unit supply system for a large power station
Feeder Feeder
Feeder
Busbar
Generator
Busbar
Generator,
Transformers
11kV Station
No 1 Services No 2
Switchboards
G G
A
Unit
Auxiliary B
Transformer

Auxiliary
Switchboard
11kV Unit
Auxiliary
Services
Switchboard

Auxiliary
Switchboard
3.3kV Unit
Auxiliary
Switchboard
415V Unit
Auxiliary
Switchboard
Non-essential Essential
Figure 236: Unit supplying own auxiliaries
Feeder Feeder
Feeder
Busbar
Generator
Busbar
Generator,
Transformers
11kV Station
Services No 2
Switchboards
G G
A
Unit
Auxiliary B
Transformer

Auxiliary
Switchboard
11kV Unit
Auxiliary
Services
Switchboard

Auxiliary
Switchboard
3.3kV Unit
Auxiliary
Switchboard
415V Unit
Auxiliary
Switchboard
Non-essential Essential
Figure 237: Unit auxiliaries being supplied from station services
26.4 Equipment supplied from each unit auxiliary switchboard
11kV unit auxiliary switchboard

Equipment such as:
 Electric feed pump/s
 Induced draft (ID) fans
 All other unit auxiliary switchboards.
3.3kV unit auxiliary switchboard

Equipment such as:
 Forced draft (FD) fans
 Mill motors
 Primary air (PA) fans
 Circulating water (CW) pumps
 Condensate extraction pump/s (CEP)
 Turbine auxiliary oil pump
415V unit auxiliary switchboard

 All remaining unit auxiliaries
26.4.1 Essential and non essential sections

Referring once again to Figure 235 you can see that the 415V
unit auxiliary switchboard is divided into two sections:
 Essential section
 Non-essential section
Under normal operation the 415V unit auxiliary switchboard
would be supplied from the 3.3kV unit auxiliary switchboard
and the bus coupler circuit breaker joining the non-essential
section to the essential services section would be closed. The
circuit breaker from station services supply would be open.
If a unit trip should occur (not an inadvertent disconnection) all
unit auxiliaries would be without electrical power. Under this
circumstance the bus coupler circuit breaker joining the non-
essential section to the essential services section would
automatically open and the circuit breaker from the station
services would automatically close and supply electrical power to
the essential services section.
Typical equipment connected to the essential services section of
the 415V unit auxiliary switchboard would include:
 Standby hydrogen seal oil pump

 Standby turbine lube oil pump
 Turbine turning gear (barring motor)
 Turbine jacking oil pump
 Unit instrumentation (including control and monitoring
systems)
 Steam feed pump turning gear (barring motor)
 Air heater drive motors (including their lubrication systems)
 Unit lighting
26.5 Selection of supplies when bringing unit into service

When the generator is out of service it is unable to supply
electrical power to its auxiliaries. For unit run-up requirements
auxiliary supplies are fed from the station services via the 11kV
unit auxiliary switchboard. This supply is maintained until
generator load is approximately 20% to 25% maximum
continuous rating (MCR) or until firing on fuel oil has ceased and
stable operation has been achieved.
26.5.1 Requirements for paralleling of supplies

The requirements for paralleling are the same as for
synchronising the generator:
 Incoming and busbar voltage must be matched
 Phase rotation must be matched
 Phase sequence must be matched
 Frequency must be matched
Change over to own auxiliary supply

Synchronising and parallelling facilities are only available at the
11kV unit auxiliary switchboard. The 3.3kV unit auxiliary
switchboard and the 415V unit auxiliary switchboard have no
facilities for paralleling and these switchboards have to be de-
energised before changing to station services supply.
Once stable operation has been achieved it is time to change to
own auxiliary supply. The following procedure should be adopted
to ensure a safe and hassle free change over:
 Ensure stable operation of turbo/generator
 Check that unit auxiliary circuit breaker has been racked
IN and available for operation.
 Activate synchroscope and busbar/incoming voltmeter

 Adjust tapchanger on either unit auxiliary transformer or
station services transformer to match voltages indicated on
busbar/incoming voltmeter.
 Close 11kV unit auxiliary circuit breaker.
 Observe that incoming supply ammeter increases and
station services supply ammeter decreases. (under perfect
conditions these would balance)
 Open 11kV station supply circuit breaker.
 Observe station supply ammeter decreases to zero and unit
supply ammeter increases.
NOTE: Both circuit breakers are to be maintained in the closed
position (paralleled) for the minimum amount of time as
circulating currents can occur between the unit auxiliary
transformer and the station services transformer causing severe
overheating of these transformers. Also during this period of
paralleling it is quite common for an alarm to activated warning
of this condition and reminding the operator of potential
circulating currents.
Change over to station services supply

When a unit is being removed from service the unit auxiliary
supplies need to be transferred from ‘supplying own auxiliaries’
to station services supply. This is done because if the unit is
desynchronised and the generator field switch opened during
this desynchronising procedure ten all supplies to auxiliaries will
be lost. If this occurs significant work is required to return the
unit auxiliaries to service. In many instances systems have to be
reprimed or re-purged and this may take several hours.
It is customary to perform this change over to station services at
approximately 20% to 25% maximum continuous rating (MCR)
The procedure for changing over to station services is the reverse
of changing from station services to own auxiliaries and this
procedure is listed below.
 Ensure stable operation of turbo/generator
 Check that the station services circuit breaker has been
racked IN and available for operation.
 Activate synchroscope and busbar/incoming voltmeter
 Adjust tapchanger on either unit auxiliary transformer or
station services transformer to match voltages indicated on
busbar/incoming voltmeter.
 Close 11kV station services circuit breaker.
 Observe that station services supply ammeter increases and

outgoing unit supply ammeter decreases. (under perfect
conditions these would balance)
 Open 11kV unit auxiliary circuit breaker.
 Observe outgoing unit supply ammeter decreases to zero
and station services supply ammeter increases.
NOTE: Both circuit breakers are to be maintained in the closed
position (paralleled) for the minimum amount of time as
circulating currents can occur between the unit auxiliary
transformer and the station services transformer causing severe
overheating of these transformers.
26.5.2 Generators fitted with generator circuit breaker in the PIB.

It has become a popular trend to install an additional generator
circuit breaker in the PIB (Phase Isolated Busbar) between the
generators and generator transformer terminals. The advantage
of this is:
 If the generator is tripped for some internal reason
(generator, boiler or turbine trip) the unit auxiliaries are not
lost as they receive a back feed through the generator
transformer from the system grid.
A diagram showing the installation of this additional generator
circuit breaker is shown in Figure 238.
It is normal operation to carry out synchronising and
desynchronising procedures using the PIB generator circuit
breaker.
Feeder Feeder
Feeder
Busbar
Generator
Busbar
Generator,
Generator Generator
Transformers
circuit circuit
breaker breaker
11kV Station
No 1 Services No 2
Switchboards
G
A
Unit
Auxiliary B
Transformer
Auxiliary
Switchboard
11kV Unit
Auxiliary
Services
Switchboard

Auxiliary
Switchboard
3.3kV Unit
Auxiliary
Services
Switchboard

Auxiliary
Switchboard
415V Unit G
Auxiliary
Non-essential
Figure 238: Unit auxiliaries supply showing PIB generator circuit breaker
26.6 Operation on emergency diesel generator

Operation on the emergency diesel generator would only be
required if the system grid was unavailable (system grid
shutdown) or station services was unavailable due to some
problem.
Assuming a complete system grid shutdown the emergency

diesel generator would be either:
 manually started and manually synchronised to the
essential section of the 415V unit auxiliary switchboard/s.
 automatically started and manually synchronised to the
 automatically started and automatically synchronised to the
Before connecting the emergency diesel generator to the 415V

unit auxiliary switchboard essential section the bus coupler
connecting the essential section to the non-essential section
must be opened or checked open (always interlocked to prevent
paralleling). Once this has been confirmed the emergency diesel
generator can be connected to the 415V unit auxiliary
switchboard essential section. A diagram showing normal
operation when supplying the 415V unit auxiliary switchboard
essential section is shown in
The emergency diesel generator is usually rated that it can

handle the turbine turning gear and lubrication pump for all
turbines located at that station. It is also capable of supplying
some unit lighting and battery chargers supplying the station
batteries.
Back feeding to unit or station services switchboards is not

permissible as this would overload the emergency diesel
generator causing it to trip leaving the turbine/s off barring. This
is usually interlocked to prevent this occurring.
Feeder Feeder
Feeder
Busbar
Generator
Busbar
Generator,
Transformers
11kV Station
No 1 Services No 2
Switchboards
G G
A
Unit
Auxiliary B
Transformer
Auxiliary
Switchboard
11kV Unit
Auxiliary
Services
Switchboard

Auxiliary
Switchboard
3.3kV Unit
Auxiliary
Services
Switchboard

Auxiliary
Switchboard
415V Unit G
Auxiliary
Non-essential
Figure 239: 415V Unit Aux Bd. being supplied from emergency diesel generator
26.6.1 Procedures to be adopted after unit trip

Once a unit trip has occurred certain operational procedures
need to be adopted to ensure the safe run-down of the turbine
and restoration of lost auxiliary supply.
For turbine run-down the dc emergency lube oil pump needs to
be in service. This pump should be started as the first step in a
unit recovery. It has an auto cut-in on low oil pressure but it is
good operating practice to start this pump manually and not
wait for the low pressure to initiate a start. If we wait for the low
pressure start and there is a problem we may run our turbine
down without oil lubrication.
All sources of water ingress need to be attended to as the next
step and then we can concentrate on returning power to all
auxiliary equipment.
Restoration of electrical supplies

Electrical supply loss to all unit auxiliary switchboards will
occur following a unit trip (unless a PIB generator circuit breaker
is installed). The safe restoration of electrical supplies are
essential to prevent possible damage to the equipment.
All unit auxiliary switchboards should have had an undervoltage
trip initiated causing all supply breakers to these switchboards
to trip along with all motor outgoing circuits from these unit
auxiliary switchboards also to trip. This trip supply would have
been initiated by the undervoltage relays while the tripping
supply would have come from the station batteries.
The majority of unit auxiliaries are supplied though a latched
type contactor. (i.e. It is mechanically held closed unless a trip
action is performed). There is a possibility that some or all unit
auxiliaries may fail to de-latch following the unit trip. In this
instance if supply was returned then these still latched
auxiliaries would start-up. This sudden an unplanned
occurrence can cause such things as severe water hammer due
to the starting of condensate pump/s or electric feed pump/s.
Also the combination of inrush current and external load current
being imposed on our transformers at the same time may cause
the transformer to trip or be damaged.
It is good operating practice to ensure all unit auxiliaries have a
stop command initiated by the operator prior to unit auxiliary
switchboards being re-energised. Once this has been completed
the circuit breaker supplying unit auxiliary switchboards can be
closed. Once the supply circuit breaker is closed the
undervoltage relays can be reset.

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Power Plant Technology

Power Plant Technology Module Version (5) March 2011

2.6.1 Temperature control of superheater steam outlet temperature .............................. 56

5. Combustion Theory ....................................................................................... 92

9.5.1 Plough Feeders ........................................................................................... 134

10.9 Dry Ash Handling...................................................................................................... 165

13.2.3 Detection of Differential expansion ................................................................. 216

15.14.1 Preparation of Oil Coolers for Service ............................................................. 252

18.2.8 Cooling Tower Fans ..................................................................................... 290

19.14.3 Pitting 323

21.9.7 Carbon Dioxide Supply ................................................................................. 374

25. Oil and gas Protection Devices ................................................................... 417

Assessment: Evaluation, Recording and Reporting

1. A Theoretical overview of Steam Generation

1.1 Advantages of water/steam as a working medium

1.2 The Generation of Steam from Water

Enthalpy (total heat) (H)

1.3 The Nature of Steam

Figure 1: Wet steam

Dry Saturated Steam

Figure 2: Dry saturated steam

Reason for superheating steam

Effects of pressure on the properties of steam

water water has just superheat- 150 C

Version (5) March 2011

© TechComm, a Division of Yokogawa Aust P/L

Figure 3: Generation of superheated steam at atmospheric pressure

Power Plant Technology Module

If the pressure acting on the water was increased to 1000kPa

Figure 4: Temperature – specific enthalpy (T – h) diagram for water/steam at

If the pressure is increased progressively, there is a point where

 enthalpy of the saturated vapour increases to a maximum

Operation of boilers at high pressure

1.4 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer from hot end

Figure 5: Conduction of heat along metal rod

Water not turned

Figure 6: Natural circulation.

Water not turned

Figure 7: Forced circulation

All three of these methods of heat transfer are employed in a

Figure 8: Transfer of heat by radiation

1.5 Obstacles to transfer of heat

Figure 9: Heat transfer through a boiler tube

Heat from the hot fluid at a temperature of T1 is being

All of the above equipment is displayed in an elementary boiler

Flue gas Primary

Figure 10: Elementary boiler layout

Version (5) March 2011

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We will now look at the boiler as a heat exchanger, with regard

 combustion chamber or furnace

Its construction is of water cooled tubes, joined by fusion

The furnace houses the firing equipment and confines the

(2) Combustion air in the form of

Figure 11: Cross section of furnace chamber

The combustion chamber in modern boilers is constructed

Layer of refractory material

Figure 12: Section of a furnace waterwall

Factors that must be taken into account when designing a