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Instructions (How something is done)

Types

Instructions belong to a group of text types called procedures which tell us how something can be
done or is accomplished through a sequence of actions or steps.

Purpose

To tell someone how to do or make something e.g. recipes, experiment steps, game rules, appliance
manuals, directions, etc)

Text Organisation

The focus of instructional texts is on a sequence of actions. Because of this the structure is easy to
recognise and usually consists of stages that form a particular function:

 A Goal (often indicated in the main heading or through a diagram)

 Materials (listed in order of use)
 Method (steps that are oriented towards achieving the goal)

Instructional texts might also include comments on the usefulness, significance, danger, fun, value,
etc of the activity and diagrams, photos, headings, subheadings, numbers, etc are often used to
make instructions as clear and easy to understand as possible.

Language Features

Instructions use language that refers to things in a general way e.g. ingredients. The reader is also
often not referred to at all e.g. Beat the eggs. Some key features that affect comprehension include:

 Linking words to do with time or sequence (first, next, before, while, etc)
 Detailed factual descriptions of objects or things (size, shape, colour, amount, etc)
 Detailed information on how (carefully, with the knife); where (2cm from the top); and when
(after folding the napkin …). These details may include technical or discipline specific
terminology.
Recount (to retell or recreate an experience or event)

Types

There is a wide range of types of recount including:

Personal recounts (diary entry, journals, introspective writing such as memoirs, etc)

Factual recounts (report on a science experiment, news or police report, historical account, etc)

Imaginative recounts (the author takes on an imaginary role to give details of events e.g. A day in the
life of.. How I invented..etc)

Purpose

To capture an event in language to describe or recreate it for others who were not present

Text Organisation

The text focuses on a sequence of events all of which relate to a particular specific event. Recounts
generally follow a structure of:

 An orientation which gives the reader background that is needed to understand the text e.g.
who, where, when, etc
 A series of events helps the recount unfold in a chronological sequence
 A reorientation or personal comment to conclude the recount (These personal comments
may be throughout the text also especially in reflective writing.)

Language Features

Language use in recounts often varies depending on type. General features include:

 Specific people or places

 Past tense
 Linking words to do with time

Comprehension can be affected by the following types of language use:

 Personal responses (evaluative comments) on events in personal recounts

 Details are often included to add interest or humour but may make it difficult for a reader to
follow the chronological order
 Factual recounts often select details and reconstruct a point of view from one perspective
although mentioning personal feelings is not included (inferences and critical literacy skills
are needed in these types of texts)
 Descriptive details might load the sentence or link ideas together to make complex
sentences and explanations and justifications may be littered throughout the text
  Historical recounts may contain information, terminology or expressions that are assumed
knowledge

Narrative (recounts with a twist)

Types

There are many types of narrative texts. Typically they are imaginative but can be factual and
include fairy tales, fables and moral tales, mysteries, science fiction, hero/villain or episodic stories
(TV dramas or cartoons), adventures, myths, legends, historical narratives, etc. Poems can also be
narrative.

Purpose

The basic purpose of narrative is to entertain by gaining and holding the reader’s interest in a story,
but narratives might also be constructed to inform or capture the author’s reflections on an
experience and to nourish and extend the reader’s imagination.

Text Organisation

The focus of a narrative is on a sequence of actions. Narratives usually:

 Begin with an orientation where the writer attempts to sketch or create the possible “world”
of the particular story. Main characters are usually introduced here and an atmosphere is
established that sets the tone for the story. The sort of details that are included are those
which will enhance the later development of the story.
 The story is pushed along by a series of events during which we usually expect some sort of
complication or problem to arise. The complication involves the main characters and usually
mirrors the sort of complications people have in life performing the function of reassuring
the reader that things are generally resolvable
 Conclude with a resolution that “satisfies” the reader by tying up the loose ends. There may
be minor complications along the way that relate to the main complication and these serve
to sustain interest and suspense as the narrative unfolds.

Language Features

Narratives vary in the use of language features depending on the way the story is told. Readers
learn patterns of language use they begin to expect in stories and unusual use of language can
challenge comprehension, for example:

 Verb use that varies from the usual past tense or that focuses on mental or sensing
processes
 Dialogue where the tense changes and reporting words may or may not be added to identify
the speaker
 Descriptive language that enhances or develops the story often through the use of imagery
 A variety of linking words to do with time and events that are foreshadowed or reflected on
so that the sequence changes
Reports (give information about a topic from a “knowing” perspective)

Types

The term report is used in everyday language to refer to many different types of factual texts e.g.
news reports, weather reports, etc but the term Information Report refers to a very specific type of
text that stores information about a class of things. Reports can contain various types of information
e.g. classification, examination of components, or an investigation of various aspects of a topic.

Purpose

To provide factual details about a topic or class of things to inform the reader or build the reader’s
knowledge and understanding

Text Organisation

The main focus of reports is on a “thing” or “class of things” rather than a sequence. The usual
structure for a report includes:

 An opening general statement or classification or definition

 The remainder of the report consists of facts about various aspects of the topic grouped into
topic areas. These “topic areas” are marked by a topic sentence and the paragraphs or
paragraphs related to the topic are elaborated on by referring to distinctive characteristics
of the subject or by describing components and their function
 Report don’t usually contain “an ending” although sometimes the detailed information is
rounded off by some general statement about the topic
 Diagrams, photos, illustrations etc are often used to clarify the texts and are usually
accompanied by labels and captions which link the graphic to the text.

Language features

Reports can present difficulties for reading comprehension because of some of the typical language
features including:

 Terminology used for classifying, comparing and contrasting

 Descriptive language that is factual and precise and may be unfamiliar
 Writing that is formal and objective with sentences that are packed with ideas through the
use of nominalisation or “naming of actions”.
Explanations (Why is it like that? How does it work?)

Types

The basic types of explanations mainly fall into two groups:

 Explaining how (System, mechanical, technical or natural explanations)

 Explaining why (Great variety is possible – why the ozone layer is thinning/ why iron goes
rusty/ why living things need food, why the sky looks blue, etc)

Purpose

To give an account of how something works

Text Organisation

Explanations have a “process” focus rather than a “thing” focus so a logical sequence is usually
established through:

 A statement about the phenomenon being explained (sometimes a question)

 A series of paragraphs that explain in logical order how/why something occurs

Language features

The language features of explanations that impact on reading comprehension include:

 Third person use of language mainly about non-human participants

 Connectives that sequence the text according to time (first, then, following that, etc
especially in technical types of explanations that explain how)
 Cause and effect relationships using words that help the reader make links between sections
of the text (if, so, therefore, since, as a consequence, etc especially in explanations that tell
why)
Argument (Stating your case)

Purpose

To take a position on an issue and justify it.

Types

Arguments belong to a group of genres called “expository texts” or “expositions”. These texts are
used to help people analyse, interpret and evaluate the world around them. There are different
variations of expository texts mainly due to whether the main aim of the writer is to analyse,
interpret or evaluate an issue.

In an argument the emphasis is on persuading someone to agree with, acknowledge or adopt the
point of view of the writer.

Text Organisation

Texts are usually organised to put a focus on an issue and present a logical sequence of arguments
related to the issue. Arguments therefore:

 Begin with a statement of position (thesis) often accompanied by some background about
the issue and sometimes also including a preview of the way the argument will develop.
 Put forward points to support the point of view (usually more than one) backed up by
evidence or possibly some examples
 Conclude by summing up the position (often reaffirming the point of view or possibly calling
for action)

Language Features

Some key language features that affect reading comprehension include:

 Arguments are mainly written in present tense when presenting the issue and points in the
body but tense may change if historical background is given about the issue. There is a
possibility of technical terms relating to the issue.
 Connectives associated with reasoning like therefore, so, because of, etc are used to link
supporting evidence back to the main idea or point being made.
 Emotive words like “should” or “strongly believe” etc are used but these are often more
suited to spoken text. Written text is often more successful if the author tries to convince
the reader through logic and evidence.
 Actions are often turned into “things” to make the argument sound more objective and to
help create links between ideas, sentences and paragraphs in a text.