First Edition - 2009 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation Technical Publications Pune*‘Table‘of Contents: : Chapter -1 Measurement and Insirumertation Theory 4-1) to (1-46) Chapter-2 __ Indicating Instruments and Theory of Vollmelers - Ammeters (2-1) to (2-48) Chapter-3 Digital Meters (3-1)to (3-20) Chapter-4 Measurement of Resistance (4-4) to (4-48) Chapter-5 AC. Bridges (5=1)to (5d) Chapter-6 Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power (6-1) to (6-52) Chapter-7 Special Purpose Measuring Instruments (7-1) to (7-40) Chapter-8 Energy Meter Theory (8 - 1} to (8-28) Chpater-9 Instrument Transformers (8-10 (9-44) | Chepler-10 _ Osciloscope (1-1) to (10-44) Chapter-11 Transducers (11-1) to (11-64) Chapter-12 Measurement of Non-electrical Quantities (12-1) to (12 - 46) Features of Book | | Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. i# Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. 4 Important concopts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. i Large number of solved examples. Best of Technical Publications ‘As per Revised Syllabus of UoP University - 2008 Course S.E. [Electrical Engineering] Semester-I S Analog and Digital Electronics Bakshi, Godse © Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation Bakshi @ise! Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation ISBN 9788184316605 [All ights rosorved wih Techrical Publications. No port ofthis book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanicel; Photocopy or ary information storage ond {elravel system without prior permission in witing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune® #1, Ant Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India. Printer : ‘Nec DTPinen Seno. 10/3,Sinhagad ~ RetreatThe importance of Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation is well known in various engineering fields, Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been taken to moke students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject. The book noi only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only fo the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. We with to express my profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality, Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous ‘occasions by our whole family. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. ‘Any. suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged ond well appreciated. Authors TL A. Bakshi A. V.~ Bakshi KA. Bakshi Dedicated to Guovsay4.4 Introduction .. 1.4.1 Advantages of Electrical and Electronic Measurement .......0......e0 see 1.2 Performance Characteristics. 1.2.1 Calibration . ss 4.3 Static Charactoristies ... 1.3.4 Accuracy... 1.3.2 Precision... 1.3.2.1 Gonfonity. . 1.3.2.2 Sgniicent Figures, 1.3.3 Ertor. ese 1.3.4 Sensitivity . 1.3.8 Reproducibility eee eee eee . 1-12 1.3.10 Stability, 1.3.11 Tolerance . 1.3.12 Range or Span .. TYIBIN sees 1.3.14 Hysteresis... 1.9.15 Dead Spave of Dead Zone... sss sees eeeee ee eee ‘ 1.3.16 Span Drift or Sensitivity Dif 1.4 Dynamic Characteristics. 4.4.1 Speed of Response1.4.2 Fidelity 4.4.3 Lag 1.4.4 Dyname Error. 1.5 Calibration... 1.6 Calibration Methodology . 1.6.1 Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology 1.6.2 Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology ... 1.7 Block Diagram of Generalized instrurreniation System 17.1 Primary Sensing Element... 1.2.2 Variable Conversion Element. 1.7.3 Variable Manipulation Element. 1.7.4 Data Transmission Element. 1.8 Standard pe. EERE EPO TUE OREN PPT RETEST CRCE PETE PETTITT TE + 1-22 1.8.2 Primary Standards . 1.8.3 Secondary Standards. TBA WONG SANE. 0 650 rr ecrrres covererverseneeoernercreiesereeaas 11-3 1.9 Standards for Mass and Length 4.10 Time Standards..... 1.11 Frequency Standards... 1.44.1 Primary Standards . . 1.14.2 Secondary Standards. 1.12 Voltage Standards .. 1.13 Resistance Standards. 1.14 Current Standards... 1.15 Methods of Measurement " sia sein 1 OO 1.15.1 Direct Method of Measurement 1.16.1 Active/Passive Instruments ....... 2.22.22. esses eee sees eee 4.46.2 Nul/Detlection Type Instruments.1.16.3 Monitoring/Control Instruments . 1-35 1.16.4 Analog/Digital instruments . . 1-3 1.16.4.1 Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments. 1-36 1.165 Absolute/Secondary Instruments . ... 1-77 1.16.5.1 Types of Secondary Instumenis .. 1-37 1.17 Types of Errors -1-38 1.47.1 Gross Errors. . 41-38 1.47.2 Systematic Emons... 1-38 1.47.2. Instrumental Errors. 4-38 1.47.22 Environmental Errors... . 1-39 1.17.23 Observational Errors. . 1-40 1.17.3 Random Errors 1-40 Examples with Solutions 1-40 Review Questions 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Essential Requirements of an Istruments 2.3 Deflecting System. 2.4 Controlling System. 2.4.1 Gravity Control... . 2.4.2 Spring Control... ...eesesssseee 2.4.3 Comparison of Controling Systems. 2.5 Damping System.......0.0.002.. 2.5.1 Air Friction Damping . 2.5.2 Fluid Friction Damping. 2.5.3 Eddy Current Damping . 2.6 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments (PMMC) 2.6.4 Torque Equation . 26.3 Disadvantages... 2.64 Taut Band Instrument .. 2.6.5 Temperature Compensation . .2.6.8 Esrors in PMMC Instrument 2.7 Moving fron Instruments ... 2.7.4 Moving {ron Atraction Type Instruments. 2.7.2 Moving iton Repuision Type Instrument ...... 2.7.2 Radial Vane Repuision Type Instrument. 27.2.2 Concentric Vane Repuision Type instrument 2.7.3 Torque Equation of Moving tron Instruments . 2.74 Advantages 2.7.8 Emors in Moving Iron instruments. 2.8 Basic D.C. Ammeter ... 2.9 Multirange Ammeters.. 2.10 The Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt 2.10.1 Precautions to be Taken while using an Ammoter . 2.11 Requirements of a Shunt 2.12 Basic D.C. Voltmeter..... 2.13 Multirange Voltmeters... 2.13.1 Universal Multiplier . . . 2.14 Sensitivity of Voltmeter 2.14.1 Loading Effect ............ 2.14.2 Precautions to be Taken while using a Vollmeter. 2.14.3 Requirements of a Multiplier Examples with Solutions Review Questions... 3.1 Introduction 3.5 Ramp Type DVM... 3.5.1 Linear Ramp Technique 3.6.2 Staircase Ramp Teohnique.......sssesesssereesseneenedneeesseanereeseene :3.6 Dual Slope integrating Type DVM .... 3.7 Voltage to Frequency Converter Type Integrating DVM .. 3.7.1 Interpolating Integrating DVM. . a guacvantc 3.8 Successive Approximation Type DVM .. 3.8.1 Advantages. 3.8.2 Disadvantages . 1 uC 3.9 3-—and4 -— Digit .. panes 3.10 Resolution and Sensitivity... 3.11 General Specifications of DVM Review Questions. 4.1 Introduction .. 4.2 Classification of Resistan 4.3 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method. 4.4 Series Type Ohmmeter 4.5 Shunt Type Ohmmeter.. 4.6 Wheatstone Bridge ... 48.1 Balance Condition 4.6.2 Industrial Form of Wheatstone Bridge 4.7 Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge 4.8 Wheaistone Bridge Under Small Unbalance .. 4.8.1 Thevenin’s Equivalent and Galvanometer Current. 4.8.2 Galvanometer Current Under Unbalanced Condition 48.3 S, Interms of Current Sensitivity of Galvanometer. 4.9 Measurement Errors 4.10 Advantages and Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge 4.10.1 Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge 4.17 Applications of Wheatstone Bridge 4.12 Kelvin Bridge - Measurement of Low Resistance ... 4.13 Kelvin’s Double Bridge Method for Low Resistance Measurement 4 - 20 4.13.1 Practical Kelvin's Double Bridge ....... 02. ...e.cceeceee ceeeeteeeeeees 4-224.14 Measurement of High Resistance. 4.14.1 Use of Guard Circuits 4.15 Megger-... 4.15.1 Principle of Operation . 4.16.1.4 Fall of Potential Method. 4.16.1.2 Use of Megger Earth Tester. . 4.17 Methods for Measurement of High Resistances 4.17.1 Direct Deflection Method ............ see ee 4.17.2 Loss of Charge Method 4.17.3 Megohm Bridge . Examples with Solutions . Review Questions..... 5.1 Introduction .. 5.1.1 Advantages of Bridge Circuit. 5.2 Types of Bridges..... 5.3 A.C. Bridges... 5.3.1 Sources and Detectors 5.3.2 Bridge Balance Equation 5.4 Capacitance Comparison Bridge 5.5 Inductance Comparison Bridg 5.8 Maxwell's Bridge ... 5.6.1 Maxwell's inductance Bridge 5.8.2 Maxwell's Inductance Capacitance Bridgo . : 5.8.3 Advantages of Maxwell Bridge ..........c0ccccceesceeeseeeeeeeeeeeeesenens 5.84 Disadvantages of Maxwell Bidge 5.7 Anderson Bridge.....5.7.1 Advantages of Anderson Bridge. ...... 6.7.2 Disadvantages of Anderson Bridge . ... 5.8 Schering Bridge .. 5.8.1 Power Factor and Loss Angle . 5.9 High Voltage Schering Bridge. 5.10 Shielding and Grounding of Bridges Examples with Solutions . Review Questions .. 6.1 Introduction to Power Measurement 6.1.1 Necessity of Watimeter . 6.1.2AC, Power....... 6.2 Electrodynamometer Type Instruments. 6.2.1 Construction . 6.2.2 Torque Equation 6.2.3 Advantages of Electrodynamic Insiruments..............essssesssees esses 6.2.4 Disadvantages of Electrodynamic instruments 6.2.5 Errors in Electrodynamometer instruments 6.3 Single Phase Dynamometer Wattmeter. 63.1 Torque Equation 6.3.2 Reading on Wattmeter 6.3.3 Shape of Scale of Dynamemeter Wattmeter . 64 Errors in Wattmeter. 6.4.1 Error due to Pressure Coil Inductance .......0. 0. sees ceseee eens seeeneeeeeee 6.4.2 Error dus to Pressure Coil Capacitance. .........sseecsseesceeeesaeee serene 6.4.3 Error due to Method of Connection . 6.4.4 Eddy Current Errors: 6.5 Low Power Factor Electrodynamic Type Wattmetet 6.6 Power in Three Phase System ..... 6.7 Examples of Wattmeter Connections and Corresponding Readings. 6 - 24 6.8 Single or One Wattmeter Method ...... 6-266.8.1 Star Connected Load... 0... sees eeieeee reese eenern seen tenneetaner antes 6-26 6.8.2 Delta Connected Load os. ees sees cesses eese see ee rtteeereeies 6-27 6.8.3 Discxivantagos . 6.9 Three Wattmeter Method... 6.10 Blondel's Theorem... 6.11 Two Wattmeter Method. 6.14.1 Proof of Two Wattmeter Method. 6.12 Power Factor Calculation by Two Wattmeter Method. 6.13 Effect of P.F. on Wattmeter Readings ... 6.14 Reactive Volt-Amperes by Two Wattmeter Method .. 6.15 Advantages of Two Wattmeter Method. 6.16 Disadvantages of Two Wattmeter Method. 6.17 Modified Version of 2 Wattmeter Method as ‘Single Wattmeter Method ... 6.18 One Wattmeter Method for Reactive Voltamperes Mi 6.19 Three Phase Wattmeter. Examples with Solutions. Review Questions . 7.1 Introduction .. 7.1.4. Vibrating Reed Type Frequency Meter . 7.4.2 Electrical Resonance Type Frequency Meter . 7.1.3 Weston Frequency Meter 7.2 Frequency Counter 7.2.1 Analog Frequency Meter 7.3 Principle of Digital Frequency Counter .. 7.4 Digital Frequency Counter... 7.5 Period Measurement. 7.5.1 Muliple Period Averaging 7.6 Time Interval Measurement . 7.7 Frequency Ratio Measurement. 7.8 Universal Counter...7.9 Power Factor Meters... 7.10 Single Phase Electrodynamometer Type Power Factor Meter 7.10.1 Working of Mater . . 7.11 Moving tron Power aL Meter. 7.11.1. Rotating Field Type Moving Iron Power Factor Meter. . 7.11.2 Altemating Field Type Moving Iron Power Factor Meter 7.12 Phase Meters. 7.12.1 Digital Phase Meter... 7.42.2 Comparison of Analog and Digital Phase Meter. 7.13 Power Analyzer. 7.134 Block Schematic of Power Analyzer... 7.43.2 Important Features of Power Analyzer. 7.43.3 Applications of Power Analyzer . ... 7.13.4 Source and Load Problems and Sourcas of Problems. .......-...0sse0seeeeees 7.14 Trivector Meter, 7.15 TOD Meter... 7.16 Electronic Multimeter 7.16.1 Use of Multimeter for D.C. Voltage Measurement 7.16.2 Use of Multimeter as an Ammeter 7.16.3 Use of Muitimeter for Measurement of A.C. Voltage 7.16.4 Use pf Multimeter for Resistance Measurement . 7.16.5 Advantages. . 7.16.6 Disaxivantages . 7.17 Digital Multimeter 7.18 Specifications of Di Review Questions. 8.2 Single Phase Energymeter 8.2.1 Construction. 8.3 Theory of Single Phase Induction Type Energymeter 83.1 Torque Equation............ bectecceeeeeeeneees8.4 Errors and Compensations ... 8.4.1 Leg Adjustment or Power Factor Adjusiment.... 8.4.2 Light Load Adjustment or Friction Adjustment ... 8.4.3 Creoping Adjustment ..........cscccsseccsceeeseeseecsaeeevatesescnsterse 8.4.4 Overload Compensation. 8.4.5 Voltage Compensation 8.4.6 Temperature Compensation, 8.4.7 Main Speed Adjustment 8.5 Advantages of Induction Type Energymeter. 8.6 Disadvantages of Induction Type Energymeter 8.7 Three Phase Energymeter. 8.74 Throo Elmont Energymetor . 8.7.2 Two Element Energymeter. . 8.8 Calibration of an Energymeter 8.9 Phantom Loading... 8.10 Electronic Eneraymeter.. 8.10.1 Advantages. Examples with Solution: Review Questions. 9.1 Introduction ... 9.2 Current Transformers (C.T.) 9.2.1 Working Principle . . 9.3 Construction of Current Transformers 9.3.1. Wound Type Current Transformer... 9.3.2 Bar Type Current Transformer 9.4 Why Secondary of C.T. should not be Open ? 9,5 Potential Transformers (P.T.)... 9.5.1 Construction... 9.6 Comparison of C.T. andl Pi 9.7 Ratios of Instrument Transformers 8.7.4 Ratio Correction Factor (RCF)....9.8 Burden of an Instrument Transformer. 9.9 Theory of Current Transformers. 9.9.1 Derivation of Actual Ratio 9.8.2 Derivation of Phase Angle (8) of Transformer ......00.sseeeeeeeeereeeneesers 9-12 919.3 Errors in Current Transformer .. 9.9.3.4 Ratio Error 99.3.2Phase Angle Eno . 9.9.4 Characteristics of Curest Trensfomners . 9,10 Theory of Potential Transformer: 9.10.1 Derivation of Actual Ratio 9.10.2 Derivation of Phase Angle. ...... 0.0. sceeeceeeeceeeeereeeeeneneereeaes 9.10.3 Characteristics of Potential Transformers . 9.11 Reduction of Errors in Instrument Transformers. 9.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument Transformers. a 9.13 Difference between instrument and Power Transformers .... .. 9-29 9.14 Extension of Range of Wattmeter using Instrument Transformers... 9 - 30 9.14.1 Phasor Diagrams and Correction Factors - 9-30 9.15 Use of G.T. and P.T. in Energy Measurement. Examples with Solutions Review Questions .... 40.1 Introduction ... 10.2 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)... 10.2.1 Electron Gun . . 10.2.2 Deflection System. 10.2.3 Fluorescent Screen .. 10.24 Giass Tube. 10.2.5 Base. 10.3 Basic Principle of Siar Display..... 10.4 Block Diagram of Simple Oscilloscope . 10.4.1 CRT... 10.4.2 Vertical Amplifier. ............s00cseeeeeseeee gr U CRS RR SMRU SEITE. 10-910.4.3.1 Lumped Parameter Delay Line . 10.4.3.2 Distributed Parameter Delay Lino 10.44 Tigger Cireuit. 2.2... 10.4.5 Time Base Generator. 10.4.6 Horizontal Amplifier . 10.4.7 Power Supply... . 10.5 Front Panel Controls of Simple C.R.O. 10.5.1 Basic Controls ... 10.5.2 Vertical Section. 10.5.3 Horizontal Section... 0... seese enters tree sennreretereereeieree nese 10.5.4 Z-Axis Intensity Control . 10.6 Time Base Generator. 10.6.1 Why Sweep Generator Is Called Time Base Generator ? 10.6.2 Requirements of Time Base. 10.6.3 Basic Principle of Time Base Generator. 10.6.4 Time Base Block Diagram ..........secseceseeeee seater este teeee eens 10.6.5 Trigger Generators. 10.6.6 Sweep Modes. ..... 10.6.7 TTL Trigger Mode... 10.7 Intensity and Velocity Modulation . 10.8 Bandwidth ... 10.9 Dual Trace Oscilloscope .. 10.9.1 Alternate Mode. 10.9.2 Chop Mode .. 10.9.3 Electronic Switch 10.9.4 Front Panel Controls of Dual Trace Oscilloscope. 10.9.5 Multiple Trace Osclloscopes ..........6+5 10.10 Dual Beam Oscilloscope... 10.10.1 Multiple Beam Oscilloscopes 10.10.2 Comparison of Dual Trace and Dual Beam Oscilloscopes. 10.11 C.R.O. Measurements10.11.1 Voltage Measurement 2.0 cveceeseeeceeseeteerseeeeeeseeeees 10.11.2 Current Measurement,......... 10.1.3 Period and Frequency Measurement . 10.11.4 Need of C.R.O. in Electronic Practicals . 10.12 Lissajous Figures... 10.12.1 Measurement of Phase Difference. 10.12.2 Measurement of Frequency... 10.13 Applications of C.R.O. Examples with Solutions . Review Questions. 41.1 Introduction 11.2 Classification of Transducers. 11.2.1 Active and Passive Transducer . 1.21.1 Active Transducers 1.2.1.2 Passive Transducers. . 11.2.2 According to Transduction Principle. 11.224 Capacitive Transduction. . 11.222 Electromagnetic Transduction . 1.22.3 Inductive Transduction... 11.2.2.4 Piezoelectric Transduction . . 11.225 Photovoltaic Transduction. 11.226 Photoconductive Transduction . 41.2.3 Analog and Digital Transducers . 1.23.1 Analog Transducers 11.2322 Digta Transducers 11.2.4 Primary or Secondary. ... 11.2.5 Transducer and Inverse Transducer 11.3 Characteristics of Transducers 11.4 Transducer Selection Factors. 11.5 Passive Transducers 11.6 Resistive Transducers 11.7 Potentiometric Resistance Transducers .. W74 Fiaiiiqea wd tieecagte of ehles Binidinics :11.8 Strain Gauge Transducers. 11.8.1 Principle of Operation and Construction of Strain Gauges. 11.8.2 Derivation of Gauge Factor . 14.8.3 Types of Strain Gauges . 11.8.4 Basic Forms of Rasistance Wire Strain Gauges .......2...sccssseesereeeee 11.8.5 Desirable Characteristics of Resistance Wire Strain Gauge . 11.8.6 Semiconductor Strain Gauge ... o 11.8.7 Comparison of Metal Gauge with Semiconductor Strain Gauge ........... 6200+ 11-20 11.8.8 Rosette Strain Gauges. 1-21 11.8.9 Applications of Strain Gauges 11-23 11.9 Load Cells.... 11.10 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) 11.10.1 Construction of RTD 11.10.2 Advantages of RTD 11.10.3 Disadvantages of RTD . 11.11 Thermistors ... 14.11.1 Construction of Thermistor...... 11.112 Resistance Temperature Characteristics 11.11.3 Voltage Curent Characteristics. 11.114 Curent Time Characteristics. « TAL5 Advantages ........ccccccecsseseeesecesseeeceeessetenreneessenee 11.11.6 Limitations... 11.11.7 Applications, . 11.11.8 Comparison between Resistance Thermometer and Thermistor .............. 11631 11.14.9 Signal Conditioning Circuit . 11.12 Inductive Transducers. 11.12.1 Transducer based on Principle of Change in ‘Self inductance with Number of Tums .. 11.12.2 Variable Permeability inductive Transducer... ” 11.12.3 Variable Reluctance Inductive Transducer......06:sseesseeeeeceeeeerenene 11.12.4 Eddy Current Type Inductive Transducer..........sseeesceeeeseebee renee SERIO11.13 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) 1.43.4 Construction and Working of LVDT . . 11.13:2 Advantages and Disadvantages of LVOT : 11.14 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)... 11.15 Capacitive Transducers ..... 11.45.1 Variation in Capacitance ........ 11.152 Capacitance Type Level Meter 11.153 Capacitive Pressure Transducer... ...cceeeeseeeeeeneenee 11.154 Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers . 11.16 Active Transducers . 11.17 Thermoelectric Transducers - Thermocouple 11.17.1 Thermoelectric Phenomena... 11.17.2 Construction of Thermocouple 11.17,2.1 Materials used for Thermocouples... 1.17.3 Thermoelectric Laws 11.17.4 Thermopiles . . . 11.17.5 Advantages and Limitations of Thermocouple . 11.17 6 Desirable Characteristics of Thermocouple . . 11.18 Piezoelectric Transducers...... 11.18.1 Basic Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer ..... . 11.18.1.1 Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer. . . . 411,18. Applications of Piezooletric Transducer... 14.19 Photoelectric Transducers ... 11.191 Phatoemissive Transducers. ......... 11.19.1.1 Vacuum Phototube 11.19.1.2 Gas-Filled Pholotubes . . 14.19.13 Photomuttiplier Tube... 11.19.2 Photoconductive Transducers . .. 11.19.2.1 Photoconductive Cell... 11.19.2.2 Photodiodes 11.19.3 Photovoltaic Transducers....... 11.19.3.1 Photovoltaic cell. 11.19.3.2 Phototransistors. Lam one & Review Questions12.4 Introduction .... 12.2 Pressure Measurement. 12.3 Classification of Pressure 12.4 Manometer.. 12.5 Mechanical Pressure Measuring Elements Pressure Sensors 12.5. Diaphragms .... 12.5.2 Capsule ... 12.5.3 Bourdon Tube. 12.5.4 Bellows . 12.6 Electric Presaure raed 12.7 High Pressure Measurement... 12.7.1 Principle of Operation. 12.7.2 Construction of Bulk Modulus Resistance Pressure Gauge. 12.7.3Derivaion ........6.6 12.8 Vacuum Gauges ..... 12.8.1 McLeod Gauge. . 42.8.2 Thermal Conductivity Gauge 128.2.4 PraniGauge . 12.8.2.2 Thermocoupte Vacuum axe . 42.9 Temperature Measurement . 12.9.1 Absolute Thermodynamic Scale or Kelvin Scale 12.9.2 Thermal Expansion Methods ..... 12.9.3 Optical Pyrometer. 12.9.3.1 Disappearing Fliament Type Optical Pyrometer 12.94 Radiation Pyrometer. es 129.4. Total Raciaton Pyrometer 12.10 Flow Measurement .. 12.10.1 Mass Flow Rate 12.10.2 Volume FIOW Rate... eee eee cee eee eens 42.4021 Head Type Fow Meters (Besed on Difeonta rescue Measurement) 12.10.2.2 Variabie Area Mater (Rotametar) . . 12.10.23 Mechanical Flow Meter... 12.10.24 Electromagnetic Flow Meters...12.10.25 Anemorneters (Hot Wire Anemometer). : ce BH 12.11 Ultrasonic Detectors... . 12.11.1 Flow Measurement. 12.12 Level Measurement 12.13 Mechanical Method. 12.14 Hydraulic Method 12.15 Electrical Method: 12.15.2 Inductive Method 12.15.3 Capacitive Method . 12.16 Pneumatic Method .. 12.17 Nucleonic Methox 12,18 Ultrasonic Method Review Questions ..Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.1 Introduction The measurement of any quantity plays very important role not only in science but in all branches of engineering, medicine and in almost all the human day to day activities. The technology of measurement is the base of advancement of science. The role of science and engineering is to discover the new phenomena, new relationships, the laws of nature and to apply these discoveries to human as well as other scientific needs. The science and engineering is also responsible for the design of new equipments. The operation, control and the maintenance of such equipments and the processes is also one of the important functions of the science and engineering branches. All these activities are based on the proper measurement and recording of physical, chemical, mechanical, optical and many other types of parameters, The measurement means, to moniter a process or a operation and using an instrament, express the parameter, quantity or a variable in terms of meaningful mumbers. Such a measurement gives in depth knowledge of the process and the parameter and helps in further modifications, if required. Thus the measurement provides us with a means of expressing a natural phenomena or the various processes, in quantitative terms. The feedback information is possible with the help of measurement techniques, which helps ir achieving goals and objectives of various engineering processes and systems. The measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the act or result of a quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and an unknown quantity to be measured. For the result to be meaningful, there are two basic requirements :- 1. The comparison standard is accurately defined and commonly accepted, and 2. The procedure and the instrument used for obtaining the comparison must be provable. (1-1)EM and 1-2 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory The major problem with any measuring instrument is the error. Hence, it is necessary to select the appropriate measuring instrument and measurement procedure which minimises the error. The measuring instrument should not affect the quantity to be measured. Key Point: The measuring instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable. An electronic instrument is the one which is based on electronic or electrical principles for its measurement function. The measurement of any electronic or electrical quantity or variable is termed as an electronic measurement, 1.1.1 Advantages of Electrical and Electronic Measurement The advantages of an electrical and electronic measurement are - 1. Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers into the electrical or electronic signals. 2. An electrical or electronic signal can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed, sampled and measured. 3, The measurement can easily be obtained in or converted into digital form for automatic analysis and recording. 4, The measured signals can be transmitted over long distances with the help of cables or radio links, without any loss of information. 5. Many measurements can be carried either simultaneously or in rapid succession. 6 Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak signals and can measure the events of very short duration as well. 7. Electronic measurement makes possible to build analog and digital signals. The digital signals are very much required in computers. The modern development in science and technology are totally based on computers. 8. Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher degree of reliability are the important features of electronic instruments and measurements. But, for any measurement, a well defined set of standards and calibration units is essential. This chapter provides an introduction to different types of errors in measurement, the characteristics of an instrument and different calibration standards. Key Point : The physical, chemical, electrical quantity, property, process, variable or a condition to be measured is referred as measurand. The various physical measurands are pressure, level, force, strain, velocity, etc. while the important electrical measurands are voltage, current, power and frequency. 1.2 Performance Characteristics The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided in two categories-EM and! 1-3 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory i) Static characteristics and _ii) Dynamic characteristics Some applications involve measurands which are either constant or varying very slowly with time. Key Point: The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, ie. do not vary with time, is called static characteristics. While, when the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, it is necessary to study the dynamic relations existing between input and output. These relations are generally expressed with the help of differential equations. Key Point: The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic differential equations is called dynamic characteristics. ‘The various performance characieristics are obtained in one form or another by a process called calibration. 1.2.4 Calibration Key Point: Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or marking « scale so that the readings of an instrument agree with the accepted and the certified standard. In other words, it is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with the measured or standard ones. The particular instrument is compared with either a primary standard, secondary standard with higher accuracy or an instrument with known accuracy. The calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument that it is operating with required accuracy, under the stipulated environmental conditions. It creates the confidence of using the properly calibrated instrument, in user's mind, The periodic calibration of an instrument is very much necessary. The calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspection for various defects, installation according to the specifications, zero adjustment etc. The calibration characteristics can be determined by applying known values of quantities to be measured and recording the corresponding output of the instrument. Such output values are then compared with the input, to determine the error. Such a record obtained from calibration is called calibration record. It is generally recorded in the tabular form. If it is represented in the graphical form, it is called calibration curve. Such a calibration record or calibration curve is useful to obtain the performance characteristics of an instrument. The performance of the instrument is not guaranteed by the calibration. It only indicates whether the performance of the instrument is meeting the accuracy and range specification or not. If the device has been repaired, aged, adjusted or modified, then recalibration is carried out.EM and! 1-4 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.3 Static Characteristics As mentioned earlier, the static characteristics are defined for the instruments which measure the quantities which do not vary with time. The various static characteristics are accuracy, precision, resolution, error, sensitivity, threshold, reproducibility, zero drift, stability and linearity. 1.3.1 Accuracy It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured. It denotes the extent to which we approach the actual value of the quantity. It indicates the ability of an instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity. The accuracy can be expressed in the following ways :- D Accuracy as ‘Percentage of Full Scale Reading’ : - In case of instruments having uniform scale, the accuracy can be expressed as percentage of full scale reading. For example, the accuracy of an instrument having full scale reading of 50 units may be expressed as + 0.1 % of full scale reading. From this accuracy indication, practically accuracy is expressed in terms of limits of error. So for the accuracy limits specified above, there will be + 0.05 units error in any measurement. So for a reading of 50 units, there will be error of « 0.05 units ie: 0.1% while for a reading of 25 units, there will be error of + 0.05 units in the reading ie. + 0.2 %. Thus as reading decreases, error in measurement is + 0.05 units but net percentage erzor is more. Hence, specification of accuracy in this manner is highly misleading. 2) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of True Value’ - This is the best method of specifying the accuracy. It is to be specified in terms of the true value of quantity being measured. For example, it can be specified as + 0.1 % of true value. This indicates that in such cases, as readings get smaller, error also gets reduced. Hence accuracy of the instrument is better than the instrument for which it is specified as percent of full scale reading. 3) Accuracy as 'Percentage of Scale Span’ : - For an instrument, if ay, is the maximum point for which scale is calibrated, ie. full scale reading and a,,,, is the lowest reading on scale. Then (ax — agin) is called scale span or span of the instrument. Accuracy of the instrument can be specified as percent of such scale span. Thus for an instrument having range from 25 units to 225 units, it can be specified as + 0.2 % of the span ie. + [(0.2/100) x (225 - 25) which is + 04 units error in any measurement. 4) Point Accuracy : Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other paint on the scale. The general accuracy of an instrument cannot be specified, in this manner. But the general accuracy can be specified by providing a table of the point accuracy values calculated at various points throughout the entire range of the instrument. ‘Thus the accuracy, in whatever way it may be specified, gives the equipment accuracy with a particular set up and other conditions and does not include any personal accuracy.EM andt 1-5 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 4.3.2 Precision It is the measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements. Key Point: It denotes the closeness with which individual measurements are departed or distributed about the average of number of measured values. Let us see the basic difference between accuracy and precision. Consider an instrument on which, readings upto spnath of unit can be measured. But the instrument has large zero adjustment exror. Now every time reading is taken, it can be taken down upto z7rath of unit, So as the readings agree with each other, we say that the instrument is highly precise, But though the readings are precise upto a" of unit, the readings are inaccurate due to large zero adjustment error. Every reading will be inaccurate, due to such error. Thus a precise instrument may not be accurate. Thus the precision means sharply or clearly defined and the readings agree among themselves. But there is no guarantee that readings are accurate. An instrument having zero error, if calibrated properly, can give accurate readings but in that case still, the readings can be obtained down upto qypnth of unit only. Thus accuracy can be improved by calibration but not the precision of the instrument. Consider another example. A known weight of 100 grams. is measured by an instrument. Five times, the weight has been recorded. The readings obtained are 103, 104, 105, 103, 105. The average indicated value is 104 grams. Hence the maximum deviation from the average reading is +1 gram in 100 grams actual value. Thus, the scale of the instrument can be calibrated to read 21 gram. But what about the accuracy ? The readings are not accurate. The accuracy of the instrument is only (105 - 100/100)% i.e. 5 % . Thus there is a precision of + 1 % but the accuracy is only 5 %. Key Point : This confirms the fact that high degree of precision does not guarantee the accuracy. It is the accurate calibration’ that makes the accurate measurement possible. The precision is composed of two characteristics © Conformity and * Number of significant figures. 13.24 Conformity Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 9, which is being measured by an ohmmeter. Now, the meter is consistently measuring the true value of the resistor. But the reader, can read consistently, a value as 2.4 MQ due to nonavailability of proper scale. The value 2.4 MO is estimated by the reader from the available scale. There are no deviations from the observed value. The error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. The example illustrates that the conformity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for precision. Similarly, precision is necessary but not the sufficient condition for accuracy.EM andt 1-6 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Key Point: An accurate instrument should be precise but a precise instrument may not be accurate. 4.3.2.2 Significant Figures The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude and the measurement precision of the quantity. For example, a resistance of 110 Q, specified by an instrument may be closer to 109 @ or 111 ©. Thus there are 3 significant figures. While if it is specified as 110.0 9 then it may be closer to 110.1 9 or 109.9 Q. Thus there are now 4 significant figures. Key Point: Thus more the significant figures, the greater is the precision of measurement. Number of times, the large numbers with zeros before a decimal point are used to approximate populations or the amounts of money. For example, the price of a vehicle is reported as Rs. 450,000. This means the true value of the vehicle lies between Rs. 449,999 and Rs. 450,001. Thus, there are six significant figures. But what is the meaning of the reported price is, it is closer to Rs. 450,000 rather than Rs. 440,000 or Rs. 460,000. In this case, there are only two significant figures. To avoid this confusion, the large numbers are expressed in a scientific notation using the powers of ten. For example, the price of Rs. 450,000 must be expressed as 4.5 x 10°. Thus now, there are only two significant figures. The uncertainty due to the zeros to the left of the decimal point is usually resolved by such scientific notation. The precision can be mathematically expressed as = P where = Precision Value of n® measurement P om Xn Average of the set of measured values dup Example 4.1: The table shows the set of 5 measurements recorded in a laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 3% measurement, Measurement Number Value of Measurement 40 a 2 51 3 52 4 5 50 “8EMandt 1-7 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Solution ; The average value for the set of measurements is, <= _ Sumofthe readings _ 251 % = Number ofreadings ~ 5 ~ °°? The value of 3 measurement is X,=52 where n= 3 fF -x | This is the precision of the 3 measurement. 52 - 50.2) : 1 -| rea 0.964 ie. 96.4 % 1.3.3 Error ‘The most important static characteristics of an instrument is its accuracy, which is generally expressed in terms of the error called static error. Key Point: The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the quantity to be measured is called an error. Mathematically it can be expressed as, e= AWA, where e = Error Ag = Measured value of the quantity A, = True value of the quantity In this expression, the error denoted as ¢ is also called absolute error. The absolute error does not indicate precisely the accuracy of the measurements. For example, absolute error of +1 V is negligible when the voltage to be measured is of the order of 1000 V but the same error of +1 V becomes significant when the voltage under measurement is 5 V or so. Hence, generally instead of specifying absolute error, the relative or percentage error is specified. Mathematically, the relative error can be expressed as, Absolute error _ True value ~ Measured value “Trevalue “" Truevalueat 1-8 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory From the relative percentage error, the accuracy can be mathematically expressed as, A= Am where A = Relative accuracy and a= Ax100% where a = Percentage accuracy ‘The error can also be expressed as a percentage of full scale reading as, Error as a percentage of full scale reading = “tm 199 where fsd. = Full scale deflection. mm) Example 1.2: The expected value of the voltage to be measured is 150 V. However, the measurement gives a value of 149 V. Calculate i) absolute error; ii) percentage error; iii) relative accuracy; iv) percentage accuracy and v) error expressed as percentage of full scale reading, if the scale range is 0-200 V. Solution: The expected value means true value, A, = 150V ‘The measured valu is given as 149 V, Ag = 49V i) ¢ = Absolute error = A.A, = 150-109 =41V ii) the, = A Ase 100 = ygg* 1 = 066% it) A = Relative accuracy A, 1 21 | ay | ‘ iv) % a = Ax 100 = 0.9933 x 100 = 99.33 % 150EM and! 1-9 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory V) % error expressed as percentage of full scale reading is, Ay=An fs.d. * 100 8 1 ‘, 555% 100 As fd. is 200 V 05 % 1.3.4 Sensitivity The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured, Mathematically it is expressed as, Infinitesimal change in output Tafinitesimal change in input Sensitivity = Senainty = ‘Thus, if the calibration curve is linear, as shown in the Fig. 1.1 (a), the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve, a Input 9, (b) Fig. 1.1 Sensitivity If the calibration curve is not linear as shown in the Fig. 1.1 (b), then the sensitivit varies with the input. . The sensitivity is always expressed by the manufacturers as the ratio of the magnitude of quantity being measured to the magnitude of the response. Actually, this definition is the reciprocal of the sensitivity is called inverse sensitivity or deflection factor, But manufacturers call this inverse sensitivity as a sensitivity. Inverse sensitivity = Deflection factorood SIU] 40) JILL] BUIMa A INOA paypeed Jo BUIMEIA JO) s(qe|IeAeun S| jeu] ebed 2 payee seyjie aAey noood SIU] 40) JILL] BUIMa A INOA paypeed Jo BUIMEIA JO) s(qe|IeAeun S| jeu] ebed 2 payee seyjie aAey noEM and! 4-12 Measurement and instrumentation Theory 1.3.8 Zero Drift The drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an extended period during which the value of the input variable does not change. ‘The zero drift is defined as the deviation in the instrument output with time, from its zero value, when the variable to be measured is constant. The whole instrument calibration may gradually shift by the same amount. ‘There are many environmental factors which affect the drift. These factors are stray electric field, stray magnetic field, temperature changes, contamination of metal, changes in the atomic structure, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, corrosion, etc. ‘The drift is undesirable and cannot be easily compensated for. It must be carefully guarded against by continuous inspection. 1.3.9 Reproducibility Output It is the degree of closeness with which a given + Repeatabitty value may be repeatedly measured. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time. The perfect reproducibility indicates no drift in the trament. ins The repeatability is defined as variation of scale reading and is random in nature. Both reproducibility a Tnput and the repeatability are a measure of the closeness with Fig. 1.3 which a given input may be measured again and again. ‘The Fig. 13 shows the input and output relationship with positive and negative repeatability. 1.3.10 Stability ‘The ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified operating life and the storage life is defined as its stability. 1.3.11 Tolerance ‘The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified interms of some value which is called tolerance. This is closely related to the accuracy. Actually tolerance is not the static characteristics of measuring instrument but it is mentioned because in some instruments the accuracy is specified interms of tolerance values. Key Point: The tolerance indicates the maximum allowable deviation of a manufactured component from a specified value.ood SIU] 40) JILL] BUIMa A INOA paypeed Jo BUIMEIA JO) s(qe|IeAeun S| jeu] ebed 2 payee seyjie aAey noood SIU] 40) JILL] BUIMa A INOA paypeed Jo BUIMEIA JO) s(qe|IeAeun S| jeu] ebed 2 payee seyjie aAey noood SIU] 40) JILL] BUIMa A INOA paypeed Jo BUIMEIA JO) s(qe|IeAeun S| jeu] ebed 2 payee seyjie aAey no