I&C CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL

INSTRUMENTATION

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 CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
 Instrumentation is the science of automated
measurement and control.

 Applications of this science be plentiful in modern

research, industry, and everyday living.

 This chapter explains some of the fundamental

principles
i i l off iindustrial
d t i l iinstrumentation.
t t ti

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 In Oil & Gas industry,
y, the first step,
p, naturally,
y, is
measuring the process variables such as; pressure,
fl
flow, level
l l , temperature, analytical,
l i l …etc.

 Once the p
process variable measured,, transmit a
signal representing this quantity to an indicating or
computing device
d where
h either
h human
h or
automated action then takes place.

 If the controlling action is automated, the

computer sends a signal to a final controlling
device which then influences the quantity being
measured.
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 Both the measurement device and the final control
device connect to some physical system which we
call the process.
process To show this as a general block
diagram:

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INSTRUMENTATION TERMS AND THEIR DEFINITIONS:

 Process: The physical system we are attempting to

control or measure.
measure Examples: oil refinery unit,
unit
water filtration system, steam boiler, power
generation unit.
unit
 Process Variable (PV): The specific quantity we
are measuring in a process. Examples: pressure,
level, temperature, flow, electrical conductivity, pH,
position, speed, vibration.
 Setpoint (SP): The value at which we desire the
process variable to be maintained at. In other
words the “target”
words, target value of the process variable
variable.

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Primary Sensing Element (PSE): A device that
di
directly
l senses the
h process variable
i bl and
d translates
l that
h
sensed quantity into an analog representation (electrical
voltage, current, resistance; mechanical force, motion,
) Examples:
etc.). a p thermocouple,
o oup , RTD,, bourdon
bou do tube,
ub ,
potentiometer, electrochemical cell.

 Transducer (Converter/ Relay): A device that

converts one standardized instrumentation signal
g into
another standardized instrumentation signal, and/or
performs some sort of processing on that signal.
signal
Examples: I/P converter, P/I converter, square-root
extractor.
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 Transmitter: A device that translates PSE signal
into a standardized
d d d instrumentation signall such
h as;
pneumatic 3-15 psi, electrical 4-20 mA DC, Fieldbus
digital signal packet, etc.,

 Lower- and Upper-range values (LRV & URV):

e values
The a ues of
o process
p ocess measurement
easu e e t deemed
dee ed to be
0% and 100% of a transmitter’s calibrated range.
For example, if a temperature transmitter is
calibrated to measure a range of temperature
starting at 3000C and ending at 5000C; the 300 0C
d
degrees would
ld be
b LRV and
d the
th 500 0C degrees
d would
ld
be URV. 7
o Zero and Span: alternative descriptions to LRV and
URV for the 0% and 100% points of an instrument’s
calibrated range.

 “Zero” the beginning-point of an instrument’s range

(equivalent to LRV),

 “Span”
Span the width of its range (URV − LRV).

o Controller: A device that receives a process variable

(PV) signal from transmitter, then compares that signal
to the desired value (SP), and calculates an appropriate
output signal value to be sent to a final control element
such as an electric motor or control valve.
valve
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 Final Control Element (FCE): A device that receives
signal from the controller to directly influence the
process. Examples: variable-speed electric motor, control
valve electric heater.
valve, heater

 Manipulated Variable (MV): The output signal

generated
dbby the
h controller.
ll This
h is the
h signall
commanding “manipulating” the final control element to
influence the process.

 Automatic mode: When the controller g

generates an
output signal based on the relationship of process
variable ((PV)) to the setpoint
p ((SP).
)

 Manual mode: When the controller’s decision-making

ability is bypassed to let a human operator directly
determine the output signal sent to FCE. 9
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A WATER LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEM, SHOWING
TRANSMITTER, CONTROLLER, AND CONTROL VALVE:

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EXAMPLE: WASTEWATER DISINFECTION

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EXAMPLE: CHEMICAL REACTOR TEMPERATURE CONTROL

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 OTHER TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

Indicators

 Indicators provide a human- readable indication

of an instrument signal.

 I di t
Indicators give
i a convenient
i t way off seeing
i what
h t
the output of the transmitter is without having to
connect test equipment

 Indicators may be located far from their

respective transmitters, providing readouts in
locations more convenient than the location of the
transmitter itself.

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14
NUMERICAL AND BARGRAPH PANEL-MOUNTED INDICATOR

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LESS SOPHISTICATED STYLE OF PANEL-MOUNTED INDICATOR SHOWS
ONLY A NUMERIC DISPLAY

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FIELD-MOUNTED INDICATORS

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 RECORDERS

 Chart recorder or a trend recorder used to draw a

graph
h off process variable(s)
i bl ( ) over time.
ti

 Recorders usually have indicators for showing the

instantaneous value of the instrument signal(s)
simultaneously with the historical values.

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CIRCULAR CHART RECORDER USES A ROUND SHEET OF PAPER

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STRIP CHART RECORDER ON THE RIGHT AND A
PAPERLESS CHART RECORDER ON THE LEFT

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EXAMPLE OF A TYPICAL “TREND” SHOWING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PROCESS VARIABLE, SETPOINT, AND CONTROLLER OUTPUT IN AUTOMATIC MODE,

AS GRAPHED BY A RECORDER:

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22
 PROCESS SWITCHES AND ALARMS
 Process switch is used to turn on and off with
varying process conditions.
conditions

 Usually, switches are used to activate alarms to

alert human operators to take special action.

 In other situations, switches are directly used as

control devices.

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THE FOLLOWING P&ID OF A COMPRESSED AIR CONTROL
SYSTEM SHOWS BOTH USES OF PROCESS SWITCHES:

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ALARM MODULE

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ANNUNCIATORS
 Process alarm switches may be used to trigger a special type of
indicator device known as an annunciator.

 An annunciator is an indicator lights designed to secure a

human operator
operator’s
s attention by blinking and sounding an audible
buzzer when a process switch actuates into an abnormal state.

 The alarm state may be then “acknowledged” by an operator

pushing a button, causing the alarm light to remain on (solid)
rather than blink, and silencing the buzzer.

 The indicator light does not turn off until the actual alarm
condition (the process switch) has returned to its regular state.

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AN ANNUNCIATOR LOCATED ON A CONTROL
PANEL FOR A LARGE ENGINE-DRIVEN PUMP

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A SIMPLE LOGIC GATE CIRCUIT ILLUSTRATES THE ACKNOWLEDGMENT
LATCHING FEATURE (HERE IMPLEMENTED BY AN S-R
S R LATCH
CIRCUIT) COMMON TO ALL PROCESS ALARM ANNUNCIATORS:

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INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
M t iinstruments
Most t t contain
t i a facility
f ilit for
f making
ki t
two adjustments.
dj t t
These are
1. The RANGE adjustment.
2. The ZERO adjustment.
 In order to calibrate the instrument an accurate gauge is
required This is likely to be a SECONDARY STANDARD.
required. STANDARD
Instruments calibrated as a secondary standard have
themselves been calibrated against a PRIMARY STANDARD.
PROCEDURE
 An input representing the minimum gauge setting should be
applied. The output should be adjusted to be correct. Next
the maximum signal is applied. The range is then adjusted to
give the required output. This should be repeated until the
gauge is correct at the minimum and maximum values.

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CALIBRATION ERRORS
RANGE AND ZERO ERRO
 After obtaining correct zero and range for the instrument, a
calibration graph should be produced. This involves plotting the
indicated reading against the correct reading from the standard
gauge.
g g This should be done in about ten steps p with increasing g
signals and then with reducing signals. Several forms of error could
show up. If the zero or range is still incorrect the error will appear
as shown.
shown

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HYSTERESIS and NON LINEAR ERRORS
 Hysteresis is produced when the displayed values are too
small for increasing signals and too large for decreasing
signals This is commonly caused in mechanical instruments
signals.
by loose gears and linkages and friction. It occurs widely with
things involving magnetisation and demagnetisation.
 The calibration
Th lib ti may be
b correctt att the
th maximum
i andd minimum
i i
values of the range but the graph joining them may not be a
straight line (when it ought to be). This is a non linear error.
The instrument
inst ment may
ma have
ha e some adjustments
adj stments for
fo this and it
may be possible to make it correct at mid range as shown.

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TRANSMITTERS
 A transmitter sends representative signal of the
value of measured variable from the sensor to the
indicator or controller. This has the advantage of
keeping hazardous process fluids outside the
control room and allows the use of a common
signal range. Transmitter picks up the
measurement provided by the sensor and converts
it to a standard signal range. Sensors and
transmitters are combined in to one device.
The two most common types of transmission used in
industry are.
1. Pneumatic, and
2. Electronic

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Pneumatic System
 Air systems operate in the range of 3 to 15 psi (0.2 to 1.0
Bar) and make use of small – bore piping to transmit the
signal around the plant.
 The main advantages of this system are:
1. Freedom to a certain extent from the fear of electrical
power failures
2
2. Abilit
Ability to transmit
t a it and
a d send
e d signals
ig al th o gh
through
hazardous areas without the fear of explosion.
3. Noise immunity from external sources

 Unfortunately y as the transmission distances increase

lags the measurement system increase and some
distortion of the signal occurs.

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Electronic
 Electronic systems make use of cables to send
current signals in range of 4-20 mA around the use
off a li
live zero usedd in
i currentt ttransmission,
i i allows
ll
for an easy method to detect a loss of signal due to
cable
cab e da
damage.
age. Further
u t e tthe
e cu
current
e t iss tthee sa
samee at
all points the loop.
 Electrical signals do not suffer from lag and signal
di
distortioni problems
bl when
h long
l transmission
i i
distances are encountered. Unfortunately they can
Suffer from noise problems and all signals are lost
when the power fails unless an Uninterruptible
power Supply (UPS) Is available. The main
problem
bl with
i h the
h electrical
l i l Signals
Si l is
i the h explosion
l i
risk in hazardous areas.

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Digital
 The traditional favorite means communicating a process
signal from the field to the control room is via the 4-20 mA
analogue current loop.
loop
 This is a fast reliable industry standard but it leaves a lot
to be desired in terms of maintenance capabilities,
performance and diagnostics.
 Analogue field instruments can be expensive to install and
maintain.
i t i
 Smart field instruments may not only address this issues
but can provide further benefits the features of Smart
transmitters issues but can provide further benefits.
 The features of Smart transmitters can provide substantial
benefits to users in terms of time and labor savings as well
as providing an increase in plant operating safety.

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HIGHWAY ADDRESSABLE REMOTE TRANSDUCER (HART) PROTOCOL
 HART field communications protocol is widely accepted in the
industry as the standard for digitally enhanced 4-20 mA
communication with smart field instruments. The HART protocol
was designed specifically for use with intelligent measurement
and control instruments that traditionally communicate using 4 4-
20 mA analogue signals HART preserves the 4-20 mA signal and
enables two–way digital communications to occur without
di t bi
disturbing th integrity
the i t it off the
th 4 -2020 mA A signal.
i l Unlike
U lik other
th
digital communication technologies the HART protocol maintains
compatibility with existing 4 -20 mA systems and in doing so
provides users with uniquely compatible solution the HART
protocol permits the process variable to be transmitted by the 4 -
20 mA analogue signal and additional information about other
variables parameters , device configuration , calibration and
device diagnostics to be transmitted digitally at the same time .

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 HART makes use the technic of frequency shift keying (FSK) standard to
superimpose digital communications at a low level on top of the 4 -20
20 mA
signal.
 This enables two-way field communications to take place and makes it
possible for additional information beyond just the normal process variable to
be communicated to from a smart field instrument the HART protocol allows
a host application (master) to get two or more digital updates per second from
a field device which is not fast enough for most applications.
 HART is a master slave protocol, that means the field (slave) device only
speaks when spoken to by master sends out command signal (C) and the slave
sends back a response (R).

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 As with most protocol-based systems the manufacturer tries to “tie-
you” into his equipment.
you equipment The therefore if you use a HART based
system you cannot attach Honeywell equipment and expect it to work.
Hopefully with the final introduction of the Field-bus foundation
protocol this will change
p g and a ggreater flexibility
y will emerge.
g
 The HART protocol permits all digital communication with field
devices in installation saving are possible with the multi-drop
networking capabilities of HART.

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 SMART INSTRUMENTS
 Intelligent (microprocessor based) measurement.
measurement
 Digital data communication
 Includes diagnostic information as well as Process
 Popular in hybrid 4-20 mA mode.

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