Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Review CHEMISTRY Atoms Atoms are composed of a nucleus of protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons > Proton: Positive charge, about | atomic mass unit (amu = 1/12 of normal C atom) Neutron: Neutral charge, also about 1 amu > Electron: Negative charge, about 1/1800 amu Electrons occupy regions known as orbitals, which are configured in "shells" SS ——— Shel Subshel ‘Orbital SubshellOrbitals per Electrons per Electrons per 2 1 ms notation subshell___subshell__ shell 2n") T 0 Is 7 The n, /and m quantum numbers define the orbital. A fourth number ms (magnetic spin) is used to describe the electron state, and can have a value of #1/2. Electrons distribute throughout the shell such that there is a maximum number of unpaired electrons with parallel spins (ie. + or ~ signs of ms). The electron configuration of Phosphorus is thus: Phosphorus (15): 1s? 2s? 2p8 35°, 3ps!, 3py!, 3pe! The valence electrons are those with the highest principal quantum number, and they define the chemical properties of the element. The valence electrons for Bromine are: Bromine (35) 482, 42, 4p, Apal FE Exam Review ~ Chemistry (K. Whitty) Page I2. The Periodic Table Periodic Table of the Elements fared eae Gom iooawery Be eee Seon eenaara ie 1S z ig bie ia ae ee |e |Juu { i he 1a" “The ordering of atoms in the periodic table follows their ordering by atomic weight and by atomie number, the number of protons in the nucleus. The periodic table is laid out to show commonalities among atoms. Atoms in the same group have similar valence electron configurations. Some notes about the periodic table: > "Metals" are on the left side, A diagonal line from Al to Po shows the boundary, The transition metals form a block from Se to Uub, including Lu (71) and Lr (103). > Electron affinity (willingness to accept an electron) increases up and to the right, as does ionization energy (or ionization potential, energy required to strip an electron). ‘The reducing power of the atoms follows the same trend. Noble gases are an exception. Some common groups: > Group 1A: Alkali metals happily give up their sole valence electron to close the shell and have strong reducing power. Cation of +1 is stable due to closed shell } Group IIA: Alkaline earth metals give up 2 electrons to close the shell, Not as strongly reducing as alkali metals. Cation of +2 is quite stable. > Group VIIA: Halogens are one electron short of a closed shell. Strongly oxidative. > Group 0: Noble gases have closed shells. Very stable; hard to add/remove an electron. FE Exam Review ~ Chemistry (K. Whitty) Page 23. Molecules and Their Structure Bonding. Molecules are combinations of atoms held together by bonds, The two main types of bonds are: % Ionic bonds involve transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another, Example is sodium chloride, Na"Cl-. The valence electron in sodium is transferred to the chlorine to make it so that both atoms have closed shells, > Covalent bonds involve shating of electrons between atoms. The number of electrons shared is usually enough to fill the outermost valence shells and thus bring both atoms to their noble gas configuration. Consider methane (CH). Each H-C bond involves sharing one pair of electrons. The H sees two electrons, and is therefore similar to He with its closed Is shell. C sees 8 electrons (its four plus the four shared from each of the four H's) making its Ip shell closed similar to Ne. In the case of ethylene (Cz), which has a double bond, four electrons are shared between the two carbons, and each carbon shares 2 electrons with each of the 2 H's attached to it. So again, each C has a total of 8 shared electrons. Oxidation number. The oxidation number corresponds to the number of electrons transferred to another atom in a covalent bond. It's positive if electrons are transferred from atoms, negative if electrons are transferred fo the atoms, Assume electrons arc transferred to the atom with the higher affinity. The total of all oxidation numbers for the atoms in a molecule sum to zero. Some general rules to help determine the oxidation numbers of atoms in molecules: > Na, K are nearly always 1+ > Fhas highest electron affinity and is nearly always 1-. Other halogens are similar, > is often 2~ Consider NaxCO3. If we assume O is 2~ and that Na is I+ then C must be 4# to get sum = 0, The mole and molar masses. The mass of a molecule (molecular mass, also called molecular weight) is the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms that make up the molecule, The molar ‘mass is the mass that one mole (mol = 6.022 x 103) of molecules of the compound would have. ‘The molar mass (in grams) and the molecular mass (in amu) are numerically equivalent grams of A = (molecular weight of A) x (moles of A) Ata specified temperature and pressure, one mole of gas occupies the same volume no matter what that gas is. A convenient number to keep in mind is that 1 mole of gas at | atm pressure and 0°C (so-called "standard" temperature and pressure, or STP) occupies 22.4 liters. FE Exam Review ~ Chemistry (K. Whitty) Page 3