21.7.

SUMMARY OF PID CONTROL TERMS 829

21.7.1 Proportional control mode (P)

Proportional – sometimes called gain or sensitivity – is a control action reproducing changes in
input as changes in output. Proportional controller action responds to present changes in input
by generating immediate and commensurate changes in output. When you think of “proportional
action” (P), think punctual : this control action works immediately (never too soon or too late) to
match changes in the input signal.

Mathematically defined, proportional action is the ratio of output change to input change. This
may be expressed as a quotient of differences, or as a derivative (a rate of change, using calculus
notation):
∆Output
Gain value =
∆Input
dOutput dm
Gain value = =
dInput de
For example, if the PV input of a proportional-only process controller with a gain of 2 suddenly
changes (“steps”) by 5 percent, and the output will immediately jump by 10 percent (∆Output =
Gain × ∆Input). The direction of this output jump in relation to the direction of the input jump
depends on whether the controller is configured for direct or reverse action.
A legacy term used to express this same concept is proportional band : the mathematical reciprocal
of gain. “Proportional band” is defined as the amount of input change necessary to evoke full-
scale (100%) output change in a proportional controller. Incidentally, it is always expressed as a
percentage, never as fraction or as a decimal:
∆Input
Proportional Band value =
∆Output
dInput de
Proportional Band value = =
dOutput dm
Using the same example of a proportional controller exhibiting an output “step” of 10% in
response to a PV “step” of 5%, the proportional band would be 50%: the reciprocal of its gain
( 21 = 50%). Another way of saying this is that a 50% input “step” would be required to change the
output of this controller by a full 100%, since its gain is set to a value of 2.
830 CHAPTER 21. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDBACK CONTROL

21.7.2 Integral control mode (I)

Integral – sometimes called reset or floating control – is a control action causing the output signal
to change over time at a rate proportional to the amount of error (the difference between PV and
SP values). Integral controller action responds to error accumulated over time, ramping the output
signal are far as it needs to go to completely eliminate error. If proportional (P) action tells the
output how far to go when an error appears, integral (I) action tells the output how fast to move
when an error appears. If proportional (P) action acts on the present, integral (I) action acts on
the past. Thus, how far the output signal gets driven by integral action depends on the history of
the error over time: how much error existed, and for how long. When you think of “integral action”
(I), think impatience: this control action drives the output further and further the longer PV fails
to match SP.

Mathematically defined, integral action is the ratio of output velocity to input error:
Output velocity
Integral value (repeats per minute) =
Input error
dm
dt
Integral value (repeats per minute) =
e
An alternate way to express integral action is to use the reciprocal unit of “minutes per repeat.”
If we define integral action in these terms, the defining equations must be reciprocated:
Input error
Integral time constant (minutes per repeat) = τi =
Output velocity
e
Integral time constant (minutes per repeat) = τi = dm
dt

For example, if an error of 5% appears between PV and SP on an integral-only process controller

with an integral value of 3 repeats per minute (i.e. an integral time constant of 0.333 minutes per
repeat), the output will begin ramping at a rate of 15% per minute ( dm dt = Integral value × e, or
dm e
dt = τi ). In most PI and PID controllers, integral response is also multiplied by proportional gain,
so the same conditions applied to a PI controller that happened to also have a gain of 2 would
result in an output ramping rate of 30% per minute ( dm dt = Gain value × Integral value × e, or dt
dm
e
= Gain value × τi ). The direction of this ramping in relation to the direction (sign) of the error
depends on whether the controller is configured for direct or reverse action.
21.8. P, I, AND D RESPONSES GRAPHED 831

21.7.3 Derivative control mode (D)

Derivative – sometimes called rate or pre-act – is a control action causing the output signal to be
offset by an amount proportional to the rate at which the input is changing. Derivative controller
action responds to how quickly the input changes over time, biasing the output signal commensurate
with that rate of input change. If proportional (P) action tells the output how far to go when an error
appears, derivative (D) action tells the output how far to go when the input ramps. If proportional
(P) action acts on the present and integral (I) action acts on the past, derivative (D) action acts
on the future: it effectively “anticipates” overshoot by tempering the output response according to
how fast the process variable is rising or falling. When you think of “derivative action” (D), think
discretion: this control action is cautious and prudent, working against change.

Mathematically defined, derivative action is the ratio of output offset to input velocity:
Output offset
Derivative time constant (minutes) = τd =
Input velocity
∆Output
Derivative time constant (minutes) = τd = de
dt

For example, if the PV signal begins to ramp at a rate of 5% per minute on a process controller
with a derivative time constant of 4 minutes, the output will immediately become offset by 20%
(∆Output = Derivative value × de dt ). In most PD and PID controllers, derivative response is also
multiplied by proportional gain, so the same conditions applied to a PD controller that happened
to also have a gain of 2 would result in an immediate offset of 40% (∆Output = Gain value ×
Derivative value × de
dt ). The direction (sign) of this offset in relation to the direction of the input
ramping depends on whether the controller is configured for direct or reverse action.

21.8 P, I, and D responses graphed

A very helpful method for understanding the operation of proportional, integral, and derivative
control terms is to analyze their respective responses to the same input conditions over time. This
section is divided into subsections showing P, I, and D responses for several different input conditions,
in the form of graphs. In each graph, the controller is assumed to be direct-acting (i.e. an increase
in process variable results in an increase in output).
It should be noted that these graphic illustrations are all qualitative, not quantitative. There
is too little information given in each case to plot exact responses. The illustrations of P, I, and D
actions focus only on the shapes of the responses, not their exact numerical values.
In order to quantitatively predict PID controller responses, one would have to know the values of
all PID settings, as well as the original starting value of the output before an input change occurred
and a time index of when the change(s) occurred.
832 CHAPTER 21. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDBACK CONTROL

21.8.1 Responses to a single step-change

100
95
90
85 Derivative response
80
75
70
65 Integral response
60
55
% 50
45
40 Proportional response
35
30
25 PV
20
15 SP
10
5
0

Time
Proportional action directly mimics the shape of the input change (a step). Integral action ramps
at a rate proportional to the magnitude of the input step. Since the input step holds a constant
value, the integral action ramps at a constant rate (a constant slope). Derivative action interprets
the step as an infinite rate of change, and so generates a “spike” driving the output to saturation.
When combined into one PID output, the three actions produce this response:

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55 PID response
% 50
45
40
35
30
25 PV
20
15 SP
10
5
0

Time