Literacy Research and Instruction

ISSN: 1938-8071 (Print) 1938-8063 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ulri20

Now I “See”: The Impact of Graphic Novels on

Reading Comprehension in High School English
Classrooms

Mike P. Cook

To cite this article: Mike P. Cook (2017) Now I “See”: The Impact of Graphic Novels on Reading
Comprehension in High School English Classrooms, Literacy Research and Instruction, 56:1,
21-53, DOI: 10.1080/19388071.2016.1244869

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2016.1244869

Published online: 07 Nov 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 689

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Citing articles: 3 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ulri20
LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION
2017, VOL. 56, NO. 1, 21–53
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2016.1244869

Now I “See”: The Impact of Graphic Novels on Reading

Comprehension in High School English Classrooms
Mike P. Cook
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Few empirical studies have been conducted to investigate the edu- Adolescent literacy;
cational uses of graphic novels. Because of this, misconceptions and comprehension; qualitative
stereotypes exist. This article presents findings from a study examin- research; quantitative
ing the effects of graphic novels on high school students’ (N = 217) research
reading comprehension. A graphic adaptation of a traditionally
taught text (Poe’s “The Cask of Amontillado”) was explored as (a) a
replacement text and (b) a supplemental text. The study design
utilized a factorial analysis of variance with three independent vari-
ables: text type, grade level, and gender. A reading comprehension
test was developed to serve as the dependent variable. Findings
indicated significant effects for all factors. At the conclusion of the
study, post interviews were conducted to elicit students’ and tea-
chers’ perceptions of interacting with the graphic text.

This study grew out of my own classroom teaching experiences, as well as my own
fascination with graphic novels and reading images. As a high school English teacher,
my priority was to provide students with relevant texts and meaningful learning oppor-
tunities. This, however, has always been easier said than done. Many of my former
students struggled with making meaning from traditional class texts, yet they found
interest in the graphic novels I included in our classroom library. Because of this student
interest, it was important to me to examine the ways in which graphic novels might be
beneficial to adolescent readers.
One of my realizations as a teacher was that many students often struggle with
traditionally taught classic texts, including Edgar Allen Poe’s short stories. Poe’s stories
present difficulties for adolescent readers for a variety of reasons, including Poe’s language
use and diction, his foreign and archaic settings and plot, and the dark and macabre
nature of his imagery. As a result, students can feel overwhelmed and frustrated when
attempting to closely read and comprehend literary texts. High quality instruction and
scaffolding are necessary to bridge students’ gaps in employing schema to comprehend
texts commonly used in high school.
In addition to providing this scaffolding, the concept of literacy instruction is further
complicated. Literacy practices are constantly changing, and as they evolve, it becomes
increasingly important that instruction remains relevant and helps students become
critical consumers of text and information (Park, 2012; Thomas, 2012). In other words,

CONTACT Mike P. Cook mpc0035@auburn.edu Auburn University, Curriculum & Teaching, 5040 Haley Center,
Auburn, AL 36849-5212.
© 2017 Association of Literacy Educators and Researchers
22 M. P. COOK

teachers must help students acquire a variety of literacy tools. Moreover, it is necessary to
note that comprehension itself is not a single skill, but is instead a combination of multiple
components that must work together (Davis, 1968; Hall, 1989; Miller & Faircloth, 2009).
As a result, our duty as English teachers is to foster literacy skills, including comprehen-
sion, by helping students engage with texts in relevant and personal ways.
Several scholars have pointed to the use of graphic novels to assist students in learning
literary elements (e.g., see Frey, 2010; Schwarz, 2002). Additionally, graphic novels have
been found to foster appreciation for and interest in literature and literary study (Moeller,
2011). Furthermore, researchers and pedagogues continue to argue for the utility of
graphic novels to broaden the context of the texts with visual information (Mouly,
2011) and to sponsor literacy skills (Versaci, 2001), which are transferable across literacy
tasks and processes (Jacobs, 2007). However, the research literature does not specifically
address the relationship between graphic novels and reading comprehension.
Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of graphic novels on high
school students’ reading comprehension. Specifically, I investigated potential benefits of
using a graphic adaptation (Pomplun, 2010) of Poe’s short story, “The Cask of
Amontillado,” to expand reading comprehension within an instructional unit on the
author. Given the limited research on graphic novels and the multiple reading compre-
hension components required to function in unison, I wanted to use the graphic text to
examine the practicality and use of images in reading and literacy instruction. This specific
text was selected to align with both the exemplar texts provided in the Common Core
State Standards (CCSS) and the school district’s suggested list of texts.

A word on the standards

This connection to standards impacts both this study and the texts teachers utilize in their
classrooms. The ongoing emphasis on standardized testing in education continues to
privilege traditional alphabetic text in many instances. In addition, the CCSS pushes the
idea of text complexity as a key to text selection and promotes close reading and
examination of texts (National Governors’ Association Center for Best Practices &
Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). These and similar issues may impact
pedagogy and keep teachers from fully utilizing graphic novels in their literacy instruction.
Monnin (2013a), however, argued that graphic novels can find a home within the CCSS
by stating that “combined print-text literacies and image literacies, like those found in
graphic novels, are reflected and valued in the Common Core State Standards” (p. 52). She
goes on to suggest that the CCSS are written broadly and allow for teachers to make
educated interpretations of standards and of helping students to meet those standards,
rather than strictly following a prescription of instruction, and to incorporate a wide variety
of text-types. In similar fashion, Burns and Botzakis (2012) point out that success in any
curricula or standards requires an expanded definition of texts, beyond those within the
canon. Yet another goal of the CCSS is for students to make connections via texts to multiple
disciplines. Todd (2015) stated that the study of graphic novels can lead to interdisciplinar-
ity, where students make connections among various disciplines. In other words, students
can gain multiple perspectives on a given text, topic, or way of thinking.
This potential for graphic novels within our new standards-based era undergirds this
study. While teacher concerns over text selection and what is expected of them is valid,
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 23

perhaps it is largely an issue with interpretation. The CCSS do not require teachers to
utilize specific instructional approaches; instead, teachers are tasked with making instruc-
tional decisions and incorporating texts and tools to assure their students meet the
standards. As McLaughlin and Overturf (2012) posited, the CCSS requires two tasks of
teachers: “teaching the literacy skills in the Standards and nurturing active, strategic
readers who successfully comprehend text” (p. 35, emphasis in original). Thus, it remains
important to examine the ways in which graphic novels can be utilized in the classroom to
impact student literacy.

Theoretical framework
This study was designed using a layered theoretical and conceptual framework for literacy
in the high school classroom. The theoretical framework consists of the role of schema
and transactional theory, which help to understand how readers interact with and make
connections to texts. To further guide my understanding of student literacy, specifically
regarding the constantly evolving notion of literacy practices and the ways in which
students make meaning from a variety of texts, I utilized a three-pronged conceptual
framework, which includes changes in literacy demands and practices, the components of
reading comprehension, and the process(es) of reading visuals.
This layered framework is essential in both structuring and guiding my investigation, as
well as providing necessary support and rationale for conducting research examining the
use of graphic novels to support reading comprehension. First, forming the base is the
idea that multiple text types can assist students in connecting to and making meaning
from texts. Second, over the last two decades, both the concept and definition of literacy
have evolved to include a variety of literacy practices, text types, and modalities of
communication. Third, schema are recognized as vital to the comprehension of any
type or format of text. Finally, reading comprehension is comprised of multiple compo-
nents (see Table 1), including the student’s ability to read visuals as well as text.

The role of schema

The first component of my theoretical framework acknowledges that for readers to make
meaning from a text, they must have the appropriate schema to guide their learning.
Schema theory, as Tracey and Morrow (2012) suggest, assists in explaining the ways in
which learners actively engage in knowledge creation and utilization. First used by Kant
(1929) and Piaget (1952), schema theory posits that information is organized into knowl-
edge structures (i.e., schemata or schemas), which are important for learning. A lack of, or
gaps in, schema complicate learning and make acquiring new information difficult. New
schema, however, can be created, and existing schema supplemented, a concept validated
in multiple studies (Li, Wu, & Wang, 2007; Little & Box, 2011; McVee, Dunsmore, &
Gavelek, 2005) and useful in examining the results of this study, as schema are integral to
reading comprehension and provides a necessary lens for an investigation of graphic
novels, and the visual context they provide.
Shifting classroom instruction is not simple for students or teachers. Students require
new or revised schema sets for interacting with multimodal and multimedia texts in
meaningful ways. Zhao and Zhu (2012), for example, posit that readers who struggle
24 M. P. COOK

Table 1. Components of reading comprehension.

Reader Attributes
Formal schema (intellect, motivation,
Vocabulary Background/ (including structural, engagement,
(including prior Content linguistic, and extra- visualization, strategy Publication
decoding) knowledge schema textual schema) use, etc.) type
Afflerback, ✓ ✓ ✓ Review of
Pearson, and literature
Paris (2008)
Alderson (2000) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Professional
resource
Baumann (2009) ✓ Research
Biancarosa and ✓ Technical
Snow (2006) report
Canney and ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Technical
Winograd report
(1979)
Concannon- ✓ Research:
Gibney and Report of
Murphy impact
(2012)
Crain-Thoreson, ✓ ✓ Research
Lippman, and
McClendon-
Magnuson
(1997)
Davey (1988) ✓ ✓ Research
Davis (1968) ✓ ✓ ✓ Research
Fisher, Lapp, ✓ ✓ Research
and Frey
(2011)
Golinkoff (1975) ✓ ✓ Review of
literature
Hall (1989) ✓ ✓ ✓ Review of
literature
Hoffman (2009) ✓ ✓ Review of
literature
Kintsch (2005) ✓ Review of
literature
Leslie and ✓ ✓ ✓ Review of
Caldwell literature
(2009)
Miller and ✓ Review of
Faircloth literature
(2009)
Torgesen (2006) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Review of
literature
Van den Broek ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Review of
and Espin literature
(2012)
Wu and Hu ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Research
(2007)
Zhao and Zhu ✓ ✓ ✓ Research
(2012)
Totals 13 9 9 8 13

often do so because of a lack of adequate schema for understanding the texts they read.
Similarly, Wu and Hu (2007) found that teachers must assist students in establishing
textual schema as applied to new literacies. Given the importance of schema for compre-
hension purposes, the idea that schema can be constructed and revised to overcome
comprehension issues, and the argument that being fully literate includes using schema
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 25

to make meaning from traditional and visual medium alike, this study explored the
potential affordances of graphic novels to foster both new schema construction and
existing schema alteration and their effects on students’ reading comprehension.

Transactional theory
Building on schema theory, I utilize transactional theory as a way to recognize the two-way
interaction between reader and text. These new schema discussed above can enable students
in what Rosenblatt (1938) termed transacting with literature, especially when dealing with
multimodal texts. Making this same point with regard to images, Kress and Van Leeuwen
(1996) argued that for a person to be fully literate, he/she must be able to treat any
composition as a visual medium, requiring specific schema. Through transactional theory,
Rosenblatt argued that readers develop relationships with the texts they read and with the
settings and characters they read about. The experience of reading is thus unique and
individual, as Rosenblatt suggested that readers create their own pathways through texts
and use personal transactions to create their own meanings from the texts they read.
When describing transactional theory, Rosenblatt argued that meaning is in fact co-
created by both reader and text through a two-way transaction (i.e., from text to reader
and from reader to text). Individually, readers bring “to the work personality traits,
memories of past events, present needs and preoccupations, a particular mood of the
moment, and a particular physical condition” (p. 31). Additionally, the text structure and
format (i.e., the modes of communication it utilizes) contribute to the transaction. She
even included the mode of the image in this discussion as well by stating, “the submerged
associations that these words and images have for the reader will largely determine what
the work communicates to him” (p. 30).

Conceptual framework
While the dual theoretical framework is useful for examining the ways in which students
interact with and construct meaning from texts, it is also vital to include a conceptual
framework to provide additional focus and organization for data collection and analysis.
The conceptual framework for this study consists of four parts: change in literacy, reading
comprehension, reading visuals, and graphic novels. Given that the purpose of the
conceptual framework is (a) to explain key components of a study and (b) to assume a
relationship among them, these four components are necessary to examine regarding the
use of graphic novels to foster reading comprehension in high school students.

Change in literacy
The definition(s) of literacy and what it truly means to be a literate person have sharply
changed in the past several years (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006; Schultz & Hull, 2002).
Selfe (2004), for example, pointed to a need to expand our notions of literacy beyond
simply alphabetic text. Students today live in a world of multimedia, where literacy
practices and the texts available to them constantly change. However, as Serafini (2014)
noted, a disparity exists between the literacy experiences with which students engage in
and out of school. In response, the National Council of Teachers of English (2008)
26 M. P. COOK

published an updated definition of 21st century literacies, where students should

“create, critique, analyze, and evaluate multi-media texts” (para. 1). In other words,
educators must rethink traditional notions of literacy and challenge the status quo of
literacy instruction. The importance of multimodal and new literacies for fostering fully
literate students has been voiced by a host of scholars (Frost, Myatt, & Smith, 2009;
Jewitt, 2008; Kittle, 2009; Kress, 2003; Palmeri, 2012; Wysocki, 2003). While still
important, the traditional “text” with its top to bottom and left to right reading, no
longer constitutes the only texts students encounter in and outside school. The sec-
ondary English language arts (ELA) classroom includes multimodal and multimedia
texts, ranging from audio and images to blogs to videos with discussion boards to fully
inclusive online worlds.
Students today are familiar with a variety of media, although they are not necessarily a
part of their education in schools (Schultz & Hull, 2002; Skilton-Sylvester, 2002). As
Garcia (2012) suggests, paper, ink, and traditional methods of reading no longer comprise
literacy and literacy practices; thus, educators must rethink and reorient literacy instruc-
tion by including a variety of nontraditional texts. Echoing the New London Group
(1996), Cope and Kalantzis (2009) suggested a pedagogy of multiliteracies, where all
modes and forms of communication are valued and where students actively consume,
create, and transform information. To be fully literate, students must be able to read and
extrapolate meaning in multimodal ways (Eisner, 1998; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996;
McCloud, 1993; Serafini, 2011; Zoss, 2009). The graphic novel can assist with this, as
readers move from image to text, image to image, and panel to panel to create a unique
and coherent whole (Hammond, 2009; Mouly, 2011; Schwarz, 2002; Smetana, 2010).
Teachers are charged with providing new texts, such as graphic novels, and preparing
students to be critical consumers of multimodal texts and information, which requires a
redefining of literacy instruction to include and value the ways in which students interact
with multiple text types (Garland, 2012; Park, 2012; Thomas, 2012).

Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension serves as the assessment base for this study. Therefore, it becomes
important to consider not only reading comprehension itself, but also the individual
components that make up reading comprehension. Thus, I conducted a review of the
literature to determine the major components of reading comprehension and to utilize
those to guide this study. Five components of reading comprehension emerged as a result
of a review of the literature for this study (see Table 1): (1) vocabulary, including
decoding; (2) background knowledge; (3) content schema, including subject matter,
content, topic, and literary elements of a text; (4) formal schema for the organizational
and rhetorical structures of a text; and (5) reader attributes, including motivation,
engagement, visualization, and strategy use. These five components of reading compre-
hension were used to define reading comprehension in the current study and to guide the
thorough construction of the reading comprehension test (see Appendix A) that served as
the independent variable for this study.
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 27

Reading visuals
As one of the five reading components previously mentioned, visualization is vital to
comprehending graphic novels. It is impossible to examine the use of graphic texts in
educational settings without first considering how to read visuals. Graphic novels place an
emphasis on images as major narrative components; thus, one must “read” the visuals in
order to understand the written text. The idea of images as narrative is not new, however.
In fact, Zoss (2009) suggests that visuals have been used in literacy instruction for more
than a decade. Eisner (1998) promoted the use of visuals in education by pointing out that
“the eye is a part of the mind” (p. 64). Eisner goes on to suggest that knowledge creation is
dependent on an ability to connect images and language. Brooks (2009) reminds us that
McCloud (1993) has drawn attention to the study of visuals since the early 1990s with his
seminal work, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. Kress and van Leeuwen (1996)
argue that the shared structure(s) between visuals and alphabetic text offer expanded
methods of communication. While the concept of visual literacy has garnered attention
over the previous two decades, additional discussion of the benefits and pedagogical uses
of visuals in literacy instruction, including the ways in which boys and girls read and use
visuals, is necessary.
Some research indicates that graphic texts offer benefits to readers (Annett, 2008; Fisher
& Frey, 2004, 2011; Hammond, 2009; Hughes, King, Perkins, & Fuke, 2011; Moeller, 2011;
Serafini, 2011; Smetana, 2010). One benefit is that the visuals in the text can serve as
indicators of what is important in the written text, and can assist readers by focusing
attention on specific ideas. Likewise, graphic texts utilize what McCloud (1993) terms
“amplification through simplification” (p. 30), where artists strip an image down to its
essential meaning in order to amplify that meaning in ways not easily achieved through
other mediums, such as words. In graphic texts, the differences in images and text are
harmonious and complementary. Where visuals are what McCloud calls “received infor-
mation” (p. 49), traditionally, understanding written text requires specialized knowledge
that is taught in school, so that readers can extrapolate meaning.

Graphic novels in the classroom

In addition to using graphic novels to “read” images, over the last few years, graphic
novels have experienced increasing use in secondary ELA classrooms. This growth is
evidenced by an expanding list of graphic novels used in classrooms (Carter, 2009; Frey,
2010; Griffith, 2010), increased resources available to teachers on providing graphic novel
instruction (Bakis, 2012; Carter, 2007; Monnin, 2013b), and more resources for helping
students interact with the graphic format (McCloud, 1993; Rudiger, 2006; Saraceni, 2003).
As a consequence, scholars have begun to engage in dialogue around the use(s) of graphic
texts in education, specifically in English and literacy education. Hall (2011), for example,
suggested that academia should take interest in the medium, given that graphic novels are
uniquely suited to students and that they offer a variety of educational benefits. To this
point, however, research on graphic novels in education is limited when compared to
research examining traditional methods and materials for fostering literacy. Relatively few
studies have been published, and although graphic novels are prolific in the culture, their
educational use has received limited attention in the research literature.
28 M. P. COOK

With regard to the relationship between graphic novels and reading comprehension,
even fewer studies have been conducted, and little empirical evidence is available.
Jennings, Rule, and Vander Zanden (2014) found that graphic novels both engaged
students and benefited their reading performance. Examining the relationship between
graphic novels and the use of comprehension strategies, Brenna (2013) found students
were able to utilize both general and specific comprehension strategies, as well as meta-
cognitive strategy use. As Bakis (2012) suggests, graphic novels assist readers in making a
variety of connections to texts. Similarly, Smetana (2010) argued that graphic novels are
beneficial because of their format. The graphic format itself provides students an oppor-
tunity to engage with texts and practice and hone a variety of reading strategies. Research
suggests that because there is less written text, readers are better able to focus on the
process of using inference gained from visuals to create meaning (Smetana, 2010). In
general, research shows that images within graphic novels provide support in helping
students decipher meaning and comprehend.
Graphic novels have also been described as helpful in addressing struggling and
reluctant readers by fostering engagement (Carter, 2009; Fisher & Frey, 2011; Rapp,
2012). In addition, graphic novels can engage and assist English language learners
(ELLs) (Chun, 2009). By its visual appeal, the graphic novel supports readers who may
be intimidated by linear text. Rapp (2012) purported that graphic novels as supplements
can bring benefits to literacy instruction. Through her literature review, Heaney (2007)
pointed out potential positive impacts of graphic novels, such as engaging readers who
might otherwise not pick up a print document. As Chun (2009) pointed out, “reading
engagement and achievement are mutually reinforcing” (p. 145). Graphic novels, however,
should not be limited to struggling and/or reluctant readers. Several scholars suggest that
strong and experienced readers are also motivated by graphic novels (Bakis, 2012; Carter,
2009; Connors, 2013; Fisher & Frey, 2011; Yildirim, 2013). The current study is intended
to add to this literature in two important ways: by examining the use of graphic novels to
support a traditional text, one that may present a variety of issues for students; and by
investigating the potential benefits of graphic novels for all students, not just those who
struggle to read.
In addition to contributing to reading comprehension and assisting all readers, graphic
novels continue to be discussed as sponsors of multiple literacies. Chun (2009) argued that
graphic novels foster critical literacies and assist teachers in responding to the increasing
need to expand literacy instruction and to help students make meaning form multiple
modes of communication. Connors (2015) suggested a variety of benefits from incorpor-
ating graphic novels in literacy instruction. These include engaging students, increasing
visual literacy, and fostering the analysis of the myriad visual–verbal texts that surround
them. Echoing this, Serafini (2014) argued that reading graphic novels can help students
develop the metalanguage necessary for critically analyzing and discussing the relation-
ships between the visuals and texts that they see daily. Examining students’ levels of
thinking after reading a graphic novel, Pantaleo (2014) found that students demonstrated
higher level thinking about visuals and the use of visuals within graphic novels.
Additionally, students exhibited a better understanding of the image as a mode of
communication. Serafini (2014), among others, suggested that teachers can begin to bridge
the gap between in and out of school literacy practices and to foster multimodal literacy by
incorporating graphic novels in their curricula.
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 29

Methods
In this study, I utilized a mixed-methods approach to examine the effects of graphic novels
on students’ reading comprehension. Specifically, I used a factorial design to collect and
analyze the quantitative data (i.e., scores on the reading comprehension test) and inter-
views to gauge students’ and teachers’ perceptions of interacting with the graphic text.
Mixed-methods are well suited for studying the impact of an intervention. Together, the
quantitative and qualitative information provide the numbers and the narratives to
produce breadth and depth of data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; Johnson &
Christensen, 2014).

Settings and participants

Graham High School (pseudonym) is a small public high school with approximately 600
students in the southeast United States. The school is Title I, which is a federal program
funding schools with high poverty levels and serves a diverse, rural, and agrarian com-
munity. The breakdown of the school demographic was as follows: White (33%); African
American (21%); Hispanic/Latino (43%); Other (3%). Approximately 70% of students
receive free or reduced lunch. Study participants were students taking an English course
(freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors) during the fall semester (n = 217) and the
teachers (n = 5) of those courses. Each English course was grade specific; for example,
English I is a ninth grade class, English II is a tenth grade class, and so forth. See Table 2
for a breakdown of students by grade level. Using a convenience sampling method
(Battaglia, 2008; Johnson & Christensen, 2014), this school was selected to serve as the
setting because it (a) held a diverse population, (b) produced traditionally low test scores,
and (c) allowed inclusion of all current English students and teachers as participants.
The teachers participating in this study included all English teachers at Graham High
School; that is, all English teachers at the school participated in the study. All five teachers
self-identified as white. Four were females, and one was male. Their teaching experiences
ranged from 1 to 20 years. One recently graduated from college and was in her first year of
teaching. Another teacher was in her second year. Both of these teachers were taking

Table 2. Sampling breakdown.

Control (C) Traditional Experimental 1 (E1) Graphic Experimental 2 (E2) Graphic +
text only text only traditional text Totals
9th grade n = 19 n = 19 n = 22 n = 56
Male = 10 Male = 9 Male = 12 Male = 29
Female =9 Female = 10 Female = 10 Female = 27
10th grade n = 15 n = 16 n = 15 n = 57
Male = 7 Male = 7 Male = 7 Male = 27
Female =8 Female =9 Female =8 Female = 30
11th grade n = 18 n = 17 n = 15 n = 56
Male = 6 Male = 8 Male = 6 Male = 29
Female = 12 Female =9 Female =9 Female = 27
12th grade n = 20 n = 21 n = 20 n = 56
Male = 10 Male = 11 Male = 11 Male = 28
Female = 10 Female = 10 Female =9 Female = 28
Totals n = 72 n = 73 n = 72 n = 217
Male = 33 Male = 35 Male = 36 Male = 104
Female = 39 Female = 38 Female = 36 Female = 113
30 M. P. COOK

courses in an alternative licensure program, as neither graduated from a teacher prepara-

tion program. A third teacher was in his fifth year, with his first three years teaching ELA
in an eighth grade classroom. The fourth teacher was in her seventh year (all at the same
school), and she served as the Chair of the English Department. The fifth teacher was in
her 20th year of teaching.

Research questions
As reported in the research literature, students vary in their abilities to comprehend based
on a variety of components (see Table 1). This study adds a new factor to the comprehen-
sion literature by examining how visuals support or mitigate reading comprehension. To
address this factor, I utilized five research questions to guide my inquiry, which provided a
lens through which to examine and make meaning from all quantitative and qualitative
data.

(1) In what ways and to what extent does text type (traditional text, graphic text,
graphic + traditional text) affect student reading comprehension test scores?
To provide a more nuanced look at and additional insight into the data, I also
incorporated grade level and gender as variables of interest. Research questions
two and three below account for this. Moreover, it was important to examine any
relationships among these variables (see research question four below).
(2) In what ways and to what extent does grade level affect student reading compre-
hension test scores?
(3) In what ways and to what extent does gender affect student reading comprehen-
sion test scores?
(4) What is the interaction, if any, among text type, grade level, and gender on
students’ reading comprehension test scores?

Finally, the inclusion of qualitative data is beneficial in understanding the context of the
classroom and student experiences. Research question five was utilized to incorporate
student and teacher voices and perceptions.
(5) What are student perceptions of working with graphic novels? Additionally, what
are teachers’ observations and perceptions of students working with graphic novels?

Data collection and analysis

For this research, I designed a reading comprehension test (∝ = 0.879), which served as the
dependent variable to assess participants’ reading comprehension across text types. The test
was administered at the conclusion of an instructional unit (designed by the researcher) on a
traditional literary text, “The Cask of Amontillado” (Poe, 1910). As mentioned previously,
Poe’s short story is listed as a CCSS text exemplar for the 11th and 12th grade band and as a
district level suggested text for grades 9 and 11 at this school.
Because all students taking an English class during this semester participated in the
study, I randomly selected students into one of three text type groups and provided the
corresponding version of Poe’s story. The control group (C) received only the traditional
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 31

print version of the text. The first experimental group (E1) received only the graphic
adaptation of the text. Finally, the second experimental group (E2) received both versions
of the text (traditional print and graphic). Students were not selected and placed by
individual classroom or teacher. Instead, they were selected using a random number
generator, so that each student had equal probability of being placed in any of the three
groups. Because I randomly selected students from the list of all participants (n = 217),
each teacher taught and each individual class contained students from all three text type
groups. As such, all five teachers had students from each group (C, E1, E2) in their classes.
I analyzed the data using a three-way (3 × 4 × 2) Analysis of Variance in order to test
for the main effects of each factor and any potential interactions between or among
factors. This factorial design allowed me to go beyond student performance on the reading
comprehension test by accounting for the variation and complexities that accompany
students in high school classrooms. Ultimately, the factorial design allowed me to look at
more than group differences by text type; it also provided insight into comprehension
levels by sub-group (e.g., gender and grade level), as well as an examination across groups.
The independent variables for this study (i.e., factors) were (a) text type, with three sub-
factors (Control, E1, and E2); (b) grade level, with four sub-levels (9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th
grades); and (c) Gender, with two sub-levels (male and female). Table 2 provides the
sampling breakdown. I also conducted a Tukey post-hoc test to examine individual
differences in means. Additionally, the post-hoc test allowed me to continue performing
statistical tests to examine potential relationships and patterns that emerge between sub-
groups. The model for the factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) is offered below:
Xijkm ¼ u þ αj þ βk þ τm þ ðαβÞjk þðατÞjm þðβτÞkm þðαβτÞjkm þ eijkm

Instrumentation
The dependent variable for this study was comprised of student scores on a reading compre-
hension test (see Appendix A). I developed the test with multiple levels of review. First, content
experts (high school English teachers and ELA teacher educators) provided feedback on the
accuracy and validity of the content relative to the short story. The English educators involved
were colleagues whom I had worked with previously and was aware of their content knowledge,
especially with regard to short stories and instruction. The teachers I consulted were recom-
mended by these colleagues as strong pedagogues of literature. None of these teachers were
participants in the study, nor did they work at the school where the study was conducted.
Second, an outside psychometric reviewer was consulted. To ensure expertise, I selected a
reviewer whose area of specialty is educational psychometrics. All reviewers examined multiple
iterations of the test with regard to two concerns: individual questions were to address multiple
components of reading comprehension (see conceptual framework), and all questions were to
be accurate assessments of both types of texts (traditional and graphic). The instrument was
multiple choice (30 questions) in format and was designed to look similar to traditional
summative and standardized tests with which students were familiar. Aside from being familiar
test types in schools, several benefits exist from using multiple choice items on assessments:
assessing multiple objectives, reducing scoring bias; allowing for quick responses, and easing the
time burden of scoring (Roediger & Marsh, 2005). Finally, I conducted an item analysis of the
instrument and calculated the reliability coefficient (α = 0.879) to ensure data reliability.
32 M. P. COOK

The instrument was developed (1) to include specific reading comprehension components
from the relevant literature and (2) to align to both text types, traditional and graphic,
included in this study. To ensure all items on the test were fair to both text types, content
experts (described above) were asked to include text bias as one of the major criteria for their
review of and feedback for the instrument. Of the 30 total questions, 9 questions required an
understanding of the plot, 7 questions required an analysis of character traits or behaviors, 10
questions required readers to make inferences and predictions, and 4 questions required
defining vocabulary, including defining unfamiliar words in context.

Student and teacher interviews

To add depth to my statistical analysis, I also randomly selected students to take part in post-
interviews (see Table 3). Equal numbers of students were selected by text type, specifically
from groups E1 and E2 (n = 8 from each group). No students from the control groups were
interviewed, as they did not interact with the graphic novel. Likewise, an equal number of
students were selected by gender (n = 4 for each group) and grade level (n = 2 for each
group). Examining the effects of gender was important for two reasons: it allowed me to
more deeply examine student performance within and across groups, and it is important to
consider the effects of gender, given the pre-existing stereotypes of graphic novels as “boy
books” (Moeller, 2011). Students in group E2 were asked four additional questions to
examine their perceptions of interacting with both text types. Furthermore, all teachers
(n = 5) involved in this study were interviewed to elicit perceptions of student engagement.
All interviews were recorded and then transcribed for data analysis. In designing the
interviews, I utilized Charmaz’s (2006) suggestion that interviews allow researchers to
engage in an “in-depth exploration” (p. 25) of the student and teacher experiences. To
guide the interviews, I constructed open-ended questions (see Appendix B for an outline of
the interview questions used) to elicit participants’ discussion of their own experiences and
perceptions. I analyzed all interview data using Constructivist Grounded Theory (Charmaz,
2006), allowing for “an interpretive portrayal of the studied world” rather than “an exact
picture of it” (p. 10). As such, I conducted and transcribed each interview, coded the data,
and finally analyzed the codes in order to generate dominant and relevant themes.

Text selection
The text of interest for this study was Edgar Allan Poe’s (1910) “The Cask of
Amontillado.” Because one goal of this study was to utilize an adaptation that was as
true as possible to Poe’s original text, it was important to conduct a thorough review of
available graphic adaptations. After finding a total of 10 titles, I and an outside reviewer
(an ELA teacher educator who was an expert in teaching literature), read and categorized
each as (1) useful, (2) radical adaptation, or (3) not a graphic novel. Only three texts were
categorized as useful, which meant they utilized Poe’s original language, did not omit
major plot components, and provided visuals that paired well with Poe’s original text.

Table 3. Breakdown of sample for interviews.

Text type Total Grade level Gender
E1 8 2 4
E2 8 2 4
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 33

From those, one did not contain “The Cask of Amontillado,” and the remaining two
contained identical graphic adaptations of the story. Thus, the more recent of the two was
selected and utilized (Pomplun, 2010).

Procedures
As previously mentioned, this study was conducted at the conclusion of an instructional
unit designed around Poe and his writing. All students (regardless of their text type
grouping or grade level) received identical instruction throughout the unit, which was
designed to foster engagement and literary analysis, with two additional traditional Poe
texts. To help ensure this, I constructed all aspects of the unit (e.g., background, instruc-
tional activities, scaffolding) for teachers to follow. This prescriptive unit was intended to
remove any potential confounding effects, and to confirm fidelity to the method of
delivery across the five teachers.
The unit itself included instruction and supplemental materials on two additional texts,
including one poem and one short story. As part of the unit, all students were provided
biographical and contextual information on Poe, focusing on helping them make connec-
tions between their own prior experiences, Poe, his writing, and elements of gothic literature.
All teachers were given identical PowerPoint presentations and discussion questions and
prompts. After building content knowledge and helping students to make connections to the
unit, the teachers provided the same instruction on two Poe texts, “The Tell-Tale Heart” and
“The Raven.” One week of instruction was provided for each text. As part of this instruction,
all students were engaged in a variety of instructional activities, such as anticipation guides,
relevant vocabulary, story mapping, graphic organizers, discussion questions, visualization/
illustration activities, and individual and small group learning opportunities.
At the conclusion of the introductory unit, each student was provided with their
corresponding version of the text of interest (see Appendix C for excerpts from both
text types). Students in the control group (C) read the traditional version of the story.
Students in group E1 read the graphic novel adaptation of the story, which included
visuals along with Poe’s original language. Students in group E2 read the graphic adapta-
tion, followed by the traditional text. All students read their texts independently and
silently in class, during a timed class session (90 minutes). Immediately after reading,
students were given the reading comprehension test. The test was administered during the
same class period and prior to any class discussion.
At the conclusion of the unit (following completion of the test), students from groups E1
and E2 were randomly selected to participate in post interviews. Additionally, all teachers
were interviewed. The purpose of the interviews was to add an additional layer of data and
qualitative analysis to this study by examining students’ perspectives of interacting with the
graphic text as well as teachers’ perspectives of their students’ engagement (see Appendix B
for a list of interview questions). All interviews took place over a one-week time period.

Findings
One of the findings revealed that text type had a significant effect on test scores (F2,193;
p = .009). Table 4 provides the main effect statistics for the independent variable, text type.
Students from both the E1 and E2 groups scored significantly higher than their peers in
the Control group (p = .023 and p = .003, respectively). Stated simply, both groups who
34 M. P. COOK

Table 4. Text type main effect.

Variable Type III sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
TextType 1955.638 2 977.819 4.854 .009

read the graphic text (whether in isolation or as a supplement to the traditional text)
performed better than those who only read the traditional version. However, no signifi-
cant difference was found between test scores from groups E1 (graphic novel adaptation
only) and E2 (graphic novel adaptation followed by traditional version). This finding
suggests that students who read the graphic novel adaptation, whether they had access
to the traditional version or not, experienced the benefit of additional information offered
by the visuals. See Table 5 for a pairwise comparison within the variable.
The second finding found a significant main effect for grade level (F3,193; p < .001). See
Table 6. Students in 10th through 12th grades scored significantly higher on the compre-
hension test than those in 9th grade. Similarly, 12th grade students scored significantly
higher than 10th grade students (p = .005). See Table 7 for pairwise comparisons. The fact
that seniors have been in school longer than their younger peers and have received more
instruction in their English courses could help account for their significantly higher scores.
The third finding revealed that gender had a significant effect on comprehension test
scores (F1,193; p = .018). See Table 8 for main effect of gender.
Females scored significantly higher than males (p = .018) (see Table 9). This finding is
noteworthy in two ways. First, a longstanding stereotype is that females perform better in
verbal skills and courses such as English, while their male peers perform better in math
and science (Voyer & Voyer, 2014). This finding supports this stereotype. However,
another stereotype is that graphic novels are primarily the domain of males, making this
finding interesting (Moeller, 2011). This finding that females outperformed males in the
two groups using graphic novels flies in the face of this stereotype and suggests the need
for future research. In this study, evidently the females were just as engaged with the
graphic novel as the males and outperformed males on the comprehension test.

Table 5. Pairwise comparisons within text type.

(I) TextType (J) TextType Mean difference (I–J) Std. error Sig.
Control E1 −5.494 2.394 .023
E2 −7.205 2.420 .003
E1 E2 −1.711 2.396 .476

Table 6. Grade level main effect.

Variable Type III sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
GradeLevel 6355.941 3 2118.647 10.517 <.001

Table 7. Pairwise comparisons within grade level.

(I) GradeLevel (J)GradeLevel Mean difference (I–J) Std. error Sig.
9th grade 10th grade −6.206 2.794 .028
11th grade −9.955 2.768 <.001
12th grade −14.109 2.590 <.001
10th grade 12th grade −7.904 2.782 .005
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 35

Table 8. Gender main effects.

Variable Type III sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Gender 1138.571 1 1138.571 5.652 .018

Table 9. Pairwise comparisons within gender.

(I) Gender (J) Gender Mean difference (I–J) Std. error Sig.
Male Female −4.665 1.962 .018

Fourth, it is equally important to look at what was not found in the data. Again, all
three independent variables of text type, gender, and grade level had significant effects on
reading comprehension scores; however, there were no significant interactions found
among the independent variables or between sub-factors of each independent variable.
Text type had three sub-factors (C, E1, E2), grade level had four sub-factors (9th, 10th,
11th, 12th), and gender had two sub-factors (male and female). See Table 10 for a
breakdown of each interaction in the tests of between-subjects effects. This finding
could be due to a reduced cell size at the sub-factor levels, which can contribute to a
decrease in power.

Post interviews
At the conclusion of the instructional unit, and after administration of the reading
comprehension test, I interviewed a randomly selected group of 16 students (from E1
and E2) to elicit their perceptions of interacting with the graphic novel. I used a random
number generator, and every third student was selected from sub-levels (i.e., gender and
grade level) within both groups. Additionally, all five teachers were individually inter-
viewed to examine their perceptions of students’ interactions with the graphic adaptation.
While the quantitative data were revealing, a more comprehensive understanding of the
effects of graphic novels on reading comprehension requires information from the sources
themselves; that is, student and teacher voices. As such, a better understanding of the ways
in which both students and teachers perceive graphic novels to be engaging and pedago-
gically useful contributes to the existing literature.

Student interviews
Students were selected from groups E1 (n = 8) and E2 (n = 8) to answer six questions. To
ensure equitable distribution from each sub-group level, an equal number were selected

Table 10. Independent variable interaction effects.

Variable interaction Type III sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
MethofInstr* 698.648 6 116.441 .578 .748
GradeLevel
MethofInstr* 284.913 2 142.457 .707 .494
Gender
GradeLevel* 167.520 3 55.840 .277 .842
Gender
MethofInstr* 1243.145 6 207.191 1.028 .408
GradeLevel*
Gender
36 M. P. COOK

from all gender and grade level groups (see Table 3 for a breakdown). Additionally,
students from group E2 were asked four supplementary questions.

Engagement. I asked students for their opinions of interacting with the graphic novel. As
sub-questions, I also asked if they found graphic novels to be interesting and engaging. These
probes returned a range of responses. While not all students reported finding the graphic
novel engaging, many did report both enjoyment and assistance though the visuals. Several
students, at all grade levels, found the graphic novel to be more engaging than the traditional
text. These students cited reasons such as “it was less confusing” and “it was easier to read.”
Yet another 10th grade female student found the text to be engaging because the images
showed what the words were describing: “The images helped me because I knew what was
happening.” Overall, students liked having the images and felt they led to a better under-
standing of the text, by helping them to “visualize and understand the story better,” (11th
grade male) suggesting benefits for comprehension. The student responses parallel
Rosenblatt’s suggestion that the format and the mode of the text (in this case, both visual
and textual) contribute to the transactions readers have with texts.
Of 16 total, 3 students reported that they were not engaged by the graphic novel. While
these students represented only a small portion of the group, it is interesting that they
cited the images as the reason for their lack of engagement, which was just the opposite
effect as on those who reported that images helped. One ninth grade male student stated,
“It was harder than reading a regular story.” Another 11th grade female student reported,
“It was very confusing if you don’t pay close attention to the pictures.” A ninth grade
female student had one foot in both camps, and described reading with the images as both
engaging and more difficult. These student statements parallel the quantitative finding that
students in grades 10 through 12 demonstrated stronger comprehension than their ninth
grade peers. The disparity between students’ descriptions of their engagement levels with
the graphic novel reveal an important consideration: not all students read and respond to
visuals in identical ways. Where several students mentioned finding benefit in the images,
others clearly were uncertain. This finding furthers Rosenblatt’s (1938) notion that the
transaction between readers and texts is complicated and can be affected in a variety of
ways. In this case, three students struggled to interact with the visual components of the
graphic novel. The layered findings point to the need for additional research examining (a)
the relationship between students’ engagement and reading comprehension of graphic
novels and (b) student differences in reading comprehension by grade level. Moreover,
further research into the ways in which students read and make meaning from images and
the methods teachers use to provide instruction on interacting with graphic novels would
be beneficial. While no explicit instruction on reading graphic novels was provided to
students in this study, this finding demonstrates the necessity of examining a) the varied
ways students approach reading visuals and (b) the instructional strategies available to
teachers for helping students to engage with graphic texts.

Text differences. All interviewed students were asked to discuss how reading the graphic
novel was different than their experiences reading traditional texts (see Appendix B for the
interview and follow-up questions). Responses were overwhelmingly positive (one student
was classified as “indifferent”) and are represented in the following two responses. One
ninth grade male student stated, “The graphic really helped you understand the confusing
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 37

parts. . .” Another 12th grade female student reported that “the graphic [text] was clearer
to me.” During their interviews, the majority echoed these comments by pointing to
perceived benefits that accompany graphic texts and that they believe to be lacking in the
texts they have traditionally read.
Of additional interest were students’ perceived benefits from both texts. Students found the
graphic novel, as a result of the visuals, allowed them to more fully understand the traditional
text. This is seen in the following student response from a tenth grade female: “The graphic
text helped me understand the traditional text more. . . . [I]t helped me get a clearer picture.”
From the above student response, the use of visuals in conjunction with less text appears to
have made it easier for many students to create their own two-way transactions with the text,
helping them to interact with and comprehend the graphic adaptation. As mentioned
previously, one student’s response was indifferent, stating that the graphic novel was slightly
easier to understand, but because there were visuals, the story contained less text.

Benefits of the graphic adaptation. I asked those (n = 8) students who read both texts to
explain the differences between the text types. In line with the previous question,
responses were positive, ranging from surface-level statements lacking detail (e.g., “It is
better than the novel” and “I just seemed to comprehend it better”) to more specific
comments describing perceived benefits from the graphic adaptation. A 12th grade female
student stated, “I enjoyed it. It gave me a clear visual image of what was happening over
the text.” Additional students mentioned the images by offering responses such as “You
could see how the characters looked” (10th grade male), and “With the graphic novel, I
actually have images rather than imagining it myself” (12th grade male). Another similar
response pointed to the images as beneficial because they were to the point, and the
traditional text was difficult to identify the point.
One 11th grade male’s response was by far the most positive: “I loved it. It allowed me to
understand what was going on. The images really clarified my questions on the reading.” The
only marginally negative student comment suggested that the ninth grade male “only saw the
major parts of the story with pictures.” Discussing his own unique transactions with the graphic
text and an interest in extending that connection, this student expressed interest in a more
detailed and comprehensive graphic text. Two students’ responses suggested they were indif-
ferent about text type: “It helped me by showing what the characters actually looked like, but it
also hindered me because it was hard to figure out what to read first” (10th grade female). From
this response, we can see that the student does acknowledge the benefit derived from the visuals,
but also makes a valid point by drawing attention to the constraints associated with a lack of
experience with graphic novels. Pointing out perceived missing details and the value in using
available details to create a mental representation, a 12th grade male stated, “I liked the graphic
novel although I feel like it left [out] a lot of details. I prefer to have a lot of detail and make a
picture in my head.” These students’ responses demonstrate the complexity of reading processes
and the ways in which students find value in text and text type. This echoes Rosenblatt’s (1938)
discussion of transactional theory, where co-creation of meaning between reader and text is
affected by numerous individual student traits: personality, background experiences, interests,
preoccupations, and biases. Based on student responses, specifically the marginal critique a
student leveled above, it could be beneficial to provide students opportunities to create their own
graphic adaptation of a Poe text, as they would get to dabble with their choice of a moment that
accompanies graphic narrative creation.
38 M. P. COOK

Teacher interviews
After the conclusion of the reading comprehension test, I interviewed all five teachers who
participated in this study. I conducted these interviews to elicit their perceptions about
how students engaged with and comprehended the graphic novel. During the interview,
each teacher was asked six questions (see Appendix B).

Previous experiences. My first question involved asking teachers about their previous
experiences using graphic novels in instruction, as I was ultimately interested in what they
each brought with them into this study. Interestingly, four of the five teachers reported
never having used a graphic novel, of any type, in their classes. While their lack of
experience was not surprising, one teacher’s response was eye opening. This teacher
mentioned only ever using one or two images in her discussion of literature to convey
information. These responses highlight a notable lack of familiarity that many teachers
have with the graphic format.

Perceptions. I also asked the teachers to discuss their perceptions of students’ engagement
with the graphic adaptation and to explain how they define being engaged. All five
teachers described their students as engaged with the graphic text and provided a variety
of definitions for the term. One teacher responded by stating that students were “engaged
with the graphic novel. Students with the traditional text attempted to play around.” Here,
this teacher provided a surface-level definition of engagement and was not detailed in her
articulation of how students were engaged. A second stated that her students who were
reading graphic texts were “focused in their reading, going back and forth from the text to
the test questions.” To clarify, she defined engagement as being “on task and asking
questions about the text, really seeming to understand and like the text.” No teachers
reported their students to be disengaged as they read the graphic text. In fact, the above
statement describing students as focused readers does well to represent the overall opinion
of the participating teachers.
As all teachers believed that their students benefited from reading the graphic adapta-
tion, I also asked them to elaborate by describing the ways in which they felt the graphic
novel helped their students. Here, responses were all positive: “Those students of mine
who (sic) read the graphic novel believed it was easy; whereas, the students who read the
traditional text were anxious and concerned.” Another teacher responded, “It helped them
better grasp the meaning of the text. It may have hindered a little, but not really. Just
talking about the pictures, which really is a good thing.” A third teacher went beyond
simply mentioning the benefits, but offering a criticism as well: “I do not know that the
text itself stretched students’ thought processes as much as a straight text would.” I found
this to be an interesting observation, as it suggests the graphic novel was not as “text-like”
or as rigorous as a traditional text, at least in this teacher’s view. This statement paralleled
this teacher’s earlier response of having no prior experiences with graphic texts and
suggests a lack of familiarity with the complex nature of reading visuals.

Opinions of the text. I also asked teachers to discuss their opinions of the graphic novel
adaptation. Their comments ranged on topics from language to vocabulary to plot line.
Each of the teachers stated they felt the graphic novel was true to Poe’s (1910) original
text. One teacher, for example, stated that the graphic text was true to the original
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 39

language, with a few necessary alterations: “There was a great deal less text to read in the
graphic version. The syntax was broken up into easier to read portions. Entire paragraphs
were shortened to the main idea.” Responding to the same question, each of the other four
teachers described the language in the adaptation as appropriate.
Likewise, all teachers described the vocabulary as true to the original. One teacher stated,
“All the vocabulary used in the graphic novel came straight from the original.” A second
teacher stated that the graphic novel assisted students in correcting misconceptions about
some of Poe’s vocabulary: “Students found the vocabulary to be different than what they
thought were the meanings of the words. It was interesting to watch their expressions.” All
five teachers, in separate interviews, found the vocabulary in the two texts to be parallel.
In addition, all teachers discussed the plot as true to the original, noting only minor
alterations. They each went on to say their students were able to follow the plot success-
fully. One teacher stated that “the plot line didn’t cause any students to struggle, even
though they struggle with many traditional stories.” This is an important point and
suggests potential benefits of using graphic novel adaptations to supplement traditional
reading; the visuals can aid students in following the plot by contributing to engagement
and helping to bridge gaps in understanding.

Discussion
In a time when text types evolve and proliferate and when multimodal texts are read at
least as much if not more than traditional texts, students need new instruction and new
skill sets, and teachers need to rethink their literacy instruction (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006;
O’Mara & Laidlaw, 2011). Ignoring new graphic novel texts, many being the types
students engage with outside of school, and giving priority to traditional, hard-bound
texts will surely leave students behind (Brown & Ruthkosky, 2012; Considine, Horton, &
Moorman, 2009; Williams, 2005). That said, education as a whole must reconceptualize
and redefine literacy and rethink literacy practices.
Throughout analyses of the data, several important findings emerged. First, text type
had a significant effect on comprehension scores. The students in both experimental
groups had significantly higher scores than those in the control group. In other words,
both groups with access to the graphic novel text performed better than their peers. There
was, however, no difference between groups E1 and E2, an interesting finding, suggesting a
benefit from the graphic text, regardless of access to the traditional text. Students who read
the graphic adaptation benefited from the harmony between less print text and the
supplementary visuals.
Second, grade level had a significant effect on comprehension scores. In all groups, 10th
through 12th grade students scored significantly higher than those in 9th grade.
Furthermore, 12th grade students scored significantly higher than 10th grade students.
This finding suggests that those students in ninth grade have not benefited from the
additional years of instruction regarding reading traditional texts that their older peers
have received.
Third, gender had a significant effect on comprehension scores. Across all types of
texts, females scored significantly higher than males. This, too, is an interesting finding for
two reasons. Over the years, a stereotype persists that females perform better in such
courses as English, while males perform better in science and math classes. This finding
40 M. P. COOK

promotes this stereotype. An additional stereotype has been that graphic novels are books
preferred by boys. Perhaps the story content, more so than the story format, influences
reading comprehension. This finding points to the need for additional research.
Fourth, the analysis of the post interviews points to additional findings. While most
students self-reported being engaged with the graphic novel, a couple of students reported
having trouble reading the images. When asked to compare the text types, student
responses were overwhelmingly positive, many suggesting enjoyment and benefit in
comprehension from the graphic novel. With regard to future reading preferences, most
students reported preferring graphic novel texts; however, several noted a preference for
familiar traditional texts.
Interesting information emerged from the teacher interviews as well. Of the five teachers,
four had never read or taught a graphic novel prior to this study. This suggests a need for
teachers to move beyond the current lack of familiarity with nontraditional texts in class-
rooms. Another possible reason for lack of experience with graphic novels is the current
state of education, where much emphasis is given to CCSS standards, high stakes testing,
and text complexity. As such, teachers may feel pressured to teach using the suggested CCSS
text examplars in order to prepare students for standards-based assessments.
After the study, all teachers believed their students were engaged with the graphic novel
text. Moreover, the teachers believed that those students who read the graphic novel
adaptation were considerably more engaged than those who read the traditional version.
Additionally, all teachers described the adaptation as true to Poe’s original language,
vocabulary, and plot. If teachers are to utilize graphic novels regularly, they must first
understand that graphic novels can, in fact, be complex, rigorous texts.
As mentioned prior, all three independent variables of text type, gender, and grade level
had significant effects on students’ reading comprehension test scores; however, no
significant interactions were found between variables. This could be due to a reduction
in cell size at each sub-factor level, contributing to a decrease in statistical power.
The findings herein contribute to the existing gap in the literature about the use of
graphic novels, in English classrooms, for the purposes of enhancing reading comprehen-
sion. Specifically, these findings suggest that graphic novels are not simply texts for strug-
gling readers and should not be implemented as such. The students in this study, regardless
of their grade level or their gender, largely found success through interacting with the
graphic adaptation. That said, additional research is necessary to fully understand the
benefits and effects of graphic novels on reading comprehension and as literacy sponsors.

Limitations
One limitation of this study was the reading comprehension test itself and the ways in
which it measured comprehension. While careful and systematic steps were taken in the
construction of the test, it is important to note its limitations and implications for future
research. For example, the test was comprised of only 30 multiple choice questions and
designed to align with and fit within the confines of an individual class period. A more
thorough test, in both length and breadth, may provide a more nuanced view into student
reading performance, including potential differences between groups. Moreover, the test
used in this study assessed reading comprehension in one format only: the multiple choice
test. In other words, the instrument measured students’ comprehension of both a
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 41

traditional and a graphic text using only a monomodal, alphabetic text. As a result, the
measure is limited in its ability to tease out students’ textual connections, personal
meaning made, and other indicators of text comprehension.
A second limitation involves the setting and the participants within this study. The study
was conducted at one high school and in one geographic location; thus, it is more difficult to
extrapolate and apply the findings to the larger population. A third limitation herein is the
quantitative analysis itself. The factorial ANOVA used in this study examined three distinct
variables (text type, grade level, and gender) without controlling for prior reading ability or
reading comprehension scores. A fourth noteworthy limitation was the text of interest itself,
where only one graphic novel adaptation of a traditional text was examined.

Future research
Future research examining the relationship between graphic novels and reading compre-
hension is necessary to more fully understand the possibilities and affordances in relation
to instruction and student learning. As discussed in the limitations above, future research
should expand the ways in which reading comprehension is measured. First, a more
comprehensive and robust reading comprehension test would offer additional insight into
student performance. Second, by controlling for students’ previous reading scores,
researchers can provide a clearer view of any significant differences between text type
and other variables of interest. Third, it would also be helpful for future research to dig
deeper and look at the performance of students within and across sub-groups (e.g.,
females in ninth grade who only read the graphic novel) as well as in relation to additional
variables. Fourth, further research should incorporate additional measures of comprehen-
sion that effectively assess the ways in which students connect to and make meaning from
texts in their own individual and unique ways. This could best be examined by moving
beyond traditional, quantitative test measures and soliciting and valuing the ways in which
students qualitatively articulate comprehension of the texts they read (e.g., essay prompts,
multimodal composing, verbal description).
Future research should also examine more diverse settings and larger sample sizes and
should take a look at student performance across geographic and other defining bound-
aries. Coupled with varied measures of reading comprehension, this would provide a more
detailed view of the effects of graphic novels on student reading performance. Likewise, to
provide better insight into the utility of graphic novels in ELA classrooms, including
reading comprehension and performance, it is important to examine a wider variety of
graphic texts. Finally, future research should move beyond examining only students. It is
equally vital that we better understand teachers’ perceptions of and instructional uses for
graphic novels in ELA classrooms, especially with regard to literacy instruction and
reading comprehension.

Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of graphic novels on the reading
comprehension of high school students in ELA classrooms. To guide the study, I utilized
five research questions: (a) In what ways and to what extent does text type affect student
reading comprehension test scores? (b) In what ways and to what extent does grade level
42 M. P. COOK

affect student reading comprehension test scores? (c) In what ways and to what extent
does gender affect student reading comprehension test scores? (d) What is the interaction,
if any, among text type, grade level, and gender on students’ reading comprehension test
scores? (e) What are student perceptions of working with graphic texts? Additionally,
what are teachers’ observations and perceptions of students working with graphic texts?
While no significant interactions were found among the factors of text type, grade level,
and gender, the data from this study suggest some benefits of using graphic novels with
high school English students. Students who read the graphic novel significantly out-
performed their peers who read only the traditional text. Moreover, many students self-
reported being engaged with the graphic novel, finding benefits from the images, and
preferring the graphic novel adaptation to more traditional texts. In addition to these
benefits, there are also possible constraints associated with graphic novels in English
classrooms. Students and teachers often have limited prior experiences with and back-
ground knowledge of graphic novels and the graphic medium. As demonstrated by the
lack of research on graphic novels, they are still relatively new to educational settings and
literacy instruction. Furthermore, shifts in standards and curricula may keep teachers
from expanding the texts that they have traditionally used to include a wide variety of text
types, such as graphic novels.
Teachers must, therefore, fully consider the pedagogical implications of any instruc-
tional choices they make, including implementing graphic texts in their classrooms.
Teachers must continue to scrutinize all classroom texts they choose. No one knows
better the landscape of the classroom than teachers. Because of this, it is up to educators,
at the ground level, to make informed choices for the students with whom they work.
Furthermore, real thought must be given to the benefits and/or possible constraints of
graphic novels in secondary ELA classrooms. This will require several considerations.
Chief among these is the reality that graphic novels, multimodal texts, and the graphic
medium in general are new to many students and teachers; it will no doubt be necessary to
provide instruction and practice with graphic novel texts if we are to successfully shift
from a traditional view of instructional materials to a more comprehensive view of reading
comprehension and literacy in the 21st century.

References
Afflerback, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading skills and
reading strategies. The Reading Teacher, 61(5), 364–373. doi:10.1598/RT.61.5.1
Alderson, J. C. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Annett, D. (2008). Implementing graphic texts into the language arts classroom. Minnesota English
Journal, 44(1), 150–179.
Bakis, M. (2012). The graphic novel classroom: Powerful teaching and learning with images.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Battaglia, M. (2008). Convenience sampling. In P. J. Lavrakas (Ed.), Encyclopedia of survey research
methods (pp. 149–150). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Baumann, J. F. (2009). Vocabulary and reading comprehension: The nexus of meaning. In S. E.
Israel & G. G. Duffy (Eds.), Handbook of research on reading comprehension (pp. 323–346). New
York, NY: Routledge.
Biancarosa, C., & Snow, C. E. (2006). Reading next: A vision for action and research in middle and
high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd ed.). Washington, DC:
Alliance for Excellent Education.
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 43

Brenna, B. (2013). How graphic novels support reading comprehension strategy development in
children. Literacy, 47(2), 88–94. doi:10.1111/j.1741-4369.2011.00655.x
Brooks, K. (2009). More “seriously visible” reading: McCloud, McLuhan, and the visual language of
The medium is the massage. College Composition and Communication, 61(1), W217–W237.
Brown, T. B. H., & Ruthkosky, K. O. (2012). Creating growing spaces: Utilizing out-of-school
literacies to support in-school literacy learning. National Teacher Education Journal, 5(1), 69–82.
Burns, L. D., & Botzakis, S. G. (2012). Using The Joy Luck Club to teach core standards and 21st
century literacies. English Journal, 101(5), 23–29.
Canney, G., & Winograd, P. (1979). Schemata for reading and reading comprehension performance
(Technical Report No. 120). Champaign, IL: Center for the Study of Reading.
Carter, J. B. (2007). Building literacy connections with graphic novels. Champaign, IL: NCTE.
Carter, J. B. (2009). Going graphic. Educational Leadership, 66(6), 68–72.
Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory. London, UK: Sage.
Chun, C. W. (2009). Critical literacies and graphic novels for English-language learners: Teaching
Maus. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 53(2), 144–153. doi:10.1598/JAAL.53.2.5
Concannon-Gibney, T., & Murphy, B. (2012). School-based teacher professional development to
transform the teaching of reading comprehension: An Irish case study. Professional Development
in Education, 38(1), 131–147. doi:10.1080/19415257.2011.576264
Connors, S. P. (2013). Weaving multimodal meaning in a graphic novel reading group. Visual
Communication, 12(1), 27–53. doi:10.1177/1470357212462812
Connors, S. P. (2015). Expanding students’ analytical frameworks through the study of graphic
novels. Journal of Children’s Literature, 41(2), 5–15.
Considine, D., Horton, J., & Moorman, G. (2009). Teaching and reaching the millennial generation
through media literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(6), 471–481. doi:10.1598/
JAAL.52.6.2
Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2009). Multiliteracies: New literacies, new learning. Pedagogies: An
International Journal, 4, 164–195. doi:10.1080/15544800903076044
Crain-Thoreson, C., Lippman, M. Z., & McClendon-Magnuson, D. (1997). Windows on compre-
hension: Reading comprehension processes as revealed by two think-aloud procedures. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 89(4), 579–591. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.4.579
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Los
Angeles, CA: Sage.
Davey, B. (1988). Factors affecting the difficulty of reading comprehension items for successful and
unsuccessful readers. The Journal of Experimental Education, 56(2), 67–76. doi:10.1080/
00220973.1988.10806468
Davis, F. B. (1968). Research in comprehension in reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 3(4), 499–
545. doi:10.2307/747153
Eisner, E. W. (1998). The kind of schools we need: Personal essays. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2004). Using graphic novels, anime, and the internet in an urban high school.
English Journal, 93(3), 19–25. doi:10.2307/4128804
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2011, August). Engaging the adolescent learner: Making the most of graphic
novels in the classroom: IRA e-ssentials. Urbana, IL: International Reading Association.
Fisher, D., Lapp, D., & Frey, N. (2011). Comprehension: The cooperation of many forces. In D.
Lapp & D. Fisher (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (pp.
258–263). New York, NY: Routledge.
Frey, N. (2010). Reading and writing with graphic novels. The California Reader, 44(1), 15–22.
Frost, A., Myatt, J. A., & Smith, S. (2009). Multiple modes of production in a college writing class. In
A. Herrington, K. Hodgson, & C. Moran (Eds.), Teaching the new writing: Technology, change, and
assessment in the 21st century classroom (pp. 181–197). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Garcia, A. (2012). “Like reading” and literacy challenges in a digital age. English Journal, 101(6), 93–96.
Garland, K. (2012). Analyzing classroom literacy events: What observing classroom conversations
about popular culture can reveal about reading. English Journal, 101(6), 104–106.
Golinkoff, R. M. (1975). A comparison of reading comprehension processes in good and poor
comprehenders. Reading Research Quarterly, 11(4), 623–659. doi:10.2307/747459
44 M. P. COOK

Griffith, P. E. (2010). Graphic novels in the secondary classroom and school libraries. Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(3), 181–189. doi:10.1598/JAAL.54.3.3
Hall, J. R. (2011). Books worth reading: Engaging material: Comics in the classroom. Change: The
Magazine of Higher Learning, 43(2), 39–43. doi:10.1080/00091383.2011.550252
Hall, W. S. (1989). Reading comprehension. American Psychologist, 44(2), 157–161. doi:10.1037/
0003-066X.44.2.157
Hammond, H. K. (2009). Graphic novels and multimodal literacy: A reader response study (Doctoral
dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (3344687).
Heaney, M. J. (2007). Graphic novels: A sure bet for your library. Collection Building, 26(3), 72–76.
doi:10.1108/01604950710761625
Hoffman, J. V. (2009). In search of the “simple view” of reading comprehension. In S. E. Israel & G.
G. Duffy (Eds.), Handbook of research on reading comprehension (pp. 54–66). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Hughes, J. M., King, A., Perkins, P., & Fuke, V. (2011). Adolescents and “autographics”: Reading
and writing coming-of-age graphic novels. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(8), 601–
612. doi:10.1598/JAAL.54.8.5
Jacobs, D. (2007). Marveling at “The Man Called Nova”: Comics as sponsors of multimodal literacy.
College Composition and Communication, 59(2), 180–205.
Jennings, K. A., Rule, A. C., & Vander Zanden, S. M. (2014). Fifth graders’ enjoyment, interest, and
comprehension of graphic novels compared to heavily-illustrated and traditional novels.
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 6(2), 257–274.
Jewitt, C. (2008). Multimodality and literacy in school classrooms. Review of Research in Education,
32, 241–267. doi:10.3102/0091732X07310586
Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. B. (2014). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed approaches (5th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Kant, I. (1929). Critique of pure reason (N. K. Smith, Trans.). New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
(Original work published in 1781).
Kintsch, W. (2005). An overview of top-down and bottom-up effects in comprehension: The CI
perspective. Discourse Processes, 39(2–3), 125–128. doi:10.1080/0163853X.2005.9651676
Kittle, P. (2009). Student engagement and multimodality: Collaboration, schema, identity. In A.
Herrington, K. Hodgson, & C. Moran (Eds.), Teaching the new writing: Technology, change, and
assessment in the 21st century classroom (pp. 164–180). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. New York, NY: Routledge.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Leslie, L., & Caldwell, J. (2009). Formal and informal measures of reading comprehension. In S. E.
Israel & G. G. Duffy (Eds.), Handbook of research on reading comprehension (pp. 403–427). New
York, NY: Routledge.
Li, X., Wu, J., & Wang, W. (2007). Analysis of schema theory and its influence on reading. US-
China Foreign Language, 5(11), 18–21.
Little, D. C., & Box, J. A. (2011). The use of a specific schema theory strategy—Semantic mapping—
To facilitate vocabulary development and comprehension for at-risk readers. Reading
Improvement, 48(1), 24–31.
McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics: The invisible art. New York, NY: William Morrow.
McLaughlin, M., & Overturf, B. (2012). The Common Core and reading comprehension: What’s in
the standards and what we need to teach. Reading Today, 30(2), 35–36.
McVee, M. B., Dunsmore, K., & Gavelek, J. R. (2005). Schema theory revisited. Review of
Educational Research, 75(4), 531–566. doi:10.3102/00346543075004531
Miller, S. D., & Faircloth, B. S. (2009). Motivation and reading comprehension. In S. E. Israel, & G.
G. Duffy (Eds.), Handbook of research on reading comprehension (pp. 307–322). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Moeller, R. A. (2011). “Aren’t these boy books?”: High school students’ readings of gender in
graphic novels. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(7), 476–484. doi:10.1598/JAAL.54.7.1
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 45

Monnin, K. (2013a). Aligning graphic novels to the Common Core Standards: An exciting and
unique opportunity for teachers and school librarians. Knowledge Quest, 41(3), 50–56.
Monnin, K. (2013b). Teaching graphic novels: Practical strategies for the secondary ELA classroom.
Gainesville, FL: Maupin House.
Mouly, F. (2011). Visual literacy: Exploring this magic portal. Children and Libraries, 11, 12–14.
National Council of Teachers of English. (2008). The NCTE definition of 21st century literacies.
Retrieved from http://www.ncte.org/positions/statements/21stcentdefinition
National Governors’ Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers.
(2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social
studies, science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies. Harvard Education Review, 66(1), 60–
92. doi:10.17763/haer.66.1.17370n67v22j160u
O’Mara, J., & Laidlaw, L. (2011). Living in the iworld: Two literacy researchers reflect on the
changing texts and literacy practices of childhood. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 10(4),
149–159.
Palmeri, J. (2012). Remixing composition: A history of multimodal writing pedagogy. Carbondale, IL:
Southern Illinois University Press.
Pantaleo, S. (2014). Reading images in graphic novels: Taking students to a “greater thinking level.”
English in Australia, 49(1), 38–51.
Park, J. Y. (2012). A different kind of reading instruction: Using visualizing to bridge reading
comprehension and critical literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 55(7), 629–640.
doi:10.1002/JAAL.00074
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children (Margaret cook, Trans.). New York, NY:
International Universities Press.
Poe, E. A. (1910). The works of Edgar Allan Poe. New York, NY: Harper and Bros.
Pomplun, T. (Ed.). (2010). Graphic classics: Edgar Allan Poe (Vol. 1, 4th ed.). Mount Horeb, WI:
Eureka Productions.
Rapp, D. N. (2012). Comic books’ latest plot twist: Enhancing literacy instruction. Kappan
Magazine, 93(4), 64–67.
Roediger, H. L., & Marsh, E. J. (2005). The positive and negative consequences of multiple-
choice testing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(5),
1155–1159.
Rosenblatt, L. (1938). Literature as exploration. New York, NY: Appleton-Century.
Rudiger, H. M. (2006). Reading lessons: Graphic novels 101. Horn Book Magazine, 82(2), 128–134.
Saraceni, M. (2003). The Language of Comics. London, UK: Routledge.
Schultz, K., & Hull, G. (2002). Locating literacy theory in out-of-school contexts. In G. Hull & K.
Schultz (Eds.), School’s out!: Bridging out-of-school literacies with classroom practice (pp. 11–31).
New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Schwarz, G. E. (2002). Graphic novels for multiple literacies. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,
46(3), 262–265.
Selfe, C. (2004). Toward new media texts: Taking up the challenges of visual literacy. In A. F.
Wysocki, J. Johnson-Eilola, C. L. Selfe, & G. Sirc (Eds.), Writing new media: Theory and
applications for expanding the teaching of composition (pp. 67–110). Logan, UT: Utah State
University Press.
Serafini, F. (2011). Expanding perspectives for comprehending visual images in multimodal texts.
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(5), 342–350. doi:10.1598/JAAL.54.5.4
Serafini, F. (2014). Reading the visual: An introduction to teaching multimodal literacy. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Skilton-Sylvester, E. (2002). Literate at home, but not at school: A Cambodian girl’s journey from
playwright to struggling writer. In G. Hull & K. Schultz (Eds.), School’s out!: Bridging out-of-
school literacies with classroom practice (pp. 61–90). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Smetana, L. (2010). Graphic novel gurus: Students with learning disabilities enjoying real literature.
The California Reader, 44(1), 3–14.
Thomas, P. L. (2012). Adventures with text and beyond. English Journal, 102(2), 129–133.
46 M. P. COOK

Todd, J. (2015). Interdisciplinarity through graphic novels. Phi Kappa Phi Forum, 95(3), 8–12.
Torgesen, J. (2006). Factors that influence reading comprehension: Developmental and instructional
considerations. Proceedings of the Core Knowledge Conference. Retrieved from http://www.fcrr.
org/science/pdf/torgesen/Core_knowledge.pdf
Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2012). Lenses on reading: An introduction to theories and models.
New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Van den Broek, P., & Espin, C. A. (2012). Connecting cognitive theory and assessment: Measuring
individual differences in reading comprehension. School Psychology Review, 41(3), 315–325.
Versaci, R. (2001). How comic books can change the way our students see literature: One teacher’s
perspective. The English Journal, 91(2), 61–67. doi:10.2307/822347
Voyer, D., & Voyer, S. D. (2014). Gender differences in scholastic achievement: A meta-analysis.
Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1174–1204. doi:10.1037/a0036620
Williams, B. T. (2005). Leading double lives: Literacy and technology in and out of school. Journal
of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 48(8), 702–706. doi:10.1598/JAAL.48.8.7
Wu, H., & Hu, P. (2007). Major factors influencing reading comprehension: A factor analysis
approach. Sino-US English Teaching, 4(9), 14–19.
Wysocki, A. (2003). With eyes that think, and compose, and think: On visual rhetoric. In P.
Takayoshi & B. Huot (Eds.), Teaching writing with computers: An introduction (pp. 181–201).
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Yildirim, A. H. (2013). Using graphic novels in the classroom. Journal of Language and Literature
Education, 2(8), 118–131.
Zhao, X., & Zhu, L. (2012). Schema theory and college English reading teaching. English Language
Teaching, 5(11), 111–117. doi:10.5539/elt.v5n11p111
Zoss, M. (2009). Visual arts and literacy. In L. Christenbury, R. Bomer, & P. Smagorinsky (Eds.),
Handbook of adolescent literacy research (pp. 183–196). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 47

Appendix A
Reading comprehension test
Name/ID: _____________________________ Grade: ___________ Gender: Male/Female
Circle the Text You are Using: Traditional Graphic Both
Instructions: You have been given test form “A.” Beside your name/ID, please write “A.”
Also, please provide your grade level (e.g., 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th), your gender, and the text
type you are using in the provided spaces above.
You may use your text as you take this test. Note that some questions include the relevant
page numbers in the traditional and the graphic texts. For each test item, select the best
answer. Please mark only one answer for each question.
Please Note: In the page numbers provided (e.g., p. 1/40), the first page number refers
to the traditional text version, and the second page number refers to the graphic novel.

(1) According to Montresor, he decides to seek revenge against Fortunato because

Fortunato
(a) Attacked him physically
(b) Injured him more than a thousand times
(c) Injured his ancestors
(d) Stole some valuable wine from him
(2) It is apparent that the narrator wants to punish Fortunato in such a way that:
(a) Fortunato will not suffer
(b) Fortunato will know who his punisher is
(c) Everyone will know who harmed him
(d) Fortunato will never forget it
(3) According to Montresor, revenge would not be successful if he were
(a) Not punished for taking revenge
(b) Recognized by his victim
(c) Punished for taking revenge
(d) Compelled to murder
(4) What can you predict from the following sentence spoken by Montresor?
“At length I would be avenged; this was a point definitely settled. . .” (p. 1/39).
(a) Montresor will not do anything
(b) Montresor will apologize
(c) Montresor will carry out his revenge
(d) Montresor will be murdered
(5) Fortunato is an expert on:
(a) Gems
(b) Painting
(c) Wines
(d) Literature
(6) Fortunato’s costume of a jester is important to note because
(a) He often jests about his knowledge of wine
(b) He is foolish about going into the catacombs with his severe cold
(c) Montresor plays him for a fool
48 M. P. COOK

(d) Montressor laughs at his jokes

(7) At the mention of Luchesi, the narrator plays on Fortunato’s weakness:
(a) His pride—Fortunato thinks he is much better than Luchesi
(b) His alcoholism—Fortunato drinks all the time
(c) His stupidity—Fortunato is not very wise
(d) His loneliness—Fortunato is not very powerful
(8) When Fortunato offers to judge the wine, Montresor responds by
(a) Being sincerely eager
(b) Being sincerely reluctant
(c) Pretending to be eager
(d) Pretending to be reluctant
(9) What can the reader infer from the following sentence?
“Come,” I said, with decision, “we will go back. Your health is precious” (p. 3/
42).
(a) He is worried about Fortunato’s health
(b) He has changed his mind about getting revenge
(c) He wants to leave
(d) He is pretending he is concerned for Fortunato
(10) Why does the narrator give Fortunato the Medoc?
(a) To keep him drunk
(b) To occupy his mind
(c) To make himself feel better
(d) To control his cough
(11) Why does Montresor warn Fortunato about the air in the vaults?
(a) Montresor wants to make sure that Fortunato does not suspect his motives
(b) Montresor wants to discourage Fortunato from entering the vaults
(c) Montresor wants to avoid responsibility for Fortunato’s death
(d) Montresor wants to warn Fortunato that death is near
(12) The presence of the flambeaux suggests that the story takes place:
(a) In the 21st century
(b) A long time ago
(c) On an island
(d) In the future
(13) The skeletons in the walls of the catacombs are the remains of
(a) Carnival merrymakers
(b) Montresor family enemies
(c) Montresor’s ancestors
(d) Montresor’s prior servants
(14) When Fortunato says, “I shall not die of a cough,” Montresor says, “True, true,”
(p. 3/42) because he:
(a) Knows the cough is not serious
(b) Wants Fortunato to drink more wine
(c) Knows Fortunato will die for a reason other than a cough
(d) Is psychic
(15) The building materials being present in the crypt suggests
(a) People buried building materials with their dead
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 49

(b) Montresor had prepared the crypt ahead of time

(c) Montresor had never entered the crypt before
(d) The materials were left after a previous burial
(16) Montresor used the building stone and mortar
(a) To repair the wall
(b) To wall up Fortunato in the crypt
(c) To build a new crypt
(d) To scare Fortunato to death
(17) When Montresor says his “task was drawing to a close,” his task was
(a) Chaining Fortunato
(b) Building the wall
(c) Exploring the catacombs
(d) Finding his Amontillado
(18) As the last stone is being put into place
(a) Fortunato escapes
(b) Fortunato laughs
(c) Fortunato’s bells jingle
(d) Montresor laughs
(19) At the end of the story, we know Fortunato is dead because
(a) The narrator says, “Fortunato is dead”
(b) The torch burns out
(c) No one has moved the bones or masonry for 50 years
(d) The story ends
(20) Which line below hints that maybe Montresor had second thoughts or doubts
about Fortunato?
(a) “I drink to the buried that repose around us” (p. 3/43).
(b) “Nemo me impune lacessi” (p. 4/43)
(c) “There was then a long and obstinate silence” (p. 6/47)
(d) “There remained but a single stone to be fitted and plastered in” (p. 6/48).
(21) In the story, why does Fortunato go into the vaults?
(a) To meet Montresor’s ancestors
(b) To find some peace and quiet
(c) To attend a meeting of masons
(d) To prove his wine expertise
(22) Using context clues, what is the best meaning for the word “borne” in the story?
(a) Given
(b) Seen
(c) Received
(d) Heart About
(23) Using context clues, what is the best meaning for the word “impunity” in the
story?
(a) Lightly
(b) Unknowingly
(c) Until death
(d) Without consequence
50 M. P. COOK

(24) How are Montresor and Fortunato alike?

(a) They share an interest in fine wine
(b) They have affection for each other
(c) They both have respect for Luchesi
(d) They both have revenge in their nature
(25) By never mentioning the insult that Fortunato committed, Poe
(a) Confuses the reader
(b) Leaves out an important part of the story
(c) Focuses our attention completely on Montresor’s revenge
(d) Forgot to include the best part
(26) What is one reason that the reader knows Montresor is an unreliable narrator?
(a) He is drunk on amontillado
(b) He is snobbish and wealthy
(c) He does not reveal everything about the past
(d) He is feverish and unable to think clearly
(27) Which evidence best supports the claim that Montresor is insane?
(a) He wears a strange consume
(b) Thought of Fortunato’s death makes him smile
(c) He pays full price for a cask of wine
(d) He does not ask Luchesi to test the wine
(28) What is a cask?
(a) A crypt
(b) A wooden container for the dead
(c) A story
(d) A wooden container for liquid
(29) A “pipe” of Amontillado is:
(a) A large cask
(b) A small tube
(c) A devise used for smoking
(d) A glass
(30) In “The Cask of Amontillado,” who is the narrator of the story?
(a) Luchesi
(b) Montresor
(c) Fortunato
(d) Amontillado

Appendix B
Student interview outline—sampled from groups E1 and E2
(1) What are your previous experiences reading Edgar Allan Poe’s short stories?
(a) Have you read any as a student?
(b) What about for your own entertainment?
(2) What are your prior experiences with graphic novels?
(a) Do you have any prior experiences with comic books?
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 51

(3) What was your overall impression of “reading” the graphic novel?
(a) Was it engaging?
(b) Was it interesting?
(c) Was it different than traditional reading? In what ways?
(d) Did the images and layout help or hinder your reading?
(4) Do you feel like you fully understood (comprehended) the story?
(a) Can you tell me about your favorite part?
(5) If given the choice in the future, would you prefer to read a traditional story or a
graphic version?
(a) Why? What makes you want to read that type of text?
(b) How would that type of text benefit you over the other?
(6) Is there anything else you would like to add that can help me understand how you
interacted with the graphic novel?

For Group E2 Sample Only:

(1) How were your experiences with each of the texts different?
(2) Was the vocabulary and language used in the graphic version true to that used in
Poe’s version?
(3) What is your overall opinion of the graphic novel?
(4) Did the characters depicted in the graphic text match up with your mental image
of them from the traditional text?

Teacher Interview Outline—Used with All Participating Teachers:

(1) Have you ever used graphic novels in instruction prior to this study?
(a) Have you ever seriously considered using them?
(2) What have your students said about reading Poe in the past?
(a) What about this experience?
(3) Did you perceive students to be engaged while reading?
(a) Were those with traditional texts engaged?
(b) Were those with the graphic text engaged?
(c) Were those students reading both text types engaged?
(d) Follow Up: How did you know they were engaged? How do you define
engaged?
(4) From your observations, in what ways did the graphic text help and/or hinder
student engagement and comprehension?
(5) What is your overall opinion of the Poe graphic adaptation used for this study?
(a) Was the language true to Poe’s language?
(b) What about vocabulary?
(c) What about plot line?
(6) Is there anything else you would like to add that may assist me in better under-
standing the potential benefits and constraints of using graphic novels in the
classroom?
52 M. P. COOK

Appendix C
Excerpts from traditional and graphic texts
See below for the introduction of the traditional text:
 LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 53

See below for the introduction of the graphic text: