VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

2 VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

INTRODUCTION
This unit describes the three basic electrical quantities which are voltage, current and
resistance. Basic electrical circuits and appropriate measuring instruments for measuring
electrical quantities will also be introduced in this unit.

The objectives of this unit are to :

2.1 Introduce the students to the three most important electrical quantities
2.2 Introduce the basic electrical circuits

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing the unit, students should be able to:
2.1 use SI unit for eletrical measurement.
2.2 define electrical units such as voltage, current, resistance, charge and the
relationship among the units.
2.3 differentiate the voltage and current sources
2.4 describe the difference between open circuit, closed circuit and short circuit
2.5 read the resistor color code

2.1 SI UNITS

Quantity Basic Unit (Symbol)

Length Meter (m)

Weight Kilogram (Kg)

Time Seconds(s)

Current Ampere (A)

Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin (K)

Intensity Candela (cd)

Table 2.1

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Quantity Symbol Unit Derived Unit

Frequency f Hertz (Hz) s 1

Force F Newton (N) kgms 2

Energy/Work W Joule (J) Nm

Charge Q Coulomb (C) As

Power P Watt (W) Js 1

Voltage V Volt (V) W/A

Resistance/Impedance R, Z Ohm (W) V/A

Conductance G Siemens (S) A/V

Reactance X Ohm (W) V/A

Inductance L Henry (H) Wb/A

Capacitance C Farad (F) C/V

Magnetic flux Φ Weber (Wb) V.s

Table 2.2

2.2 ELECTRICAL CHARGES

A charge is bidirectional and can be either positively charged or negatively charged. The
positive is charge are called proton and the negatives ones are called electron.

The charge of an electron and proton are equal in magnitude. Charge separation creates
an electrical force called voltage while charge movement creates electrical current.
Energy will build up whenever positive and negative charges are separated apart.

Static electricity demonstrates the net positive or negative charge and also the existence
of an electric field as repulsion force or attraction force. Electrical charge is symbolized
by Q. and measure in coulombs, C.

One coulomb is the total charge possessed by 6.25x1018 electrons

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A single electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10 -19 coulomb. The total charge Q expressed in
coulomb for a given number of electrons is found by the following formula:

number of electrons
Q (2.1)
6.25x1018 electrons / C

2.3 VOLTAGE

Voltage is an expression of potential energy, representing the possibility or potential for

energy release as the electrons move from one "level" to another, it is always referenced
between two points. The voltage between two points is sometimes called a voltage drop.

A battery is a type of voltage source that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
The way cells are connected, and the type of cells, determines the voltage and capacity
of a battery. Figure 2.1 shows the series and parallel connected batteries as well as the
symbol of a battery.

(a) Series-connected battery (b) Parallel-connected

battery

Figure 2-1

Any source of voltage, including batteries, have two points for electrical contact. In this
case, we have point 1 and point 2 in the above diagram. The negative (-) end of the
battery is always the end with the shortest dash, and the positive (+) end of the battery is
always the end with the longest dash. The negative end of a battery is that end which
tries to push electrons out of it. Likewise, the positive end is that end which tries to attract
electrons.

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With the "+" and "-" ends of the battery not connected to anything, there will be voltage
between those two points, but there will be no flow of electrons through the battery,
because there is no continuous path for the electrons to move.

Electron flow
2 + - 1 in the circuit

Battery

Figure 2-2 : Electron flow in a circuit

We can provide such a path for the battery by connecting a piece of wire from one end of
the battery to the other. Forming a circuit with a loop of wire, we will initiate a continuous
flow of electrons in a clockwise direction. Figure 2-2 shows how electrons flow out of the
battery through a closed circuit.

The uniform flow of electrons through the circuit is called a current. So long as the
voltage source keeps "pushing" in the same direction, the electron flow will continue to
move in the same direction in the circuit. This single-direction flow of electrons is called a
Direct Current, or DC.

Voltage is defined as the energy (W) per unit of charge (Q) and is expressed a

W
V (2.2)
Q

Where W is expressed in Joules and Q is in coulombs (C)

The unit of voltage is Volt. One volt is the potential difference (voltage) between two
points when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of charge from one point
to another.

2.4 CURRENT

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Electrical current is the rate of flow of charge and is measured by the number of
electrons (amount of charge) that flow past a point in a unit of time:

Q
I  (2.3)
t
Where I is the current, Q is the charge of electrons in coulombs, t is the time in seconds.

The unit of current is Ampere. One ampere (A) I sthe amount of current that exists when
a number of electrons having a total charge of one coulomb (C) move through a given
cross sectional area in one second (s)

2.4.1 Conventional Current Flow Versus Electron Flow

From Figure 2-2, you can see that electron flow from the negative terminal of the battery
to the positive terminal. This is the direction of electron flow. However, conventional
current flow is from a positive terminal of a battery to a negative terminal. Therefore,
current flow is in the opposite direction of electron flow. (Remember this). Figure 2-3
shows the direction of flow of electrons and also current in a circuit.

Direction of
Direction of current flow
electron flow 2
2 1
1

Battery
Battery

Figure 2-3: Direction of electron and current flow in a circuit

2.5 RESISTANCE

A circuit such as shown above in Figure 2-2 and 2-3 are not very practical ones. In fact, it
can be quite dangerous to build (directly connecting the poles of a voltage source
together with a single piece of wire). The reason it is dangerous is because the
magnitude of electric current may be very large in such a short circuit, and the release of
energy is very dramatic (usually in the form of heat). Usually, electric circuits are
constructed in such a way as to make practical use of that released energy, in as safe a
manner as possible.

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One practical and popular use of electric current is for the operation of electric lighting.
The simplest form of electric lamp is a tiny metal "filament" inside of a clear glass bulb,
which glows white-hot ("incandesces") with heat energy when sufficient electric current
passes through it. Like the battery, it has two conductive connection points, one for
electrons to enter and the other for electrons to exit. Figure 2-4 shows an electric lamp
circuit connected to a voltage source.

Current flow
2 + - 1

Battery

Figure 2-4: Electrical circuit with a lamp

As the electrons (remember, electron flow in the opposite direction of current) work their
way through the thin metal filament of the lamp, they encounter more opposition to
motion than they typically would in a thick piece of wire. This opposition to electric
current depends on the type of material, its cross-sectional area, and its temperature. It
is technically known as resistance.

It can be said that conductors have low resistance and insulators have very high
resistance. This resistance serves to limit the amount of current through the circuit with a
given amount of voltage supplied by the battery.

When electrons move against the opposition of resistance, "friction" is generated. Just
like mechanical friction, the friction produced by electrons flowing against a resistance
manifests itself in the form of heat. The concentrated resistance of a lamp's filament
results in a relatively large amount of heat energy dissipated at that filament. This heat
energy is enough to cause the filament to glow white-hot, producing light, whereas the
wires connecting the lamp to the battery (which have much lower resistance) hardly even
get warm while conducting the same amount of current.

The unit of resistance R is expressed in ohms and is symbolized in the greek letter
omega W . A 1000 Ohm resistor is typically shown as 1K-Ohm ( kilo Ohm ), and 1000 K-
Ohms is written as 1M-Ohm ( megaohm ). One W of resistance exists when there is
one ampere (1A) of current in a material with one volt (1V) applied across the material.

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2.6 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Basic electrical circuit consists of five fundamental

elements:

1. Current source
2. Voltage source

3. Resistor

4. Capacitor

5. Inductor

Capacitor and inductor will be covered in the later topics.

I
2 + - 1

Battery

Voltage
+ Drop
-

Figure 2-5: Voltage drop across an electrical circuit

A circuit where there is a flow of current is called electrical circuits. If we break the
electrical circuit's continuity at any point, the electric current will cease in the entire loop,
and the full voltage produced by the battery will be manifested across the break,
between the wire ends that used to be connected as shown in Figure 2-5.

2.5.1 Current Source

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Current source is a circuit element that maintains the predetermined

value of current without taking into account the voltage across it. It is Is
not affected by other elements in the circuit.

2.5.2 Voltage Source

Voltage source is a circuit element which has a constant voltage and

does not depend on the current flow across it. It is also not affected by Figure 2-7

other elements in the circuit.

2.6.3 Short Circuit and Open Circuit

If a switch is inserted in series in the circuit with the light bulb as shown in Figure 2-6, the
circuit is said to be closed circuit and the bulb will light up when the switch is closed.

When the switch is open, as shown in Figure 2-7 and electron cannot flow through the
circuit, the bulb will not light up and the circuit is known as open circuit.

If the bulb is replaced by a wire and the switch is close, the circuit is called short circuit,
as there is very small resistance in the circuit.

2 + - 1 2 + - 1

Battery
Battery

Switch close
Switch open

Figure 2-6: Closed circuit Figure 2-7: Open circuit

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2.6.4 Ground

Ground is the reference point in electric circuits and has a potential of 0 V with respect
to other points in the circuit. All ground points in a circuit are electrically the same and
are therefore common points. Figure 2.8 shows the symbol for ground in an electrical
circuit.

(a) (b)
Figure 2-8 Symbol for ground

2.7 ELECTRICAL POWER

Electric power is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an

electric circuit. The unit of power is the watt. When electric current flows in a circuit with
resistance, it does work. Devices convert this work into many useful forms, such as heat
(electric heaters), light (light bulbs), motion (electric motors), and sound (loudspeaker).

Electric power, like mechanical power, is represented by the letter P in electrical

equations. The term wattage is used colloquially to mean 'electric power in watts'.
P  W / t  VI (2.4)

2.8 RESISTOR

Because the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in any circuit is so
regular, we can reliably control any variable in a circuit simply by controlling the other
two. Perhaps the easiest variable in any circuit to control is its resistance. This can be
done by changing the material, size, and shape of its conductive components.

Components that are specifically designed to have a certain amount of resistance are
called resistors. The principal applications of resistors are to limit current, divide voltage,

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and in certain cases, generate heat. The higher the value of resistance (measured in
ohms) the lower the current will be. They are typically constructed of metal wire or
carbon, and engineered to maintain a stable resistance value over a wide range of
environmental conditions. Unlike lamps, they do not produce light, but they do produce
heat as electric power is dissipated by them in a working circuit. Typically, though, the
purpose of a resistor is not to produce usable heat, but simply to provide a precise
quantity of electrical resistance.

The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. This

symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as a schematic.
There are basically two classes of resistors;

(ii) Fixed resistors

(iii) Variable resistors

They are also classified according to the material from which they are made. The
resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor
for use in a circuit. The other factors to take into considerations depending on the type of
applications are as follows:
 Power ratings
 Voltage ratings,
 Tolerance or accuracy band
 Physical dimensions
 Component connection and mounting method requirements.

Because resistors dissipate heat energy as the electric currents through them overcome
the "friction" of their resistance, resistors are also rated in terms of how much heat
energy they can dissipate without overheating and sustaining damage. Just like you
wouldn't use a 6 volt flashlight lamp to replace a burned out light in your house, you
wouldn't use a 1/8 watt resistor when you should be using a 1/2 watt resistor. Naturally,
this power rating is specified in the physical unit of "watts." Most resistors found in small
electronic devices such as portable radios are rated at 1/4 (0.25) watt or less. The power
rating of any resistor is roughly proportional to its physical size. Note in the first resistor
photograph how the power ratings relate with size: the bigger the resistor, the higher its
power dissipation rating. Also note how resistances (in ohms) have nothing to do with
size.

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Resistors in electronic circuits are typically rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and 1/2W. 1/8W is almost
always used in signal circuit applications. Figure 2.9 shows some examples of available
resistors.

(a)
Carbon-composition (b) Metal film chip resistor (c) Chip resistor array

(d) Resistor network (e) Resistor network (f) Radial-lead for

(simm) (surface mount) PC board insertion

Figure 2-9 Some examples of resistors

Resistors are color coded as shown in Figure 2-10. To read the color code of a common
4 band 1K ohm resistor with a 5% tolerance, start at the opposite side of the GOLD
tolerance band and read from left to right. Write down the corresponding number from
the color chart below for the 1st color band (BROWN). To the right of that number, write
the corresponding number for the 2nd band (BLACK) . Now multiply that number (you
should have 10) by the corresponding multiplier number of the 3rd band (RED)(100).
Your answer will be 1000 or 1K.

1st color band

3rd. color band
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Tolerance band
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Figure 2-10 : Color band in a resistor

Resistor color code:

 1st band is the first digit of the resistance value.
 2nd band is the second digit of the resistance value.
 3rd band is the multiplier (number of zeros).
 4th band indicates the tolerance

If a resistor has 5 color bands, write the corresponding number of the 3rd band to the
right of the 2nd before you multiply by the corresponding number of the multiplier band. If
you only have 4 color bands that include a tolerance band, ignore this column and go
straight to the multiplier.

The tolerance band is usually gold or silver, but some may have none. Because resistors
are not the exact value as indicated by the color bands, manufactures have included a
tolerance color band to indicate the accuracy of the resistor. Gold band indicates the
resistor is within 5% of what is indicated. Silver = 10% and None = 20%. Others are
shown in the chart below. The 1K ohm resistor in the example (left), may have an actual
measurement any where from 950 ohms to 1050 ohms. If a resistor does not have a
tolerance band, start from the band closest to a lead. This will be the 1st band. If you are
unable to read the color bands, then you'll have to use your multimeter. Be sure to zero it
out first. Figure 2-11 shows the color codings of a resistor.

Resistor Color Codes

Band Color 1st Band # 2nd Band # *3rd Band # Multiplier x Tolerances ± %
Black 0 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 1 10 ± 1%
Red 2 2 2 100 ±2%
Orange 3 3 3 1000
Yellow 4 4 4 10,000
Green 5 5 5 100,000 ± 0.5 %
Blue 6 6 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25 %
Violet 7 7 7 10,000,000 ± 0.10 %
Grey 8 8 8 100,000,000 ± 0.05 %
White 9 9 9 1,000,000,000
Gold 0.1 ±5%
Silver 0.01 ± 10 %
None
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Figure 2-11 Resistor color codes

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2.8.1 Applications of Resistors

Real resistors look nothing like the zig-zag symbol. Instead, they look like small tubes or
cylinders with two wires protruding for connection to a circuit. Figure 2.12 shows a
sampling of different kinds and sizes of resistors:

Large and high power rating resistor Small and low power rating resistors

Figure 2-12

In keeping more with their physical appearance, an alternative schematic symbol for a
resistor looks like a small, rectangular box:

Resistors can also be shown to have varying rather than fixed resistances. This might be
for the purpose of describing an actual physical device designed for the purpose of
providing an adjustable resistance, or it could be to show some component that just
happens to have an unstable resistance:

Variable
resistance

… or …

In fact, any time you see a component symbol drawn with a diagonal arrow through it,
that component has a variable rather than a fixed value. This symbol "modifier" (the
diagonal arrow) is standard electronic symbol convention.

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Variable resistors must have some physical means of

adjustment, either a rotating shaft or lever that can be moved to
vary the amount of electrical resistance.

Figure 2-13
Variable Resistor

2.9 UNIT’S SUMMARIZED NOTES

1. One coulomb is the charge of 6.25x1018 electrons.

2. One volt is the potential difference between two points when one joule of energy is
used to move one coulomb from one point to the other.

3. Voltage must be applied to a circuit to produce current.

4. One ampere is the amount of current that exists when one coulomb of charge moves
through a given cross-sectional area in one second.

5. Resistance limits current.

6. One ohm is the resistance when there is one ampere of current in a material with one
volt applied across the material.

7. An electric circuit consists of a source, a load, and a current path.

8. An open circuit has an incomplete current path.

9. A closed circuit has a complete current path.

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