Solar Energy Vol. 66, No. 5, pp.

325–335, 1999
 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd
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MULTILEVEL CONVERTERS FOR SINGLE-PHASE GRID CONNECTED

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS: AN OVERVIEW
MARTINA CALAIS* ,†,‡ , VASSILIOS G. AGELIDIS** and MIKE MEINHARDT*** ,‡
*Curtin University of Technology, Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology Australia
(CRESTA), GPO Box U 1987, Perth 6845, Western Australia, Australia
**Curtin University of Technology, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, GPO Box U 1987,
Perth 6845, Western Australia, Australia
***PEI Technologies, National Microelectronics Research Centre (NMRC), Lee Maltings, Cork, Ireland

Received 9 October 1998; revised version accepted 28 March 1999

Communicated by ROBERT HILL

Abstract—Multilevel voltage source inverters offer several advantages compared to their conventional
counterparts. By synthesising the AC output terminal voltage from several levels of DC voltages, staircase
waveforms can be produced, which approach the sinusoidal waveform with low harmonic distortion, thus
reducing filter requirements. The need of several sources on the DC side of the converter makes multilevel
technology attractive for photovoltaic applications. This paper provides an overview on different multilevel
topologies and investigates their suitability for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems. Several
transformerless photovoltaic systems incorporating multilevel converters are compared regarding issues such
as component count and stress, system power rating and the influence of the photovoltaic array earth
capacitance.  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. INTRODUCTION width modulation (PWM) inverters including

either line or high frequency transformers, often
Grid connected photovoltaic (PV) systems, in
incorporating several stages of power conversion
particular low power, mostly single-phase PV
(Hotopp, 1996). Newest trends in this field are
‘‘rooftop’’ systems and their contribution to clean
string based units with a power rating around
power generation are recognised more and more
1 kW (Keller et al., 1997; Schmid and Kleinkauf,
worldwide. Grid connected PV rooftop systems
1997) and transformerless concepts (Gruß et al.,
are generally privately owned, single-phase sys-
1997; Meinhardt and Mutschler, 1995; Shinohara
tems in a power range of up to 10 kW. The main
et al., 1994). For larger systems the overall
aim of a private operator who owns such a system
efficiency can be increased through application of
is to maximise its energy yield. Issues such as low
several small string inverters replacing a single
cost, reliability, long life time (20 years and
unit which avoids losses through module mis-
longer), high (part-load-) efficiency and good
match and decreases the DC wiring effort. Trans-
environmental conditions (availability of solar
formerless concepts (in particular inverters with
radiation) are hence of importance to the private
high input voltages) are advantageous regarding
operator. Other important requirements for these
their high efficiencies. Their peak efficiencies of
PV systems (see Fig. 1) are the fulfillment of
up to 97% are equivalent to efficiencies reached
standards concerning power quality, electromag-
in drives applications (Keller et al., 1997). Avoid-
netic compatibility, acoustic noise limitations as
ing the transformer has the additional benefits of
well as safety and protection requirements.
reducing cost, size, weight and complexity of the
The first commercially available grid connected
inverter. However, the removal of the transformer
PV inverters were line commutated inverters.
and hence its isolation capability has to be
These were followed by self commutated, pulse
considered carefully.
Multilevel converter technology is based on the
synthesis of the AC voltage from several different
voltage levels on the DC bus. As the number of
†Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.:
161-8-9266-3369; fax: 161-8-9266-3107; e-mail: voltage levels on the DC side increases, the
pcalaism@cc.curtin.edu.au synthesised output waveform adds more steps,
‡
ISES Member. producing a staircase wave which approaches the

325
326 M. Calais et al.

Fig. 1. Issues regarding grid connected PV systems.

sinusoidal wave with minimum harmonic distor- 2. LEAKAGE CURRENTS IN

tion (Bhagwat and Stefanovic, ´ 1983). Multilevel TRANSFORMERLESS PV SYSTEMS
converters are particularly interesting for high
Avoiding the transformer in PV inverter
power applications such as Flexible AC Transmis-
topologies results in a galvanic connection of the
sion Systems (FACTS) since the need of filters is
grid and the PV array. Due to the capacitance
reduced and the efficiency is high because all
between the PV array and earth, potential differ-
devices switch at fundamental frequency (Lai and
ences imposed on the capacitance through switch-
Peng, 1996; Peng et al., 1996). In low power
ing actions of the inverter inject a capacitive earth
applications where switching frequencies are not
current (see Fig. 2). The PV array earth capaci-
as restricted as in high power applications various
tance, Cearth , is then part of a resonant circuit
control methods such as multi-carrier pulse width
consisting of the PV array, DC and AC filter
modulation or multiple hysteresis band control
elements and the grid impedance. Due to neces-
methods can be used to further reduce harmonics
sary efficiency optimisation of PV systems the
in the stepped waveforms (Agelidis et al., 1997;
damping of this resonant circuit can be very small
Marchesoni, 1992). Multilevel converter
so that the earth current can reach amplitudes well
topologies are especially suitable for PV applica-
above permissible levels. Also, the resonant fre-
tions since due to the modular structure of PV
quency is not fixed due to the varying PV array
arrays different DC voltage levels can easily be
earth capacitance, which is dependent on environ-
provided.
mental conditions. Depending on the topology,
This paper provides an overview on various
switch states and environmental conditions the
multilevel topologies which have been suggested
capacitive earth current can cause more or less
or are considered for (transformerless), single-
severe (conducted and radiated) electromagnetic
phase grid connected PV systems. Each topology
interference, distortion of the grid current and
is briefly described, listing advantages and dis-
additional losses in the system. Measures to
advantages regarding issues such as component
minimise this current are mentioned in
count and stress, system power rating and the
(Meinhardt, 1997; Meinhardt and Mutschler,
influence of the photovoltaic array earth capaci-
1995). Besides the implementation of a special
tance. Due to quick voltage and current transitions
control theory, it is suggested to add passive
most power electronic equipment emits distur-
components to dampen the resonant circuit.
bances which propagate either by conduction or
The magnitude of the PV array earth capaci-
radiation. In transformerless systems leakage cur-
tance depends on weather conditions and physical
rents due to the photovoltaic array earth capaci-
structure of the array. It can be estimated accord-
tance can additionally occur and increase electro-
ing to the physical dimensions of the PV array and
magnetic emissions (both conducted and
its grounded frame area. One electrode of the
radiated). Since the paper focuses on transformer-
capacitance is formed by the photovoltaic cells,
less systems the issue of leakage currents in
the other by the grounded frame (see Fig. 3(b)). In
transformerless photovoltaic systems will be dis-
the worst case the complete surface of the PV
cussed first.
 Multilevel converters for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems: an overview 327

Fig. 2. Grid connected PV system without transformer including the PV array earth capacitance.

Fig. 3. (a) Maximum and (b) minimum PV module earth capacitance.

array is covered by a conducting layer (e.g. IMPP (258C) 3.23 A

formed through humidity or dirt) increasing the VOC (258C) 21.2 V
area of the grounded electrode of the array (see (Length3width3depth) 1004 mm3448
Fig. 3(a)). mm338.5 mm
Table 1 summarises estimates and measurement
results of PV module earth capacitances for mono-
crystalline modules with the following specifica- For the experimental determination of the PV
tions and dimensions: module earth capacitance, a HP 4262 digital LCR
Meter was used and connected to the PV module
Ppeak 55 W as shown in Fig. 4. Different measurements were
Cells in series 36 performed (measurement frequency: 1 kHz) with
VMPP (258C) 17 V up to three modules forming an array, showing
that the capacitances add independently of series
or parallel connection of the modules. In order to
Table 1. PV module earth capacitances. create the worst case, the surface of a PV module
CPVearth,min CPVearth,max was sprayed with salt water and as a result the
Estimated 17.0 pF 6.64 nF highest capacitance of 4.2 nF was recorded. The
Measured 110 pF 4.2 nF
difference between estimated and measured re-
328 M. Calais et al.
Fig. 4. PV module earth capacitance measurement.
sults can be explained as follows: The measure-
ment for the lowest capacitance was conducted on
a PV module which was not in a perfectly clean
condition, resulting in a higher capacitance than
estimated. For the measurement of the worst case,
the PV module was sprayed with salt water and
not completely submerged in salt water, resulting
in a lower capacitance than estimated.
An analysis of different standards addressing
the grounding of PV systems shows that US
standards require all exposed, non-current-carry-
ing metal parts to be grounded (National Electri-
cal Code, USA, 1999; The Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, 1998). The European
standards (International Electrotechnical Commis-
sion, 1997) only require grounding if the follow-
ing conditions do not apply:
• The system voltage is equal to or below 50 V
(Safety Extra Low Voltage, SELV).
• The system has an electrical separation.
• The insulation class is II or equivalent.
Where grounding of the frames is a require-
ment, the PV array earth capacitance needs to be
considered in transformerless topologies. Where
grounding is not a requirement and / or where
frameless modules are used the PV array earth
capacitance is reduced in value and hence its
influence will be reduced. However, each PV
system will have some PV array earth capacitance
which is dependent on its location and environ-
ment, and may cause interference.
3. MULTILEVEL INVERTER TOPOLOGIES
3.1. Half-bridge diode clamped
Fig. 5(a) shows a half-bridge diode clamped
three-level inverter (HBDC) (Nabae et al., 1981)
as part of a single-phase transformerless grid
connected PV system as suggested in (Hinz and
Mutschler, 1996). With simultaneous switching on
the switches S1 and S2, a positive voltage can be
created at the inverter output terminal. A zero
output voltage is created by switching on S2 and
S3 and a negative voltage is created by switching
on S3 and S4 respectively. In order to allow
power transfer into the grid, the DC bus voltages
VPVA1 and VPVA2 must always be higher than the
grid voltage amplitude vˆ grid . Since currently avail-
able PV modules have operating voltages around
17 V a large number of modules is required
resulting in a minimum system size of approxi-
mately 3 kW. An advantage of this system is that
the midpoint of the PV array is grounded which
eliminates capacitive earth currents and their
negative influence on the electromagnetic com-
patibility of the circuit.
The half-bridge diode clamped inverter can be
expanded from three-levels to five-levels as
shown in Fig. 5(b). Five switch combinations,
where four switches are always switched simul-
taneously, generate five different voltage levels at
the AC output of the inverter, e.g. switching on
S1, S2, S3 and S4 at the same time generates
VPVA1 1VPVA2 at the AC output, switching on S2,
S3, S4 and S5 generates VPVA2 at the AC output
and so forth. In Xu (1998) a three phase grid
connected PV system using a diode clamped five-
level inverter is discussed. By adding more levels
on the DC bus, the number of levels of the
voltage at the inverter output terminals are also
increased. This allows for reduced distortion of
the output waveform. To further reduce harmonics
an extra degree of freedom is given by choosing
the number of cells in series (and thus the
 Multilevel converters for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems: an overview
Fig. 5. Grid connected PV systems with (a) half-bridge diode clamped three-level inverter (HBDC) and (b) half-bridge diode
clamped five-level inverter.
voltages) of the outer PV subarrays (1 and 4) to be
different than those of the middle PV subarrays (2
and 3). Drawbacks of this topology, however, are
the high number of semiconductor devices re-
quired, the DC wiring effort of four PV subarrays,
and since the loading of the outer PV subarrays (1
and 4) is different to that of the middle PV
subarrays (2 and 3) careful sizing of each PV
subarray is necessary to ensure maximum power
transfer from each subarray.
3.2. Full-bridge single leg clamped
In Agelidis et al. (1997) and Hinga et al.
(1994) a full-bridge single leg switch clamped
inverter (SLSC) is described and suggested for
residential PV systems. The topology (see Fig.
6(a)) is comprised of a conventional full-bridge
(switches Sa1 , Sa2 , Sb1 and Sb2 ) where a bi-direc-
tional switch (realised with Sa3 , Sa4 , Da1 and Da2 )
is added controlling current flow to and from the
midpoint of the DC bus. When applied in a
transformerless PV system, the minimum system
size with this topology is approximately 1.5 kW.
329
A transformerless PV system with similar
characteristics can be realised with a full-bridge
single leg diode clamped inverter (SLDC) as
shown in Fig. 6(b) (Hinga et al., 1994). With the
single leg diode clamped configuration the de-
vices Da1 , Da2 , Sa1 , Sa2 , Sa3 and Sa4 all can be
rated for half the blocking voltage of switches Sb1
and Sb2 . However, with the single leg switch
clamped configuration, this only applies to the
devices Da1 , Da2 , Sa3 and Sa4 , and not to Sa1 and
Sa2 . In both systems both PV subarrays are
symmetrically loaded.
3.3. Cascaded ( CC)
Fig. 7 shows a transformerless grid connected
PV system where a cascaded inverter (Marchesoni
et al., 1988) is used for DC to AC power
conversion. The topology comprises of two full-
bridges with their AC outputs connected in series.
Each bridge can create three different voltage
levels at its AC output allowing for an overall
five-level AC output voltage. The advantage of
this topology is the modular character. In Gruß et
330 M. Calais et al.

Fig. 6. Grid connected PV systems with (a) full-bridge single leg switch clamped inverter (SLSC) and (b) full-bridge single leg
diode clamped inverter (SLDC).

al. (1997) the concept is suggested for trans- ¨

formerless PV systems using more than two full-
bridges connected in series on the AC side with
small DC bus voltages of e.g. 40 V each. High
power applications using cascaded inverters are
described in (Joos et al., 1997; Peng et al., 1996).
3.4. Step
The step converter (Schmid and Schatzle, ¨
1982) switches PV subarrays of different voltages
to the AC output. In Muller (1994) a topology
using five arrays with nominal voltages of 11 V,
22 V, 44 V, 88 V and 176 V is suggested for a grid
connected PV system as shown in Fig. 8. A first
conversion stage generates a rectified AC voltage
waveform with 32 different voltage levels, a
second conversion stage switches the polarity of
every second half-wave generating an AC voltage
with 63 different voltage levels. The energy
delivered from each of the PV subarrays increases

Fig. 7. Grid connected PV system with a cascaded inverter (CC).

 Multilevel converters for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems: an overview 331

Fig. 8. Grid connected PV system with a step inverter.

with increasing voltage. Each PV subarray has
different sizing requirements in order to ensure
maximum power extraction of each individual PV
array during operation. A major drawback of this
topology is the high and complicated DC wiring
effort due to the five differently sized PV subar-
rays.
3.5. Magnetic coupled
Fig. 9 shows a single-phase PV system with a
magnetic coupled inverter as described in Thomas
(1994). The inverter consists of three full-bridges
each with their midpoints connected to a primary
winding of a transformer. The secondary windings
of the transformers are connected in series. Due to
different turn ratios of each of the transformers
and the ability of each full-bridge to create three
different voltages across the primary winding
( 1VPVA , 2VPVA and 0), the voltage at the AC
terminals can be comprised of 27 levels. The
advantage of this circuit is the relatively accurate
replica of a sine wave accomplished with low
switching frequencies. A major drawback of the
circuit, however, is the need for three transfor-
mers.
3.6. Flying capacitor ( FC)
In Fig. 10 a half-bridge three-level flying
capacitor inverter is suggested for a transformer-
less grid connected PV system. Flying capacitor
converters (which are also referred to as floating
capacitor or imbricated cell multilevel converters)
are described in (Lai and Peng, 1996; Meynard et
al., 1997). The features of this topology are
332 M. Calais et al.

Fig. 9. Grid connected PV systems with magnetic coupled inverter.

similar to the diode clamped topology. Important
for the operation of this converter is a stable
voltage ratio of VPVA1 /VC2 5VPVA2 /VC2 51. There-
fore control methods are required which ensure
that the average current flowing in the capacitor
C2 is zero. This complicates the control of the
inverter and excludes solutions with varying duty-
cycles (e.g. hysteresis control).
4. DISCUSSION
The following system comparison does not
include all described topologies. It excludes the
magnetic coupled topology since it focuses on
transformerless systems. Only those topologies,
where the amounts of energy extracted from each
PV subarray are equal are considered. This con-
dition simplifies the design of the systems, hence
the step and the half-bridge diode clamped five-
level topology are not included in the comparison.
Table 2 compares the remaining topologies re-
garding minimum rated power, Pr,min , number of
PV modules and PV subarrays, number of DC bus
capacitors, number of semiconductor devices and
their ratings, possible levels of the AC voltage at
the inverter output terminals and the negative

Fig. 10. Grid connected PV system with a half-bridge three-level flying capacitor inverter (FC).
 Multilevel converters for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems: an overview 333

Table 2. System comparison

FB SLSC SLDC CC FC HBDC HB
Pr,min / kWp 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3 3 3
No. of PV modules 28 28 28 28 54 54 54
No. of PV subarrays 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
No. of Capacitors 1 2 2 2 3 2 2
No. of Switches 4 6 6 8 4 4 2
No. of Diodes 0 2 2 0 0 2 0
Vblock,max / kV 0.7 0.7 or 0.35 0.7 or 0.35 0.35 0.7 0.7 1.4
Imax /A 9 9 9 9 18 18 18
AC voltage levels 3 5 5 5 3 3 2
Capacitive Earth Currents Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No

influence of the PV array earth capacitance.
Additionally, transformerless systems incorporat-
ing full-bridge (FB) and half-bridge (HB)
topologies as shown in Fig. 11 are included.
The determination of the minimum rated power
of the systems, Pr,min , and respectively the num-
ber of required PV modules is based on a maxi-
]
mum grid voltage amplitude of vˆ grid,max 51.1?Œ2?
240 V. All listed topologies have step-down
characteristics. Therefore, for the ‘‘half-bridge’’
topologies (HBDC, FC, HB), the DC bus voltages
VPVA1 5VPVA2 must always be higher than vˆ grid,max .
For the ‘‘full-bridge’’ topologies (SLSC, SLDC,
CC), VPVA1 5VPVA2 .vˆ grid,max / 2 applies. Since the
operating voltage of silicon cells reduces with
increasing temperature, the DC bus voltage is
lowest on hot summer days. This lowest operating
voltage determines the minimum number of cells
which have to be connected in series to ensure
energy transfer from the PV array to the grid at all
times. Then, based on the minimum number of
cells connected in series, the highest possible
voltage, the open circuit voltage on the coldest
day has to be calculated since it determines the
voltage rating of the DC bus capacitors as well as
those of the semiconductor devices. For silicon
solar cells the temperature behaviour and hence
the voltage variations can be estimated according
to Wenham et al. (1994). The system sizes listed
in Table 2 have been calculated for environmental
conditions for Perth, Western Australia (maximum
ambient temperature in summer: 458C, minimum
ambient temperature in winter: 08C) and for
typical, available PV modules as specified in
section 2. Major drawbacks regarding the mini-
mum size of all discussed systems are the lack of
flexibility and the relatively high number of
modules required (For half-bridge topology sys-
tems, twice as many modules are required as for
full-bridge topology systems). By adding addi-
tional step up conversion stages, sizing flexibility
can be enhanced, however, overall system ef-

Fig. 11. Grid connected PV system with (a) a full-bridge inverter (FB) and (b) a half-bridge inverter (HB).
334 M. Calais et al.
Table 3. Number of switches
Topology Vblock,max 5700 V Vblock,max 5350 V
Imax 59 A Imax 59 A
SLSC 4 2
SLDC 2 4
CC 0 8
ficiencies will decrease. Modules with higher
operating voltages are favourable for the dis-
cussed systems since installation costs can be
reduced. Today’s availability of high voltage
modules with operating voltages above 30 V,
however, is still limited.
For minimising leakage currents topologies
where the PV array can be grounded are advan-
tageous. Here the HBDC topology is more favour-
able than the FC topology, where there is need to
control the floating capacitor voltage.
The HBDC compares favourably with the
conventional HB topology in two ways: firstly in
the ability of creating a three-level instead of a
two-level voltage at the inverter output and sec-
ondly in respect of lower voltage switch ratings.
When compared with the FB topology the HBDC
is still preferable due to the grounded midpoint of
the PV array.
SLSC, SLDC, and CC can create five-level
inverter output voltage waveforms and conse-
quently demand less filter effort on the AC side.
In all three topologies, however, PV array earth
leakage currents can have a negative impact and
measures to decrease these are required. For the
three topologies the required numbers of semi-
conductor switching devices and their ratings are
specified in Table 3. Considering costs, the CC
topology promises to be cheaper to produce than
the SLSC and SLDC due to its modular nature.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper several single-phase, multilevel
topologies suggested for PV grid connected sys-
tems have been reviewed. Amongst the topologies
for transformerless systems, the HBDC and CC
have been identified as the most promising
topologies. However, with the CC topology (when
applied in a transformerless system) measures are
necessary to decrease the capacitive earth currents
which are caused by potential differences imposed
on the PV array earth capacitance. Also further
research is required in order to evaluate whether
the advantages of multilevel conversion justify the
higher cost due to the greater number of com-
ponents.
The step-down nature of all topologies requires
system sizes of 1.5 kW upwards in transformerless
applications due to the relatively low operating
voltages of most currently available PV modules.
Availability of PV modules with higher operating
voltages is desirable since this would reduce
system costs. An additional step-up conversion
stage between PV array and inverter can increase
the flexibility regarding the system size, but will
reduce the systems’ overall efficiency.
Acknowledgements—The authors wish to acknowledge the
valuable discussions with Mr. M. Dymond and Mr. A. Ruscoe,
PowerSearch Ltd, Perth, Western Australia, with Mr T.
Spooner, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia,
and with Mrs J. Myrzik, ISET, University of Kassel, Germany.
This work was supported by the Australian Cooperative
Research Centre for Renewable Energy (ACRE).
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