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THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM
THREE
Max Planck Commentaries on
World Trade Law

VOLUME 3
THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM

THREE

Edited by
Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe,
John Nawas, and Everett Rowson

With

Roger ALLEN, Edith AMBROS, Thomas BAUER, Johann BÜSSOW,

Ruth DAVIS, Maribel FIERRO, Najam HAIDER, Konrad HIRSCHLER,
Nico KAPTEIN, Hani KHAFIPOUR, Alexander KNYSH, Corinne LEFÈVRE,
Scott LEVI, Roman LOIMEIER, Daniela MENEGHINI, M’hamed OUALDI,
D. Fairchild RUGGLES, Emilie SAVAGE-SMITH, Ayman SHIHADEH, and
Susan SPECTORSKY

LEIDEN  • BOSTON
2018
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

EI3 is published under the patronage of the international union of academies.

ADVISORY BOARD

Azyumardi Azra; Peri Bearman; Farhad Daftary; Geert Jan van Gelder
(Chairman); R. Stephen Humphreys; Remke Kruk; Wilferd Madelung;
Barbara Metcalf; Hossein Modarressi; James Montgomery; Nasrollah
Pourjavady; and Jean-Louis Triaud.

EI3 is copy edited by

Amir Dastmalchian, Linda George,

Alan H. Hartley, and Brian Johnson.

ISSN: 1873-9830
ISBN: 978-90-04-35666-5

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 list of abbreviations

a. Pe ri od i cal s
AI = Annales Islamologiques
AIUON = Annali dell’ Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli
AKM = Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgen­landes
AMEL = Arabic and Middle Eastern Literatures
AO = Acta Orientalia
AO Hung. = Acta Orientalia (Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae)
ArO = Archiv Orientální
AS = Asiatische Studien
ASJ = Arab Studies Journal
ASP = Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
ASQ = Arab Studies Quarterly
BASOR = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BEA = Bulletin des Études Arabes
BEFEO = Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient
BEO = Bulletin d’Études Orientales de l’Institut Français de Damas
BIE = Bulletin de l’Institut d’Égypte
BIFAO = Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire
BKI = Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde
BMGS = Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies
BO = Bibliotheca Orientalis
BrisMES = British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
BSOAS = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
BZ = Byzantinische Zeitschrift
CAJ = Central Asiatic Journal
DOP = Dumbarton Oaks Papers
EW = East and West
IBLA = Revue de l’Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes, Tunis
IC = Islamic Culture
IHQ = Indian Historical Quarterly
IJAHS = International Journal of African Historical Studies
IJMES = International Journal of Middle East Studies
vi list of abbreviations

ILS = Islamic Law and Society

IOS = Israel Oriental Studies
IQ = The Islamic Quarterly
JA = Journal Asiatique
JAIS = Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies
JAL = Journal of Arabic Literature
JAOS = Journal of the American Oriental Society
JARCE = Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt
JAS = Journal of Asian Studies
JESHO = Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
JIS = Journal of Islamic Studies
JMBRAS = Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
JNES = Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JOS = Journal of Ottoman Studies
JQR = Jewish Quarterly Review
JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
JSAI = Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
JSEAH = Journal of Southeast Asian History
JSS = Journal of Semitic Studies
MEA = Middle Eastern Affairs
MEJ = Middle East Journal
MEL = Middle Eastern Literatures
MES = Middle East Studies
MFOB = Mélanges de la Faculté Orientale de l’Université St. Joseph de Beyrouth
MIDEO = Mélanges de l’Institut Dominicain d’Études Orientales du Caire
MME = Manuscripts of the Middle East
MMIA = Majallat al-Majma al-Ilmi al-Arabi, Damascus
MO = Le Monde Oriental
MOG = Mitteilungen zur Osmanischen Geschichte
MSR = Mamluk Studies Review
MW = The Muslim World
OC = Oriens Christianus
OLZ = Orientalistische Literaturzeitung
OM = Oriente Moderno
QSA = Quaderni di Studi Arabi
REI = Revue des Études Islamiques
REJ = Revue des Études Juives
REMMM = Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée
RHR = Revue de l’Histoire des Religions
RIMA = Revue de l’Institut des Manuscrits Arabes
RMM = Revue du Monde Musulman
RO = Rocznik Orientalistyczny
ROC = Revue de l’Orient Chrétien
RSO = Rivista degli Studi Orientali
SI = Studia Islamica (France)
SIk = Studia Islamika (Indonesia)
SIr = Studia Iranica
TBG = Tijdschrift van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen
list of abbreviations vii

VKI = Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land en Volkenkunde
WI = Die Welt des Islams
WO = Welt des Orients
WZKM = Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes
ZAL = Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik
ZDMG = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft
ZGAIW = Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften
ZS = Zeitschrift für Semitistik

b. O the r
ANRW = Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt
BGA = Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum
BNF = Bibliothèque nationale de France
CERMOC = Centre d’Études et de Recherches sur le Moyen-Orient Contemporain
CHAL = Cambridge History of Arabic Literature
CHE = Cambridge History of Egypt
CHIn = Cambridge History of India
CHIr = Cambridge History of Iran
Dozy = R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes, Leiden 1881 (repr. Leiden and Paris 1927)
EAL= Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature
EI1 = Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed., Leiden 1913–38
EI2 = Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., Leiden 1954–2004
EI3 = Encyclopaedia of Islam Three, Leiden 2007–
EIr = Encyclopaedia Iranica
EJ1= Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1st ed., Jerusalem [New York 1971–92]
EQ = Encyclopaedia of the Qurn
ERE = Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics
GAL = C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, 2nd ed., Leiden 1943–49
GALS = C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, Supplementbände I–III, Leiden 1937–42
GAP = Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie, Wies­baden 1982–
GAS = F. Sezgin, Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums, Leiden 1967–
GMS = Gibb Memorial Series
GOW = F. Babinger, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Osmanen und ihre Werke, Leipzig 1927
HO = Handbuch der Orientalistik
IA = Islâm Ansiklopedisi
IFAO = Institut Français d’Archeologie Orien­tale
JE = Jewish Encyclopaedia
Lane = E. W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon
RCEA = Répertoire Chronologique d’Épigraphie Arabe
TAVO = Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients
TDVIA=Türkiye Diyanet Vakfi Islâm Ansiklopedisi
UEAI = Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants
van Ess, TG = J. van Ess, Theologie und Gesell­schaft
WKAS = Wörterbuch der Klassischen Arabischen Sprache, Wiesbaden 1957–
forgery in adth 41
dan gerakan, Jakarta 2004; Fuad Fachruddin,
Agama dan pendidikan demokrasi, Jakarta 2006;
Lies Marcoes, Women’s grassroots move-
ments in Indonesia. A case study of the
PKK and Islamic Women’s Organizations,
in Kathryn Robinson and Sharon Bessel
(eds.), Women in Indonesia. Gender, equity, and
development (Singapore 2002), 187–97; Rachel
Rinaldo, Mobilizing piety. Islam and feminism
in Indonesia, Oxford 2013; Kathryn Robin-
son, Gender, Islam, and democracy in Indonesia,
London and New York 2009; Eka Srimu-
lyani, Women from traditional Islamic educational
institutions in Indonesia. Negotiating public spaces,
Amsterdam 2012; Pieternella Van Doorn-
Harder, Women shaping Islam. Indonesian women
reading the Quran, Urbana 2006; Pieternella
Van Doorn-Harder, Translating text to con-
text. Muslim women activists in Indonesia,
in Masooda Bano and Hilary Kalmbach
(eds.), Women, leadership and mosques. Changes
in contemporary Islamic authority (Leiden 2012),
413–36; Siti Zainab, Nyai, kiai dan pesantren,
Yogyakarta 2001; fatayat-nu.blogspot.co.id.
Andrée Feillard
Eka Srimulyai
Forgery in adth
adth forgery (wa al-adth) is the
accidental or deliberate circulation of tra-
ditions with altered or invented contents
(matns) and/or lines of transmission (isnds).
Enlisting past authorities in defence of
orthodoxy became a scholarly require-
ment during the second civil war in Islam
(60–73/680–92). The growing appeal of
Prophetic adth, in particular, is reflected in
biographical reports about Muammad’s
Companions. Thus, Sad b. Ab Waqq
(d. 50–8/670–8) reportedly related no Pro-
phetic traditions and avoided giving legal
counsel out of fear that a single statement
of his would sprout a hundred variants (Ibn
Mja, Bb al-Tawaqq f l-adth, no. 29; Ibn
Sad, 3:134). Ibn Masd (d. 32/652–3) is
said to have related some fifty Prophetic
traditions (al-Rmahurmuz, 557, no. 753).
By the mid-second/eighth century, the
number of traditions, including many spu-
rious ones, had grown so much that one of
the pioneers of adth criticism, Shuba b.
al-ajjj (d. 160/776–7), complained that
two-thirds of the traditions he studied were
lies (al-Dhahab, 7:226). A century later, the
founders of the a movement culled a few
thousand sound Prophetic traditions from
several hundred thousand (al-Maqdis, 89),
many of which were apparently suspected
of having been forged.
Muslim adth critics recognised various
reasons for and types of adth forgery (Ibn
ibbn, 1:58–83; Ibn al-Jawz, 1:15–35):
• Obfuscation of transmission (tadls), that
is, citing authorities whom one did not
meet, omitting the names of suspicious
transmitters, or attaching traditions to
wrong or entirely invented isnds.
• Inferior scholarly faculties of the
transmitter.
• Negligent shaykhs who approved of
adths that others malevolently ascribed
to them and issued a licence (ijza) for
their further circulation.
• Invention of exhortatory and dissuasive
(targhb wa-tarhb) traditions by devout
transmitters (lin). adth critics rou-
tinely bewailed the mendacity of lin
yet acquiesced to their pious forgeries
as long as they did not constitute legal
precedents.
• Deterioration of the memory of the
transmitter because of senility and con-
fusion (ikhtil).
• Legal and theological controversies.
• Sectarian bias.
• Political opportunism and partisanship.
• Forgeries by unscrupulous storytellers
(q, pl. qu).
Modern research has drawn attention
to additional aspects of adth forgery,
42 forgery in adth
including ethnic bias, genealogical claims,
adth forgery by means of forged tradi-
tions (Goldziher, 1:147–216; 2:131–3),
and the following:
• Raf (raising to the level of the Prophet
isnds that terminate at the level of Com-
panions, mawqf ) and wal (mending
an isnd in which a Successor cites
directly the Prophet, mursal) were
commonplace amongst classical adth
transmitters. The critics saw no harm
in endorsing such emendations when
practised by upright transmitters with
reliable memories or when validated
by numerically preponderant trans-
missions (Ibn al-al, 71–2). Mod-
ern Western scholars interpreted raf
as a backward growth of traditions,
whereby opinions of the early legal
specialists, who flourished towards
the end of the first/beginning of the
eighth century, were ascribed first to
Companions (sometimes invented) and
ultimately to the Prophet (Goldziher,
2:147; Schacht, 150ff.; Juynboll, Notes,
esp. 289–90, 299–300). Azmi (218–22)
dismissed such interpretations as mis-
representing the manner in which
Muslim legal experts operated. He
argued that they would often, in pursuit
of succinctness, abridge the originally
complete transmission lines to their key
informants, thus creating many seem-
ingly incomplete isnds, which Western
scholars misinterpreted as being earlier
than their complete variants.
• Seeking high (lin) isnds, which charted
the shortest path to the sacrosanct fig-
ure of the Prophet, gave rise to the
class of long-lived transmitters known
as muammarn. Some are said to have
attained Methuselan ages (Goldziher,
2:170–4); others were centenarians
who served as artificial bridges between
second/eighth-century Kufan/Basran
traditionists and the Prophet or his
Companions ( Juynboll, Role). The
abundance of isnds that cover centu-
ries of transmission by citing only a
few successive octogenarians, nonage-
narians, and centenarians attests to the
wide currency of the bridging phenom-
enon since the very beginnings of adth
transmission. At the other extreme is
the age at which one could engage in
adth studies. Although early Muslim
scholars insisted on an age of fifteen
or twenty years, the age of eligibil-
ity was, with the growing predilection
for highness (ul) in adth, liberally
extended even to infants (al-Khab,
198–201).
Corpus analysis will perhaps make pos-
sible an assessment of adth authenticity. In
a study of 3810 isnds in Abd al-Razzq’s
Muannaf, Motzki (Anfänge, 56ff., Origins,
58ff.) has observed an uneven distribution
of citations between four major and ninety
less significant informants, which he con-
sidered an indication of authenticity.
Similar diversity was, however, observed
in the transmission of several informants
from a single source, possibly under-
mining Motzki’s conclusions (Gledhill).
Moreover, the falsifiability of the diversity
criterion is yet to be proven by finding a
adth corpus whose sub-corpora are dis-
tributed evenly, hence artificially, amongst
several transmitters (for other approaches
to authenticity, see Pavlovitch 22–52).
Bibliography
Sources
al-Dhahab, Siyar alm al-nubal, ed. Shuayb
al-Arna, 30 vols., Beirut 1402–17/1982–
96; Ibn ibbn, Kitb al-majrn min
forgery in adth 43
al-muaddithn, ed. amd al-Salaf, 2 vols.,
Riyadh 1420/2000; Ibn al-Jawz, Kitb
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Ajjj al-Khab, Beirut 1391/1971.
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two early 3rd/9th-century adth compendia,
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Muhammedanische Studien, 2 vols., Halle an
der Saale 1889–90; G. H. A. Juynboll, The
role of muammarn in the early development
of the isnd, WZKM 81 (1991), 155–75;
G. H. A. Juynboll, Some notes on Islam’s
first fuqah distilled from early ad literature,
Arabica 39/3 (1992), 287–314; Harald
Motzki, Die Anfänge der islamischen Juris-
prudenz. Ihre Entwicklung in Mekka bis zur Mitte
des 2./8. Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart 1991, trans.
Marion H. Katz, The origins of Islamic juris-
prudence. Meccan fiqh before the classical schools,
Leiden 2002; Pavel Pavlovitch, The formation
of the Islamic understanding of kalla in the second
century AH (718–816 CE). Between scripture and
canon, Leiden 2016; Joseph Schacht, Origins
of Muhammadan jurisprudence, Oxford 1950.
Pavel Pavlovitch