EARTHQUAKE GEOLOGY

1
Earthquake

• A natural vibration of the

ground or the earth crust
produced by forces is called
earthquake or seismic forces.

2
Terminology
• Focus (seismic centre): is the place
beneath the earth surface from
where earthquake originates.
• Epicenter: the point or line on the
earth surface immediately above
the focus is called epicenter.
• Anticenter: The point which is
diametrically opposite to the
epicenter is called anticenter.

3
 Terminology
• Fault Line: A fault line is a break or fracture in the ground
that occurs when the Earth's tectonic plates move or shift and
are areas where earthquakes are likely to occur. A break
where the Earth's tectonic plates shifted that is a likely site of
an earthquake is an example of a fault line.
 Types of Earthquake
• Depending on depth of focus:

Types Depth of focus (km)

Shallow Earthquake 60

Intermediate Earthquake 60-300

Deep Earthquake > 300

6
 Elastic Rebound
Theory
Rocks bend under stress
while storing elastic
energy. When the strain in
the rocks exceeds their
strength, breaking will
occur along the fault.
Stored elastic energy is
released as the
earthquake. Rocks“snap
back”, or rebound to their
original condition.

Pg 275/BM Das 7
Spread of the Seismic Waves

8
SEISMOLOGY BASICS
Seismometer

The basic principles.

The earth moves moving the

framework of the seismometer.

The suspended heavy weight and

then pen beneath remain relatively
stationary.

As the concrete base

moves the stationary pen draws
an ink line on paper on the rotating
drum.

9
10
Seismograph
(Horizontal)

11
Horizontal Seismograph
Seismograph (Vertical)

13
Vertical Seismograph
Seismogram

15
SEISMOLOGY
BASICS
Seismogram

Seismogram recorded on Russia of a 1909 earthquake in Asia Minor.

Two types of wave are observed: Body Wave {P (Primary), S (Secondary)}
And Surface Wave which is L (surface or Long) waves.

Note the difference in time between the P and S waves.

16
SEISMOLOGY
BASICS
Body waves

Two types of waves move through the

earth (Body waves)

(a) P waves. Moves like sound wave.

Fastest wave. Like the push-pull
motion of a slinky toy. (Granite
4.8 km/sec)

(b) S waves. Moves like light wave.

Move in an up and down motion
perpendicular to the direction of
advance. Like the waves in a
shaken rope. (Granite 3 km/sec)

17
P-wave
• Primary Waves (P-Waves) are identical in character to sound waves.
• They are high frequency, short-wavelength, longitudinal waves which
can pass through both solids and liquids.
• The ground is forced to move forwards and backwards as it is
compressed and decompressed.
• This produces relatively small displacements of the ground.
• P Waves can be reflected and refracted, and under certain circumstances
can change into S-Waves.

18
P-wave

Particles are compressed and expanded in

the wave's direction
19
S-Waves
• Secondary Waves (S-Waves) travel more slowly than P-Waves and
arrive at any given point after the P-Waves.
• Like P-Waves they are high frequency, short-wavelength waves, but
instead of being longitudinal they are transverse.
• They cannot move through liquids.
• On the surface of the Earth, S-Waves are responsible for the sideways
displacement of walls and fences, leaving them 'S' shaped.

20
S-Waves

S-waves move particles at 90° to the wave's direction

21
S-Waves

22
Motion of P Waves vs S Waves
P Waves S Waves

23
L-Waves
• Surface Waves (L-Waves) are low frequency transverse vibrations with a
long wavelength.
• They are created close to the epicentre and can only travel through the
outer part of the crust.
• They are responsible for the majority of the building damage caused by
earthquakes.
• This is because L Waves have a motion similar to that of waves in the
sea.
• The ground is made to move in a circular motion, causing it to rise and
fall as visible waves move across the ground

24
L-wave

L-waves move particles in a circular path.

25
 SEISMOLOGY
MAGNITUDE
Properties of waves

Important terms are

Amplitude - height of wave above the starting point
Wavelength - the distance between successive waves
Period - the time between successive waves = 1/ Frequency

Body waves - 0.5 to 20 Hz

Surface waves - 0.005 to 0.1 Hz.
26
 Locating Epicenter

• Pg-278/ BM Das
27
Locating Epicenter
29
 SEISMOLOGY
LOCATING EARTHQUAKES
Triangulation

Need three different seismic stations to

locate an earthquake.

Measure the P-S arrival times and convert

these to distance.

Triangulate using radius given by P-S travel

times.

Triangulation for position of an earthquake

near New Madrid using stations in
Columbus, St Louis and Memphis

30
 SEISMOLOGY
LOCATING EARTHQUAKES
Triangulation

31
Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBss68oBmmk
32
EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY: Mercalli Scale

33
 Rossi–Forel scale

• I. Microseismic shock. Recorded by a single seismograph or by

seismographs of the same model, but not by several seismographs of
different kinds. The shock felt by an experienced observer.

• II. Extremely feeble shock. Recorded by several seismographs of different

kinds. Felt by a small number of persons at rest.

• III. Very feeble shock. Felt by several persons at rest. Strong enough for the
direction or duration to be appreciable.

• IV. Feeble shock. Felt by persons in motion. Disturbance of movable objects,

doors, windows, cracking of ceilings.

34
• V. Shock of moderate intensity. Felt generally by everyone. Disturbance of
furniture, ringing of some bells.

• VI. Fairly strong shock. General awakening of those asleep. General ringing
of bells. Oscillation of chandeliers, stopping of clocks, visible agitation of
trees and shrubs. Some startled persons leaving their dwellings.

• VII. Strong shock. Overthrow of movable objects, fall of plaster, ringing of

church bells. General panic. No damage to buildings.

• VIII. Very strong shock. Fall of chimneys, cracks in the walls of buildings.

• IX. Extremely strong shock. Partial or total destruction of some buildings.

• X. Shock of extreme intensity. Great disaster, ruins, disturbance of the

strata, fissures in the ground, rock falls from mountains.

35
 C.F. Richter Scale (1935)

Table 6.1/ pg 287 36

SEISMOLOGY
MAGNITUDE
Nomograph of the Richter
scale

Read the difference in travel time

between P and S waves and plot.

Read the maximum amplitude of

the S wave and plot.

Draw a line between the two points

and gives the magnitude.

37
38
• Early in the century the earthquake in San Francisco registered 8.3 on
the Richter scale. In the same year, another earthquake was recorded
in South America that was four time stronger. What was the
magnitude of the earthquake in South American?