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11 THERMAL PROPERTIES
OF MATTER
Re d 7800
2
Voilet 4000
Basic Fundamental definition :-
(i) Energy Density (u) : J/m3
The radiation energy of whole wavelength present in unit volume at any point in
space is defined as energy density.
unitless
(v) Emmisive power (e) :– J/m2 sec.
The amount of heat radiation emitted by unit area of the surface in one second at a
particular temperature.
(vi) Spectral Emmisive power (e) :- J/m2 sec Å
The amount of heat radiation emitted by unit area of the body in one second in unit
spectral region at a given wavelength.
Emissive power or total emissive power
e e d
0
(amount of incident
radiation) Q Q r (amount of reflected radiation)
Q r Qa Q t
Q = Qr + Qa + Qt => 1 r+a+t=1
Q Q Q
Reflective Coefficient\ Reflection power (r) = Qr/Q,
Absorptive Coefficient\Absorption power (a) = Qa/Q,
Transmittive Coefficient\ Transmisstion power (t) = Qt/Q
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. Total radiations incident on body = 400 J, 20% radiation reflected and 120 J absorbs
Then find out % of transmittive power
Sol. Q = Qt + Qr + Qa 400 = 80 + 120 + Qt Qt = 200 is 50% Ans
2. 25% absorb, 25 Cal passes out transmits and total incident radiation Q = 500 J
Then find out % of reflective power
Sol. 500 = 105 + 125 +Qr Qr = 500 – 250
250
reflective power 100 50% Ans.
500
Ideal Black Body (IBB) :
– For a body surface which absorbs all incident thermal radiatiions at low temperature
irrespective of their wave length and emitted out all these absorbed radiations at high
temperature assumed to be an ideal black body surface.
– The identical parameters of an ideal black body is given by
a = a = 1 and r = 0 = t, er = 1
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Thermal Properties of Matter
– The nature of emitted radiations from ideal black body
surface only depends on its temperature
– The radiations emitted from ideal black body surface called IBB
– At any temperature the spectral energy distribution curve for an IBB surface is always
continous and according to this concept if the spectrum of a heat source obtained to be
continous then it must be placed in group of IBB like kerosene lamp; oil lamp Heating
filament etc.
– There are two experimentally ideal black body (a) Ferry's IBB (b) Wien's IBB.
– At low temperature IBB surface is a perfect absorber and at a high temperature it
proves to be a good emitter.
– An Ideal Black Body need not be black colour (eg. sun)
Prevost's theory of heat energy exchange :– (Except 0 Kelvin)
– According to Prevost at every possible temperature there is a continuous heat
energy exchange between a body and its surrounding and this exchange carry on
for infinite time.
– The relation between temperature difference of body with its surrounding decides whether
the body experience cooling effect or heating effect in the given investment.
– When a cold body is placed in the hot surrounding, the body radiates less energy and
absorbs more energy from the surrounding, therefore the temperature of body increases.
– When a hot body placed in cooler surrounding. The body radiates more energy and
absorb less energy from the surroundings. Therefore temperature of body decreases.
– When the temperature of a body is equal to the temperature of the surrounding. The
energy radiated per unit Time by the body is equal to the energy absorbed per unit time by
the body, therefore its temperature remains constant.
T0
T (body)
(surrounding)
IMPORTANT NOTES
1. At absolute Zero temperature (0 kelvin) all atoms of a given substance remains in ground
state, so, at this temperature emission of radiation from any substance is impossible, so
prevost's heat energy exchange theory does not applied at this temperature, so it is called
limited temperature of prevosts theory.
2. With the help of prevost's theory rate of cooling of any body w.r.t. its surroundings can be
worked out (applied to Stefen Boltzman law, Newton's law of cooling.)
KIRCHHOFF'S LAW
At a given temperature for all bodies the ratio of their spectral emissive power (e )
to spectral absorptive power (a ) is constant and this constant is equal to spectral
emissive power (E ) of the ideal black body at same temperature
FG e IJ 6 = FG e IJ
Ha K Ha K
= constant = constant
1 2
e a Imp.
(CS)
(a) During Normal Condition :- 6000 K
– Dark lines ND ( Number ) Dark lines Na
observed 107 K
Ca
– Absorption spectra called (FL) (PS)
l K
Tota r
(b) Total Solar Eclipse : sole se Vapour state
p
moon Ecli
(At time of total Solar Eclipse surface 200 K
(ii) (a) Sand is rough and black, so it is a good absorber and hence in deserts, days
(When radiation from sun is incident on sand) will be very hot. Now in accordance
with Kirchhoff's Law, good absorber is a good emitter. So nights (when send emits
radiation) will be cold. That is why in deserts days are hot and nights cold.
(b) Above same concept is applied to ewaxQyh okyk
(iii) Colour Triangle %&
Primary Colour The colour present in the spectrum which when passed through
a prism do not get dispersed.
Complementary Colour Those two colour present in the spectrum which when
mixed produce white light.
Red (R)
C + Y + M = White
Mergenta Yellow (Y)
(R+G) G + R Sunlight (Yellow)
(M) white (W)
B + Y White
Y + M Red
Blue (B) Cyan (C) Green (G)
(B + R)
IMPORTANT POINTS
1. Green body appears green because it reflects or transmits green and absorbs all colours.
2. When a green body is heated in a dark room then it appears red (or vice versa).
Red Green
Yellow Blue
A red body absords green light strongly at room temperature .When it is heated, it emits
green light.
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Thermal Properties of Matter
3. For a body, if it absorb specific colour radiations, if this radiations incident on given body in a
dark room then it appears to be black ( i.e. invisible )
Black
Black
Q GB = er AT 4 t Joule
Let in time dt the net heat energy loss for ideal BB is dQ and because of this its temperature
falls by d.
dQ d
dQ = A(T4 - T04) dt Joules dQ MS d, dt
M.S.
dt
Note:- (i) If all of T, T0, M, S, V, , are same forr different shape body then RF & RH will be
maximum in the flat surface.
(ii) If a solid and hollow sphere are taken with all the parameters same then hollow will
cool down at fast rate.
(iii) Rate of temperature fall , RF 1/S d/dt So, dt s
If condition in sp. heat is S1 > S2 > S3
It all cooled same temperature i.e. temperature fall is also identical for all then required time
t S t1 > t 2 > t 3
When a body cools by radiation the cooling depends on :–
(1) Nature of radiating surface greater the emissivity (er), faster will be the cooling.
(2) Area of radiating surface, greater the area of radiating surface, faster will be the cooling.
(3)Mass of radiating body, greater the mass of radiating body slower will be the cooling.
(4) Specific heat of radiating body greater the specific heat of radiating body slower
will be the cooling.
(5) Temperature of radiating body, greater the temperature of radiating body faster
will be the cooling.
E' E 5T 4 T 4
100% = 100% = 400% Ans. increase by 400%
E T4
3. If temperature of IBB is decrease by T to T/2 than worked out percentage loss in emissive
rate
4
T T4
Sol. E T , 4 E' Remaining is 6% ( Approx.)
2 16
E E 1 15
E 100% 1 16 100% 16 100% 94% Ans.
4. Calculate the energy radiated per second from the filament of an incandescent lamp at
2000K, if the surface area is 5.0 × 10–5 m2 and its relative emittance is 0.85 & = 5.7 × 10–8
W m–2 K–4.
Sol. Given A = 5.0 × 10–5 m2, = 5.7 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4, e = 0.85, T = 2000 K.
4
We know, E = AerT
E = 5.0 × 10–5 m2 × 0.85 × 5.7 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4 × (2000)4 K4
E = 38.76 W = 38.76 J s–1
E
Using, E = T4; T4 =
14 14
E 5.67 10 8
or T= = 4 = (1012)1/4 = 1000 K. Ans.
5.67 10
d
Rate of cooling (–0)
dt
d 4er A 03
= - K ( - 0 ) K
dt MS
where negative sign indictates that the rate of cooling is decreasing with time.
temp. falls to 1 2
1 2 , = 6 This is called radiation correction,
t 2
1 2 ' 1 2
t K 2 0 Imp.
IMPORTANT POINTS
1. The curves drawn at various black body temperatures between the intensity of radiation and
their wavelength or frequency are known as spectral energy distribution curves.
2. I.B.B. spectrum is a continuous emission spectrum and energy distribution in it depends
only on the absolute temperature of black body.
3. As the wave length increases, the amount of radiation emitted first increase, becomes
maximum and then decreases.
4. At a particular temperature the area enclosed between the spectral energy curve shows the
Wein's Law :-
1. Wein's Displacement Law : The wavelength corresponding to maximum emission of
radiation decrease with increasing temperature[m ]. This is known as Wein's
displacement law.
m T b where b = Wein's constant,
C
m = b'T,
m = b'T
Temperature (T)
2. Wein's 5th power Law and energy distribution law :- The maximum amount of radiation
emitted by the black body at wavelength (m) is directly proportional to the fifth power of the
temperature This is known as Wein's energy distribution law.
E m
Em T 5 T m E m
per unit area per unit time by a black surface held at right angles to T
the sun's rays and placed at the mean distance of the earth (in the A
Earth
4 R2 E E R2
So, The energy falling per unit area of earth = = [AIPMT-2007]
4 d2 d2
By definition, this is the solar constant S
E R2
i.e., S= But E = T4 According to Stefan's Law
d2
L S d OP
1
T 4 R2 Sd2 2 4
S= or 4
T = or T= M
d2 R2 N R Q 2
– The process by which heat is transferred from hot part to cold part of a body through the
transfer of energy from one particle to another particle of the body without the actual move-
ment of the particles from their equilibrium positions is called conduction.
– The process of conduction only in solid body (except Hg)
– Heat transfer by conduction from one part of body to another continues till their temperatures
become equal.
Variable state : It is the state in which temperature of each cross section of the rod increases
with temperature but temperature of any cross-section of the rod decreases with incrreasing
distance from hot end to cold end.
Steady state : When temperature of the each cross-section of the bar becomes constant but
different for different cross-sections area is called thermal steady state.
Diffusivity : The ratio thermal conductivity to thermal capacity per unit volume of a material
is called diffusivity.
k
D
s
It is measure of rate of change of temperature when the body is not in steady state.
– Equation of thermal conduction :
A hot cold B
L
dQ dT
T1 T2 KA
dx dt dX
d
flow of heat
(steady state condition) dQ KA
(T1 T2 ) (V . Imp.)
dt L
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Thermal Properties of Matter
where dQ/dt rate of Heat flow
dT/dXÞ Temperature Gradient, This is vector quantity (unit °C/m)
A cross section area
L Length (In heat flow dirction)
K Thermal conductivity of material
– Temperature gradient. –
The decrease in temperature with distance from hot end of the rod is known as temperature
dT
gradient. It is denoted by – or In the direction of heat energy flow, the rate of fall in
dx
* In winter, the iron chairs appear to be colder than the wooden chairs.
* Cooking utensils are made of aluminium and brass whereas their handles are made of wood.
* Ice is covered in gunny bags to prevent melting of ice.
* We feel warm in woollen clothes.
* Two thin blankets are warmer than a single blanket of double the thickness.
* We feel warmer in a fur coat.
* Birds often swell their feathers in winter.
K Thermal conductivity
K
Electrical conductivity
K / T const. K
T Absolutetemperature
1 K1
has melted is proportional to the square roots of = K2
2
– Thermal Resistance (R) :– The thermal resistance of a body is a measure of its opposition of the
flow of heat through it.
L
R (Imp.)
KA
(a) Heat flow through slabs in series : Than equivalent thermal conductivity of the
system is
Re = R1 + R2
L1 L2 L1 L2
Q Q = KA + K A
t K1 K2 t KeA 1 2
T1 L1 L2 T2 Li
T0 L1 L 2
Ke = L / K L / K = Li
1 1 2 2
Ki
x2
x1 ICE AxL dT
= – KA
x Water (0°C) dt dx
L
dt xdx taking intregation
KdT
t2 L x2
dt xdx
t1 KdT x1
1 L
t2 – t1 = (x 2 – x12) ,
2 KT 2
1 L 2
t (x2 x12 ) and t (x22 – x12)
2 KT
* Time taken to double and triple the thickness ratio t1 : t2 : t3 :: 12 : 22 : 32
so :: 1 : 4 : 9
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. One end of a brass rod 2m long and having 1 cm radius is maintained at 250°C. When a steady
state is reached, the rate of heat flow across any cross–section is 0.5 cal S–1. What is the
temperature of the other end k = 0.26 cal s–1 cm–1 °C–1.
Q
Sol. = 0.5 cal s–1; r = 1 cm
t
We know
Q
=
b
KA T1 T2 g
t L
= 2p × 10 cm × 2 m
L = 5 mm = 0.005 m and t = 1 s
Sol. Since Q =
b
KA T1 T2 t g
L
For same insulation by the brick and cement Q, A (T1 – T2) and t do not change.
K
That is, shoule be a constant.
L
Thus, if K1 and K2 be the thermal conductivities of brick and cement and L1 and L2 be the
required thickness then :
K1 K2
L1 = L1
1.7 W 1 K 1 2.9 W m 1 K 1
or =
20 cm L2
2.9
\ L2 = × 20 cm = 34.12 cm.
17
.
4. Two vessels of different material are identical in size and wall–thickness. They are filled with
equal quantities of ice at 0°C. If the ice melts completely, in 10 and 25 minutes respectively
then compare the coefficients of thermal conductivity of the materials of the vessels.
Sol. Let K1 and K2 be the coefficients of thermal conductivity of the materials,
and t1 and t2 be the time in which ice melts in the two vessels.
Since both the vessels are identicel, so A and x in both the cases is same.
Now
Q=
b
K1 A 1 2 t 1 g =
b
K 2 A 1 2 t 2g
L L
K1 t2 25 min 5
or K1t1 = K2t2 or K2 = t1 = =.
10 min 2
Q
=
b
K1 A 1
=
g
K 2 A 2b g ........(1)
t L1 L2
(i) Here q1 = –20°C, q2 = 20°C
L1 = 2 cm = 0.02 m, L2 = 5 cm = 0.05 m.
K1 = K2 = K.
eqn. (1) becomes
b
KA 20 g = KAb 20g
0.02 0.05
5(–20–q) = 2(q – 20)
–100 – 5q = 2q – 40
7q = –60
q = –8.6°C.
K1 2 2
(ii) K2 = 5 or K1 = K
5 2
eqn (1) becomes
b
2 5 K 2 A 20 g = K Ab 20g
2
0.02 0.05
–20 – q = q – 20 or –2q = 0
q = 0°C
6. An ice box used for keeping eatables cold has a total wall area of 1 metre2 and a wall thickness
of 5.0 cm. The thermal conductivity of the ice box is K = 0.01 joule/metre–0C. It is filled with
ice at 0°C along with eatables on a day when the temperature is 30°C. The latent heat of
fusion of ice is 334 × 103 jules/kgm. The amount of lice melted in one day is (1 day = 86,400
seconds) [MP PMT 95]
dQ KA 0.01 1
Sol. d 30 6 joule@sec.
dt L 0.05
Q = 518400 joule] Q = mL (L - latent heat)
Ans. = m = 1552 gm.
power, for radiations of wavelengths l . The constant El is called the emissive power of a
perfect black body at the same temperature and corresponding to wavelength l.
6. It follows from above equation if al is large than el will also be large i.e., good absorbers of
heat are good emitters also.
7. Solar constant is the solar radiation incident normally per second on one square meter area at
the mean distance of the earth from the sun in free space. It is given by S = 1.937 cal/cm2 -
minute.
2
4 S r
8. Temperature of sun is given by : T where r is the mean distance of the earth from
R
the sun and R is the radius of sun.
dQ KA T1 T2
9. Heat flow rate by conduction
dt L
L
10. Thermal Resistance RL =
KA
In series Re = R1 + R2 + ........
R1
1 1 1
In parallel R R R .......
e 1 2
R2
2. Two rectangular blocks A and B of different metals have same length and same area of cross-
section. They are kept in such a way that their cross-sectional area touch each other. The
temperature at one end of A is 100°C and that of B at the other end is 0°C. If the ratio of their
thermal conductivity is 1 : 3, then under steady state the temperature of the junction in contact
will be -
7. The rate of solar energy falling on unit area of earth's surface is nearly (kilo - watt / m2)
(1) 1.4 (2) 100 (3) 0.13 (4) 0.0001
8. A slab consists of two parallel layers of copper and brass of the same thickness and having
thermal conductivities in the ratio 1 : 4. If the free face of brass is at 100°C and that of copper
at 0°C, the temperature of interface is -
(1) 80°C (2) 20°C (3) 60°C (4) 40°
10. The radii is of two spheres made of same metal are r and 2r. These are heated to the same
temperature and placed in the same surrounding. The ratio of rates of decrease of their
temperature will be
(1) 1 :1 (2) 4 : 1 (3) 1 : 4 (4) 2 : 1
11. Heating two identical balls A and B, A appears blue and B appears red. The relation between
their temperature will be
(1) TA =TB (2) TA > TB (3) TA < TB (4) None of the above
13. When two ends of a rod wrapped with cotton are maintained at different temperatures and
after some time every point of the rod attains a constant temperature, then -
(1) Conduction of heat at different points of the rod stops because the temperature is not
increasing
(2) Rod is bad conductor of heat
(3) Heat is being radiated from each point of the rod
(4) Each point of the rod is giving heat to its neighbour at the same rate at which it receiving
heat.
14. Which of the following statement is correct for ideal black body :
18. The area of the glass of a window of a room is 10m2 and thickness 2 mm. The outer and inner
temperature are 40°C and 20°C respectively. Thermal conductivity of glass in MKS system is
0.2. The heat flowing in the room per second will be -
(1) 3 × 104 joules (2) 2 × 104 joules (3) 30 joules (4) 45 joules
19. A substance when at high temperature emits wave lenght l1, l2, l3, and l4 only when this substance
is at low temperature then it will absorb only following wave lengths.
(1) l1 (2) l2 (3) l2 & l3 (4) l1, l2, l3 & l4
20. Temperatures of two hot bodies b1 and b2 are 100°c and 800 c respectively. The temperature
of surrounding is 400 c at t = 0, the ratio of rates of cooling of the two bodies (liquid) R1 : R2 will
be (Use Newton's law of cooling )
(1) 3 : 2 (2) 5 : 4 (3) 2 : 1 (4) 4 : 5
21. If the rates of loss of energy by unit area of an iron ball are E1 E2 and E3 when it cools from
75°C to 70°C, 70°C to 65°C and 65°C to 60°C respectively then:
(1) E1 = E2 = E3 (2) E1 > E2 > E3 (3) E1 < E2 < E3 (4) E1 < E3 < E2
22. If the coefficient of conductivity of aluminium is 0.5 cal/cm-sec-°C, then in order to conduct
10 cal/sec-cm2 in the steady state, the temperature gradient in aluminium must be
(1) 5°C/cm (2) 10°C/cm (3) 20°C/cm (4) 10.5°C/cm
24. Out of the metal balls of same diameter one is solid and other is hollow. Both are heated to the
same temperature at 300°C and then allowed to cool in the same surroundings then rate of
loss of heat will be:
(1) More for hollow sphere (2) More for solid sphere
(3) Same for both (4) None of the above
25. If two metallic plates of equal thicknesses and thermal conductivities K1 and K2 are put
together face to face and a common plate is constructed, then the equivalent thermal conductivity
of this plate will be -
K1 K2
Fi g.
K1K 2 2K 1 K 2
(1) K K (2) K K
1 2 1 2
3/ 2 3/ 2
2 2 2
K K
1 2 K 1 K 22
(3) (4)
K 1K 2 2K 1 K 2
26. Two metal rods, 1 & 2 of same length have same temp difference between their ends, their
thermal conductivities are K1 & K2 and cross sectional areas A1 & A2 respectively. What is
required condition for same rate of heat conduction in them.
K1 K2 K K
(4) 2 = 2
1 2
(1) K1 = K2 (2) K1 A1 = K2 A2 (3) A = A
1 2 1 2
29. The rate of emission of electro-magnetic energy by any body does not depend on:
(1) Area of its surface
(2) Its mass
(3) Its temperature
(4) Its power of absorption of radiation
31. If el and al be the emissive power and absorption power respectively of a body and El be the
emissive power of an ideal black body then from Kirchhoff's laws
(1) al = El / el (2) al / el = El (3) el / al = El (4) el = El / al
34. A piece of metal and a block of wood are placed in a room. The temperature of both is 450 c
on touching them:
(1) Both will be felt equally hot.
(2) Wooden block will be felt hotter then the metal piece.
(3) Metal piece will be felt hotter than the wooden block.
(4) If will no be possible to differentiate between their hotness.
36. Current is passed through a thermistor (temperature dependent resister) continuously which is
placed in vaccum. Its temperature :
(1) Will increase with time
(2) After increase for some time, will stop rising because it will give its heat to the surrondings
by conduction
(3) Will increase for sometimes and then start falling
(4) Will be constant after some time because of loss of heat by radiation.
38. If the temperatures of stars of colours white, red and blue are respectively Tw ,Tr, Tb then :
(1) Tb > Tw > Tr (2) Tr > Tw > Tb (3) Tw > Tb > Tr (4) Tw > Tr > Tb
ANSWER KEY
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 2 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 3 4 2 1 4 4 2
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 2 3 2 4 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 3 2 1
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 3 1 3 1 4 4 1 1 2