Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy and Buildings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Indoor daylight simulation performed on automatically generated

as-built 3D models
L. Díaz-Vilariño, S. Lagüela ∗ , J. Armesto, P. Arias
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Engineering, School of Mining Engineering, University of Vigo, C.P. 36310 Vigo, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Daylighting has an important influence in two of the main consumption sources of a building: whereas
Received 2 January 2013 solar gain makes a great influence on the consumption of the heating and cooling systems, solar illu-
Received in revised form 19 February 2013 minance can reduce the use of artificial light and its electrical equipment. Whatever the final objective,
Accepted 25 February 2013
lighting analysis of indoor rooms implies the knowledge not only of its location and orientation toward
the North, but also of the location, dimensions and geometry of its main entrances of natural light, com-
Keywords:
monly windows and glass exterior doors. In this paper, as-built 3D models are proposed for their use as
Lighting
input in lightning analysis given their adequacy for providing information about the geometry and the
As-built 3D modeling
Indoor-environment quality
semantics of the building. Furthermore, a methodology for their generation is presented, taking as a basis
Illuminance the geometric information of the reality of the building, acquired only with a laser scanning device.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Daylighting is a key component toward sustainable buildings,
not only because it can make a significant contribution to the energy
savings of a building by reducing the consumption of both lighting
and heating systems, but also because it has been shown to improve
the indoor-environment quality and have a positive impact on peo-
ple [1,2]. A sign of the importance of daylighting in the energy
performance of a building is its incorporation in energy analysis and
simulation software, such as DOE-2 [3], TRNSYS [4] and Ecotect©
[5]; and also the high quantity of studies performed both toward
the optimal design of the artificial lighting system [6,7] and toward
the improvement of the efficiency, health and comfort of workers
and students in offices [8,9], and schools, such as [10] where sky-
light rooms are chosen over rooms with just windows for a more
accurate study.
Regarding influencing parameters, both geometry and orienta-
tion of openings, such as windows and glass doors, are key aspects
in daylighting studies; but while opening area may have a greater
influence in the heating system that in the lighting installation
[11], it is opening orientation what makes a difference when direct
sunlight is considered [12]. Consequently, having accurate knowl-
edge of the geometry, location and orientation of the openings of a
room is necessary to improve the calculations and to predict the
areas that receive natural light throughout the year, as well as
the quantity of this light, so that an analysis of possible activities
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 986 813 499.
E-mail addresses: susiminas@uvigo.es, sulaguela@gmail.com (S. Lagüela).
and comfort can be made regarding illuminance levels [13], and
also more personalized and energy-efficient lighting and lighting-
control systems can be designed toward the reduction of energy
consumption [14,15].
Given that the comfort of the occupants and users of the
buildings should be minimally affected during the survey, the infor-
mation needed for lightning analysis should be acquired in the most
limited amount of time possible, in such a way that also inspec-
tion costs are reduced. Thus, laser scanning devices are chosen for
the performance of data acquisition in the proposed methodology,
since they are providers of accurate three-dimensional geome-
try in a reduced amount of time and in a mostly automatic way
[16], requiring the interaction of the operator only for the intro-
duction of the start parameters, allowing in this way the operator
to simultaneously perform other inspection tasks. What is more,
laser scanning point clouds have been shown as the most adequate
source of information for the generation of as-built 3D models, or
as-built BIM (Building Information Models) when semantics and
descriptive data are included for a deeper and more complete
knowledge of the reality of the construction [17].
Building Information Models have taken advantage of the latest
developments in the Information Technology field and the appear-
ance of new data exchange models that allow communication
among different systems [18]. Among those models more common
in the building industry, the gbXML schema arises as the specific
tool for data interchange between design and energy analysis soft-
ware [19]. For this reason, the schema only supports a simplification
of the geometric data, while the introduction of sensor informa-
tion is carried out in a simplistic and straightforward way; as a
result, all the relevant information of the building needed for energy

0378-7788/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.02.064
 L. Díaz-Vilariño et al. / Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62
Fig. 1. Plan view of the area under study, where the 5 scan positions needed for the acquisition of the complete geometry are shown as E1–E5.
simulation is contained in a simple schema that can be directly
input in energy analysis software. This fact goes in contrast with
other schemas used in the building industry, such as IFC [20], which
does accept any shape of the building geometry and very detailed
information of each sensor element, containing more data but in a
more complex structure, thus being difficult to combine with most
energy software.
This article presents a context-based methodology for the auto-
matic generation of as-built BIM components able to be subjected
to spatio-temporal lighting analysis and directly compatible with
lighting analysis software, using data of the building as-is acquired
with a laser scanning device. It is organized as follows: Section 2
explains the working methodology for the automatic as-built 3D
model generation of interior rooms and their components using
the gbXML schema, through its application to a case of study cho-
sen by its representativeness of the reality of buildings, giving great
importance to natural lighting entrance elements, such as windows
and glass doors. Section 3 presents the results of the use of the
generated as-built 3D model for the analysis of daylighting. Sec-
tion 4 includes an analysis of the presented methodology, with its
main advantages and drawbacks, and finally, Section 5 contains the
conclusions reached after the performance of the present study.
2. As-built 3D modeling
Building geometric modeling is the process of representing the
3D shape of the constituting elements of a building. If a basic
approach is taken, only the walls, roof and floor are to be defined,
given that they determine the building geometry; with these data,
energy analysis can be performed on a basis on wall surfaces and
inner volumes. When the purpose of the model includes the gen-
eration of daylighting analysis, the geometry of those surfaces of
the building through which natural light can enter the building is
also required; these surfaces are mainly windows and glass doors.
In the presented methodology, geometric 3D models of build-
ings as-built/as-is are generated, including both main surfaces and
openings, from data acquired only with a laser scanning device.
In this work, the working methodology is presented through
its application to the interior of a large open room in an academic
building, with several windows and glass doors. This room has been
chosen as a case study for the application of the method due to
55
its complexity, both in geometry and in quantity of elements for
daylight entrance, which make it an adequate example for the ver-
ification of the proposed methodology, and the proof of its validity
for all kind of building and room types.
2.1. Data acquisition
The first step of the methodology is the acquisition of the data
needed for the representation of the geometry of the building. A ter-
restrial laser scanner, model Riegl LMS Z-390i was the instrument
chosen for this aim, due to its capacity of acquiring large amounts of
data in a limited length of time, with good geometric precision and
a wide range of working distances, as shown by its scanning rate
(up to 11,000 points per second), its accuracy (6 mm) and its work-
ing range (from 1 m to 400 m). This laser device presents a field of
view of 360◦ horizontally and 80◦ vertically, which implies missing
information from the immediate ceiling and floor on top and under
it. This fact, together with the complexity of the geometry and the
presence of several pieces of furniture such as desks and benches,
made it necessary to acquire data from 5 different positions in order
to obtain a complete 3D model, minimizing occlusions and missing
data, as can be seen in Fig. 1. The point clouds acquired from the
different scan positions are all referenced to the same coordinate
system thanks to the use of control points in the shape of reflec-
tive targets placed on areas viewed from at least two different scan
positions. In order to ensure the verticality of the model, the adjust-
ment of the verticality of the laser scanner was performed in the
reference scan position through the fine adjustment of the inner
electronic sensors of the laser.
The process of data acquisition was performed as follows for
each scan position: a first low-resolution scan (0.20◦ resolution
step) is performed of the whole field of view of the laser scanner,
in which the reflective targets viewed from the scan position are
recognized; then, all these targets are scanned with high resolution
(0.03–0.08◦ ), for their perfect identification and positioning; finally,
a scan with higher resolution is performed in order to guarantee a
number of points sufficient for the subsequent geometric studies
and holes recognition: the resolution of this last scan depends on
the geometry and the detail needed in the final product; in this case,
a 0.12◦ resolution proved to acquire a sufficient number of points
for the final as-built 3D model.
56 L. Díaz-Vilariño et al. / Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62
Fig. 2. Workflows for the modeling of surfaces and openings within a room.
2.2. Geometric modeling
Once all the scan positions are registered in the same coordi-
nate system through the calculation of the orientation parameters
based on the coordinates of the reflective targets in each of them,
processing continues with a geometric study aimed at the detec-
tion of the surfaces delimiting the room and the openings (in this
case, windows and glass doors through which natural light might
enter the building). This process is performed using Matlab® soft-
ware, using two different approaches for surfaces and openings, as
shown in Fig. 2, in which both workflows are schematized.
2.2.1. Surfaces detection
The first step is the detection of the surfaces delimiting the room
by defining the different walls, floor and ceilings. This geometric
study is based on the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), pre-
sented by [21], which takes into consideration the position of the
neighboring points to calculate the eigenvectors and their corre-
sponding eigenvalues of each point through the calculation of the
most probable fitting planes. According to this algorithm, the eigen-
vector associated to the smallest eigenvalue is the vector normal
Fig. 3. Point cloud segmentation in the different planes: (a) floor and ceilings, (b) outline walls and (c) interior walls.
to the surface in each point, since it is the direction vector of the
plane with the lowest probability of being the fitting plane [22].
Once the eigenvectors and eigenvalues are computed for all the
points, the different walls are detected with a Region Growing algo-
rithm in 3D, similar to the one presented by [23]. This algorithm
takes a point as a seed for a region, and introduces in the region
those neighboring points presenting the same normal vector; when
a point presents a different normal vector, it is considered as the
seed of a new region, and the growing procedure starts again. Once
all the surfaces have been identified, semantics are introduced in
the model, both in the form of a relationship (floor is lower than
ceiling (Fig. 3a)) or as a function of the orientation of their normal
vectors (Fig. 3b and c).
With this algorithm, 13 planes were detected for the accurate
representation of the outer geometry of the chosen room: 1 corre-
sponding to floor, 3 corresponding to the different heights of the
ceiling in the room, and 9 for defining all the walls. What is more,
4 planes were detected for defining the geometry of an inner space
corresponding to the lift (Fig. 3c).
2.2.2. Openings detection
In this paper, windows and glass doors are designated with the
general term “openings” due to the low density of points in their
positions compared to the density of points in the positions of the
walls, as can be seen in Fig. 4. For defining each opening, also the
coordinates of the four corner points are needed, but in this case
a different approach is taken: points are detected in the interface
wall-glass; and are then classified in the different lines delimiting
the opening; the intersection of lines results in the corner points
required for the definition of each opening in the final BIM.
For the identification of those points in the interface wall-glass,
also the results of the PCA are used: as a line and not a plane presents
an optimal fitting to each of these points and their neighborhood,
their first eigenvalue would be much higher than the second [22].
The lack of a value of literature for defining the ratio between the
first and the second eigenvalues for considering a point as belong-
ing to a border line, made necessary the performance of an study in
the openings under study; its results can be seen in Table 1. After
these study, the ratio between the first and the second eigenval-
ues (1 /2 ) chosen for the classification of a point as belonging to
a border line of a hole is 2.5, as it results in a sufficient number of
points for the definition of the lines.
In the chosen case study, 9 openings were identified, 6 corre-
sponding to windows, and 3 corresponding to glass exterior doors
(Fig. 5). Each one of these openings is segmented from the point
cloud and subjected to PCA for the identification of points in their
borders. Then, the points of each opening are classified according to
the different delimiting lines (Fig. 6a), and the intersection of these
lines results in the corner points required for their definition in the
gbXML schema (Fig. 6b).
2.2.3. Methodology validation
In order to assess the geometric quality of the as-built model
generated, the significant points defining each of the identified
 L. Díaz-Vilariño et al. / Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62 57

Fig. 4. Detail of the acquired point cloud, in which the lower density of points in the openings (red circle) is clearly noticeable, especially when compared with the density
of points in the walls (red square). (For interpretation of the references to color in figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of the article.)

Table 1
Results of the analysis of the ratios between the first and second eigenvalues of the points defining 3 of the existing openings in the case study. They show that the optimum
ratio is 2.5, which is the maximum ratio that gives the sufficient number of points for the definition of all the lines.

Ratio Holes 2-3 Hole 4 Holes 6-7

1 /2 = 1.5 8673 points 6080 points 5137 points

1 /2 = 2 4667 points 3452 points 3066 points

1 /2 = 2.5 2547 points 2205 points 1825 points

1 /2 = 3 1327 points 1721 points 1047 points

“openings” (that is, windows and glass doors) were measured accuracy varying from 0.5 to 2 mm depending on the working
with a total station Leica TCR1102. Total stations are instruments distance and the technical specifications of the instruments [25].
commonly used as references to test the validity of feature extrac- Therefore, an error modeling approach is carried out, aiming to
tion methodologies [24] because they have a high measurement describe how precise specific features can be from TLS data by

Fig. 5. Windows and doors identified as “openings” in the point cloud, which are subjected to further processing.
58 L. Díaz-Vilariño et al. / Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62

Fig. 6. (a) Points classified in lines in some of the identified openings; (b) resulting points in the corners that define these openings in the gbXML schema.

using the modeling strategy described above [26]. The quality of
the opening-planes extracted is compared with the results obtained
with the measurements with a total station in terms of surface areas
in Table 2.
Most of the resulting openings present a surface variability
regarding total station of 2.8–6.5%. In case of Opening 2 and
Opening 3a, the percentage is higher, of 14.5% and 34.3%, respec-
tively. The cause is on the quality of the input point cloud: during
data acquisition there were occlusions between those openings and
the TLS, which provoked either a presence of false positives or a
lack of points in the boundaries of the openings depending on the
situation of the object-occlusion.

Table 2 2.3. Data BIM-schematization

Surface area values resulting from carrying out the automatic feature extrac-
tion described above compared to the surface values obtained from total station
Since the purpose of the paper is the automatic generation
acquisition.
of a compact and semantically rich as-built 3D model, the set
Total station Modeling Superficial of obtained points should be structured so that, the geometry
(m2 ) methodology (m2 ) comparison (%)
information previously extracted is related with the semantic infor-
Opening 1 48.0612 45.4139 −5.5 mation that identifies each element of the as-built 3D model (Fig. 7).
Opening 2 7.5551 6.4580 −14.5* Furthermore, this structuring step is also used to organize all the
Opening 3a 6.2655 4.1145 −34.3*
Opening 3b 6.3517 6.0733 −4.4
semantic information of the room available such as materials, ther-
Opening 4a 10.8436 10.4292 −3.8 mal properties, etc., given that gbXML is conceived as a database
Opening 4b 10.8050 10.0990 −6.5 where describing information is linked with geometry.
Opening 5 5.3486 5.0386 −5.8 Once the geometric and the semantic information are organized,
Opening 6 3.6010 3.4439 −4.4
it is used to generate a gbXML schema available to be directly
Opening 7 2.1388 2.1989 2.8
imported in lighting analysis tools [19].
 L. Díaz-Vilariño et al. / Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62
CORNER POINTS
WALLS CEILINGS
Fig. 7. The corner points extracted are organized in groups defining each building element.
All the geometric information is confined in the “Campus” ele-
ment (Fig. 8). The global position of the interior room is determined
in the child-element “Location” by defining data such as Latitude,
Longitude and Elevation. Furthermore, the orientation from North
is also described by the child-element “CADModelAzimuth”.
On the other hand, “Building” is an essential element because
it is used to represent the different spaces of the buildings that
are usually related with thermal zones [27]. While the child-
node “BuildingStorey” establishes the levels in a building, “Space”
describes the volumes enclosed by surfaces. Both elements are
linked to each other through codes included as attributes; if a
space is placed in a “BuildingStorey” with a code “bldg-stry-1”, the
corresponding “Space” is characterized with the attribute “build-
ingStoreyIdRef = bldg-stry-1 . The second child “ShellGeometry”
composed by a collection of faces that make up a closed shell is
used to define the geometry of its corresponding space.
Finally, each surface is represented by other global child “Sur-
face, described by a set of attributes providing a semantic character
to the model such as “id” or “surfaceType” (for example: “Exte-
riorWall”, “Roof”, “Shade” and “RaisedFloor”). Every “Surface”
element has two geometric representations: “PlanarGeometry” and
“RectangularGeometry”. They both carry the same information in
relation to the first point that bounds the surface with the purpose
of double-checking whether the translation of geometry from the
modeling software is correct or not [18]. In addition “Openings” are
also a child node of “Surfaces” and their definition is analog to that
of surfaces.
Location
Latitude
Longitude
Elevation
CADModelAzimuth
Fig. 8. The schema is organized according to a “child-parent” structure. When elements of different parents should be related, such as “Building” and “Surface”, they are
linked to each other through their id.
59
Points are
recognized
FLOORS OPENINGS
All the geometric information is defined at a minimum level by
four “CartesianPoint” elements which represent the characteristic
points that bound one surface, as well as every “CartesianPoint”
is described by the three dimensional representation given by its
three coordinates (x, y, z). In this case of study, the complex geom-
etry of the project implies the subdivision of the roof and floor in
different parts in order to guarantee that the surfaces are delimited
by four points (Fig. 9).
The result is an as-built 3D model composed by 3 Spaces, 35
Surfaces and 10 Openings, provided with semantic information
that allows the unequivocal identification of each element and the
knowledge of the relationships between them.
The gbXML schema can be extended to include other informa-
tion in order to make possible the performance of other energy
analysis, such as materials, lighting or weather data.
3. Daylighting analysis
The as-built 3D models automatically generated in previous
steps can be directly imported in energy analysis tools in order to
be subjected to daylighting analysis. As the gbXML schema includes
both geometry and location and orientation of the building in its
real-state, analyses are made for the given conditions: 42◦ Latitude,
8◦ Longitude, and 30◦ from North.
In Fig. 10, the model is imported in Ecotect© and a daylighting
performance is carried out to globally visualize which areas have
high natural illuminance levels, whereas Fig. 11 shows the results
CAMPUS
Building Surface
BuildingStorey PlanarGeometry
Space RectangularGeometry
ShellGeometry Openings
PlanarGeometry
RectangularGeometry
60 L. Díaz-Vilariño et al. / Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62
Fig. 9. The ceiling of the project is divided in eight ceilings of four “CartesianPoints”
according to the schema specifications.
obtained in Radiance© from an interior point-of-view analysis,
where lightning simulation is also performed using ray-tracing,
similar as in [15].
In the first case, the grid panel is fitted to the interior of
the building and positioned just above the floor, and different
Fig. 10. The room generated is directly imported in Ecotect©. As it is a semantic model, the software recognizes each element. In the figure on the left, windows are highlighted
and each space is also represented by a different color: the hall is violet, the lift goes in green and the post of the caretaker appears in blue. (For interpretation of the references
to color in figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of the article.)
assumptions have been taken into account: only natural light cal-
culated from [28], an average window cleanness of 90. The date
and hour chosen for the analysis is 1st of June of 2012 at 12.00 a.m.,
given that it was the day where data acquisition was performed.
As it can be seen in Fig. 10, the area of the entrance presents a high
level of natural illuminance, as does the beginning of the corridor.
However, a working place as the post of the caretaker shows a very
low level of natural illuminance, showing up the need of a strong
source of artificial light. What is more, the area of the lift does also
not receive a good level of natural light, making clear the need for
the artificial light system there.
In the second case, Ecotect© was also necessary in order to input
the 3D geometry of the building and its orientation, and define view
cameras for simulation in Radiance©. The rendered image obtained
from Radiance© (Fig. 11) allows the quantitative measurement of
the natural illumination of each pixel from a 3D point of view.
The results obtained go in coherence with the results shown in
Fig. 10 from Ecotect©, where the area behind the lift also presents
a low level of natural illumination, in contrast with the high level
of illumination in the beginning of the corridor (at the left of the
Fig. 11).
4. Discussion
Nowadays the fact of performing lighting analysis to an existing
building is not of extended use [29]. On the one hand, the infor-
mation of the reality of the building sometimes differs from the
designed one and the documentation is often not available. On the
other hand, the 3D model is usually manually generated so that it is
a time-consuming process and the final result can be substantially
different from the reality of the building as-is.
The use of laser-scanning devices for data acquisition allows the
capture of geometric reality in a quick and accurate process. The
methodology presented in this paper automates the generation of
3D models able to be subjected to lighting analysis so that the time
required is reduced. The process only needs the user interaction for
the introduction of semantics (association of regions with walls);
as a result, the level of automation is high regarding the extraction
of geometric features, but is not complete for the introduction of
semantics and logics.
The quality of the input point cloud is also a key point because it
affects the quality of the 3D models. Among others, occlusions are
especially important in indoor environments provoking a lack of
 L. Díaz-Vilariño et al. / Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62 61

Fig. 11. The upper image corresponds to the colored point cloud acquired with TLS from case of study. The other pictures are the result of analyzing the as-built 3D model
automatically generated in Radiance©: the date considered is First of June and the Site Location is taken from the gbXML schema.

Fig. 12. The Opening 3a (right) is generated with a lower surface in relation to reality. The cause is the presence of an obstacle during data acquisition (an interior plant).

points. In the case of study presented in this paper, data acquisition
was performed in an unmodified environment, so that occlusions
due to interior plants provoked the lack of points in the boundary
of the Opening 2 and Opening 3a, reducing the surface considered
as a hole (Fig. 12). In order to avoid this inaccuracy, attention must
be paid during acquisition planning, and the instrument should be
positioned at different points of view, avoiding the interference of
elements such as plants or furniture during the acquisition process.
Once the complete 3D model is generated in gbXML format,
lighting simulation can be performed for any time and any date
until works are performed or changes are made to the geometry
of the building, allowing a spatio-temporal analysis of the lighting
needs.
5. Conclusions
This paper presents a procedure to automatically generate
semantically rich as-built 3D models able to be subjected to light-
ing analysis. The information automatically obtained from laser
scanning point clouds is subjected to a context-based methodology
in order to obtain a simplification of the geometry that makes it
adequate and compatible with the requirements of lighting anal-
ysis software. Furthermore, the geometric information obtained is
included in a gbXML schema where semantic information is added
maximizing and extending the use of this kind of 3D models.
The real geometry of the building elements rather than their
design is used, allowing the performance of more accurate daylight-
ing analysis. What is more, their orientation and location enable
a spatio-temporal study of the behavior of light within the inte-
rior room along the day and throughout the year. Therefore, the
possibility of studying the real condition of an existing building
makes possible to improve the diagnosis of a possible process of
rehabilitation.
Given that the procedure is explained through its application to
a case study, further work will be focus on its validation in other
geometries and its use with other final purposes such as quantifi-
cation of energy losses and comfort analysis.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to give thanks to Consellería de Economía
e Industria (Xunta de Galicia) and Ministerio de Educación.
62 L. Díaz-Vilariño et al. / Energy and Buildings 68 (2014) 54–62
Cultura y Deporte (Gobierno de España) for the financial support
given through human resources programs (FPU AP2009-1144, FPU
AP2010-2969) and projects (IDI-20101770 and IN841C2012-260).
All the programs are cofinanced by the Fondo Europeo para el
Desarrollo Regional (FEDER).
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