Experiment No.

Aim: Study of different Network components

Theory:
When two or more than two computers are connected with each other over a shared
network medium to exchange data or to communicate is called as a Computer Network.
All the computers that constitute a particular network can also use resources of other
computers are connected over a common network, users can share files and peripherals
like printers, CD-ROM drives, tape backup drives etc.

Components of Computer Network

 Computers are connected in a Client-Server model.
 A common medium through which computers are interconnected.
 Networking Interface Card’s (NIC).
 Network Operating system software.

1. Components of Computer Network

Before we understand the way a network is formed and data is being transmitted it is
important to know various components that constitute a computer network so as to ensure
PC Care and safety so let’s go over those components.

1.1. Client
Any computer that is the part of a common network other than the Server is called as
client. The division is based on the storage capacity and responsibility of the computer.
For example a Server has a large storage area and its responsibilities are pretty different
than client computers.

1.2. Server
A server is just like any other computer of the network however it can be
distinguished with its large storage capacity and the role that is assigned to it. This is the

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administrator that controls functioning of other computers and responsible for the
division of labor among computers in a shared network.
1.3. Media
The physical device through which various components of a computer network are
connected to each other is called as the Media it may include wire, cable or any other
thing. However, these days with advances in technology wireless communication
between various components of a computer is also possible.

1.4. Network Interface Card (NIC)

Network Interface card is also known as Network Adaptor. The Network Interface
Card (NIC) is a circuit board that regulates exchange of data between the network and
computers or in other words we can say that it is necessary for receiving and sending data
between the network and the computers. Each PC comes up with an inbuilt slot where
NIC is plugged in which itself remain connected with a cable or wire.

1.5. Protocols
Generally any set of rules is a Protocol. A Network Protocol is usually an agreed-
upon or standardized set of rules used for transmitting data and/or establishing
communication between them. Just as two people need to have a common language
between them to exchange their views, so computers need to have a common language so
as to share information and the Protocol is something that offers that platform.

1.5.1. Some of the common Computer Protocols are given below

 HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol

 TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
 FTP – File Transfer Protocol
 POP – Post Office Protocol
 IMAP – Internet Message Access Protocol
 SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 UDP - User Datagram Protocol

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1.6. Resources
Anything that is available to a computer (or client) on a particular computer network
is called as Resource. It may include things like Printers, Fax Devices and other network
devices.

1.7. Users
Any individual that uses client computers in a particular computer network is called
as User.

2. Cables
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network
device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs.
In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a
variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's
topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable
and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a
successful network.
The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related
topics.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Cable Installation Guides
 Wireless LANs

2.1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school
networks.

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 Fig. 1.1 Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed
cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a
different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and
other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission
rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry
Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP
and rated six categories of wire (additional categories are emerging).

2.1.1. Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Table 1.1 UTP categories

Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
2 4 Mbps Local Talk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet
5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

2.1.2. Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector.
This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A
slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack,

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implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry.
This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

Fig. 1.2 RJ-45 connector

2.2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and
electrical frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent
lights, etc.). If you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or
if you must place cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to
the electrical current in the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded
cables can also help to extend the maximum distance of the cables.
Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:
1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.
2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of
wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).

2.3. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal
shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other
computers.

Fig. 1.3 Coaxial cable

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 Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal
interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices
than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin
coaxial. Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the
specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the
approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum
segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable has been popular in school networks,
especially linear bus networks.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications
for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment
length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that
helps keep moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great
choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick
coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

2.3.1. Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayonet-Neill-
Concelman (BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of adapters are available for
BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors
on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your
network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto the cable.

Fig. 1.4 BNC connector

2.4. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals
eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain
environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the
standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of

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moisture and lighting. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much
longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry
information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities
to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber
optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and
modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet
signals. The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers (see fig 1.5). A
plastic coating then cushions the fiber center, and kevlar fibers help to strengthen the
cables and prevent breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of teflon or PVC.

Fig. 1.5 Fiber optic cable

There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and multimode.
Multimode cable has a larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at
high speeds. Single mode can provide more distance, but it is more expensive.

Table 1.2 Cable specifications and types

Specification Cable Type
10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
10Base2 Thin Coaxial
10Base5 Thick Coaxial
100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
100BaseFX Fiber Optic
100BaseBX Single mode Fiber
100BaseSX Multimode Fiber
1000BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
1000BaseFX Fiber Optic
1000BaseBX Single mode Fiber
1000BaseSX Multimode Fiber

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3. Networking Hardware
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other
equipment needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network.

3.1. Workstations
Computers that humans use are broadly categorized as workstations. A typical
workstation is a computer that is configured with a network interface card, networking
software, and the appropriate cables. Workstations do not necessarily need large storage
hard drives, because files can be saved on the file server. Almost any computer can serve
as a network workstation.
Laptops and other mobile devices are becoming more and more common. These
devices typically have modest internal storage, but enough power to serve as a
workstation for users on the go. These machines nearly always have a wireless adapter to
allow quick network connections without cumbersome cabling. In a school environment
with good wireless coverage, a mobile device user can move about the campus freely,
and remain continuously connected to the network.

Fig. 1.6 Networking Hardware

3.2. Network Interface Cards

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the
network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are internal, and they are included in
the purchase of most computers. Network interface cards are a major factor in

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determining the speed and performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest
network card available for the type of workstation you are using.
The most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards and wireless
adapters.
3.2.1. Ethernet Cards

Ethernet cards are usually included with a computer, although additional Ethernet
cards can be purchased and installed on most computers,. Ethernet cards can contain
connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both) (See fig. 7). If it is designed
for coaxial cable, the connection will be BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will
have a RJ-45 connection. Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can
be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this
method is used there is always an external transceiver attached to the workstation. Only
the RJ-45 connector is found on most modern Ethernet cards (See the Cabling section for
more information on connectors.)

Fig. 1.7 Ethernet card

3.2.2. Wireless Adapters

Wireless adapters are found in most portable devices, such as laptops, smart phones,
and tablet devices. External wireless adapters can be purchased and installed on most
computers having an open USB (Universal Serial Bus) port, or unused expansion slot.

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3.3. Switches
An Ethernet switch is a device that provides a central connection point for cables
from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run
from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active, that is they
electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another. The predecessor of
the switch was the hub, which broadcasted all inbound packets out all ports of the device,
creating huge amounts of unnecessary network traffic. Switches are:

 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports

 Often used in a star or tree topology
 Available as "managed" or "unmanaged", with the later less expensive, but
adequate for smaller networks
 direct replacements for hubs, immediately reducing network traffic in most
networks
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store network servers,
bridges, or routers.

Fig. 1.8 Switch (D-Link DGS-1024D)

3.4. Repeaters
Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost
the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it
receives and rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be
incorporated into a concentrator. They are used when the total length of your network
cable exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being used.

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 Fig. 1.9 Repeater

A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star
topology with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded twisted-
pair cable is 100 meters. The most common configuration is for each workstation to be
connected by twisted-pair cable to a multi-port active concentrator. The concentrator
amplifies all the signals that pass through it allowing for the total length of cable on the
network to exceed the 100 meter limit.

Advantages
 Makes it easy to expand a network over a large distance.
 Connection between various types of media [e.g. fiber optic, UTF, coaxial cable]
is possible.

Disadvantages
 Traffic cannot be filtered to ease congestion.
 A repeater cannot work across multiple network architectures.

3.5. Bridges
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller,
more efficient networks. If you are adding to an older wiring scheme and want the new
network to be up-to-date, a bridge can connect the two.

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 Fig 1.10 Bridge

A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can
pass packets of information to the correct location. Most bridges can "listen" to the
network and automatically figure out the address of each computer on both sides of the
bridge. The bridge can inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other
side of the network.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the
network. You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during
rush hour. It keeps information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not
allow unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can be used to connect different types of
cabling, or physical topologies. They must, however, be used between networks with the
same protocol.

Fig. 1.11 Typical Router

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 Routers provide connectivity inside enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet,
and within an Internet Service Provider (ISP). One of the largest routers e.g. the Cisco
CRS-1 or Juniper T1600 interconnects internet Service Providers (ISPs), they are used
within ISPs, or may be used in very large enterprise networks. The smallest routers
provide connectivity for small and home offices. Different types of routers are stated as;

3.6.1. Edge Router

This type of router are placed at the edge of the ISP network, they are normally
configured to external protocol like BGP (Border gateway protocol) to another BGP of
other ISP or large organization.

3.6.2. Subscriber Edge Router

This type of router belongs to an end user organization. It’s configured to broadcast
External BGP to its provider.

3.6.3. Inter-provider Border Router

This type of router is for Interconnecting ISPs, this is a BGP speaking router that
maintains BGP sessions with other BGP speaking routers in other providers' ASes.

3.6.4. Core Router

A router that resides within the middle or backbone of the LAN network rather than
at its periphery. In some instances, a core router provides a step-down backbone,
interconnecting the distribution routers from multiple building of a campus (LAN), or
Large enterprise Location (WAN). They tend to be optimized for a high bandwidth.

3.6.5. Wired and Wireless Routers

Home and small office networking is becoming popular by day by the use of IP wired
and wireless router. Wired and wireless router is able to maintain routing and
configuration information in their routing table. They also provide the service of filtering
traffic of incoming and outgoing packets based on IP addresses.

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3.7. Modem
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier
signal to encode digital information and demodulates the signal to decode the transmitted
information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to
reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used with any means of transmitting
analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. A common type of modem is one that
turns the digital data of a computer into modulated electrical signal for transmission over
telephone lines and demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the
digital data.
Traditional modems used on dialup networks convert data between the analog form
used on telephone lines and the digital form used on computers.
Broadband modems that are part of high-speed Internet services use more advanced
signaling techniques to achieve dramatically higher network speeds than traditional
modems. Broadband modems are sometimes called "digital modems" and those used for
traditional dial-up networking, "analog modems." Cellular modems are a type of digital
modem that establishes Internet connectivity between a mobile device and a cell phone
network.
Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit
of time, usually expressed in bits per second (bit/s or bps), or bytes per second (B/s).
Modems can also be classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud unit
denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new
signal.

Fig 1.12 Basic modem Block diagram

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3.8. Gateways
In telecommunications, the term gateway has the following meaning:
 Gateway is a router or a proxy server that routes between networks.
 Gateway Rule - Gateway should belong to same subnet to which your PC belongs.
 In a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing with
another network that uses different protocols.

Fig 1.13 Gateway mode

A gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators, impedance matching

devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators as necessary to provide
system interoperability. It also requires the establishment of mutually acceptable
administrative procedures between both networks. A protocol translation/mapping
gateway interconnects networks with different network protocol technologies by
performing the required protocol conversions. Gateway connects LAN with Internet. It
provides security to the network. By using gateways, incoming/outgoing traffic can be
monitored for any malicious activity within the network which can be harmful to network
integrity.

3.9. Firewalls
Firewalls are an essential part of a network’s design. A firewall is a networking
device, either hardware or software based, that controls access to your organization’s
network. This controlled access is designed to protect data and resources from outside

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threat. To do this, firewalls are typically placed at entry/exit points of a network. For
example, a firewall might be placed between an internal network and the Internet. After
the firewall is in place, it can control access in and out of that point. Although firewalls
typically protect internal networks from public networks, they are also used to control
access between specific network segments within a network. As mentioned, firewalls can
be implemented through software or through a dedicated hardware device. Organizations
implement software firewalls through network operating systems (NOS) such as
Linux/Unix, Windows servers, and Mac OS servers. The firewall is configured on the
server to allow or permit certain types of network traffic. In small offices and for regular
home use, a firewall is commonly installed on the local system and configured to control
traffic. Many third-party firewalls are available. Hardware firewalls are used in networks
of all sizes today. Hardware firewalls are often dedicated network devices and can be
implemented with very little configuration and protect all system behind it from outside
sources. Hardware firewalls are readily available and often combined with other devices
today. For example, many broadband routers and wireless access points have firewall
functionality built in. In such a case, the router or WAP may have a number of ports
available to plug systems into.

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