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1 Open Laboratory Guide……………………………………………………... 5
2 FORM 5……………………………………………………………………….. 9
3
4
Open Laboratory Guide
(Based on the Physics Department’s Open Laboratory Guidelines)
In the open laboratory system, you need not do laboratory activities during
the regular schedule of the laboratory section you are enrolled in. Instead,
sessions for specific laboratory activities will be scheduled, and you are given the
freedom to choose the schedule to perform the activities indicated in your
syllabus.
Along with the freedom to do the laboratory activities on your preferred
session, comes the responsibility for you to see to it that you complete all course
requirements. Contingencies like typhoons, sickness or traffic problems will no
longer be a concern, as you can choose to “make up” for your missed activity
simply by signing up for another session. You are expected to prepare before
coming to class to optimize the use of laboratory hours.
1.0 Subjects
The following courses will follow the Open Laboratory system:
LBYPH11, LBYPHY1 (PHYLAB1, PYENLA1 and PYCOLA1), LBYPHY12,
LBYPHY2 (PHYLAB2, PYENLA2 and PYCOLA2), LBYPHYA (INTPYLA),
LBYPHYD (BIOPLA1), LBYPHYE (BIOPLA2), PYMATLA, BIOPLAB (LBYPHYC)
Requirements for each course are stated in the course syllabi.
2.0 Activities and Schedule
You will perform around 10 laboratory activities that you may choose from
a set of 12 to 15 activities. Some activities are however compulsory and these
are indicated in your course syllabi. In addition, you will be required to pass the
skill-building activities before you are allowed to proceed with the required
activities and elective activities. Refer to your course syllabus for the list of skill-
building, required and elective activities.
For simplicity, all open lab sessions will be scheduled on the designated
time and room of classes involved in the open lab system.
3.0 Procedures
3.1. Fill up the Open Laboratory Student Record Form (Form 5).
The Form 5 is included in the Laboratory Manual.
3.2. Sign up for an open laboratory session.
The schedule for each activity will be posted on the bulletin board outside
the Physics Supply room (J409). If you want to perform one of the activities,
you must sign up for a specific session. The sign-up sheets are also
stationed at J409. You have the first priority to register for all the
activities/sessions that are assigned on your original class schedule (i.e. the
5
schedule indicated in your EAF). However, you must sign up at least 7 days
before the scheduled activity otherwise, your slot will be considered open to
other students. If you wish to attend an activity outside your original class
schedule, the earliest that you may register for an activity is 6 days before
the scheduled activity/session.
The number of activities that you may perform in one week is completely
upon your discretion. You must however complete the minimum
requirement for the course by the end of the 12th week. You will perform the
laboratory activities in groups of two or three and you may choose your own
group mates. If you wish to maintain your group throughout the course, you
and your group mates have to sign up for the same set of sessions.
If you fail to register, or were closed out for a particular session, you may fall
in line before the start of the session and will be considered a walk-in
student. You will be accommodated after the initial grouping if some slots
remain, and upon the discretion of the session faculty.
3.3. Read the write-up for the activity in the Laboratory Manual and answer
the guide questions.
3.4. Show up for the session on time.
You are expected to be punctual. You will be deemed to have forfeited your
slot after the session faculty has assigned the initial groupings. You must
bring the following to class:
• Laboratory manual
• Photocopy of the guide questions
• Calculator, pen and paper
• Your Form 5 and student ID
If you come to class unprepared, you will be asked to leave the room and
forfeit your slot.
After setting up the apparatus, you must have the set-up checked by the
session faculty before proceeding.
6
After performing the experiment, processing the data and answering the
guide questions, the group must submit the worksheet (Data Sheet, graphs,
computation sheets, and answers to guide questions) to the session faculty,
who shall determine the reasonableness of your results.
If your work is unsatisfactory, you will be asked to repeat the activity. The
session faculty will grade only satisfactory worksheets.
A session lasts exactly three hours (including time allotted for assessing
your work). If you are unable to finish the experiment and have your report
checked, you have to sign up for another session (catch-up session) to
complete or repeat the work.
Ask the session faculty to fill up the appropriate cells in your Form 5. Keep
the Form 5 until the end of the course.
And your group feels that you have enough time to perform another activity,
you may enter another session as walk-in students provided that
4.1 You must first pass the Skill Building Activity/ies before you will be
allowed to take the Skills Lab quiz.
4.2 Register/sign-up for the quiz session. Sign-up sheets are placed at
J409.
4.3 Bring your Form 5, pen, paper, graphing paper, calculator and ID to
the quiz session.
4.4 After the session faculty finishes checking your paper, ask him/her to
record your score on your Form 5.
Quiz for laboratory activities may be taken only once. Please refer to your
course syllabus for the list of laboratory activities. Ask your session faculty to
record you score for the pre-lab quiz on your Form 5.
7
8
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
Name:___________________________________________________________
9
10
EXPERIMENT NO. Skills Lab 1
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
OBJECTIVES:
THEORY:
For example in Figure 1 the length of the pencil using ruler B is between
the 10 cm and the 20mm mark. It is certain that the length of the pencil is greater
than 10mm and less than 20 mm. However, a portion of the length of the ruler is
still unaccounted for. Thus, the observer has to estimate the value, say to around
18 mm. the last digit, which is 8, is uncertain. On the other hand, using ruler A,
the reading may be 18.3 mm where the last digit 3 is an estimate. The place
value of the estimate reflects the accuracy of the instrument. Ruler A has an
accuracy of up to the tenth place of a millimeter (mm), whereas ruler B has an
accuracy of just up to the unit’s place of a millimeter (mm).
11
Ruler A (mm)
18.3 mm
Ruler B (mm)
18 mm
Significant Figures
The figures that can be obtained directly the measuring instrument
followed by the first estimated figure of the measurement are called significant
figures. Although an estimate figure is used, this figure is still significant because
it gives meaningful information (although uncertain) about the measured object.
One and only one estimated or doubtful figure is retained and regarded as
significant in reading a physical measurement.
1. Values which are either exact numbers or numbers with perfect certainty
contain an infinite number of significant figures.
12
books, 50 students, etc. also can contain an infinite number of significant
figures.
4. Zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are
significant.
5. Zeroes to the left of an expressed decimal point and to the right of a non-zero
digit are significant.
6. Zeroes to the right of the decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are
not significant (for values without non-zero digits to the left of a decimal point).
The zeros are just used to show the place-value of the non-zero digits.
7. Zeroes to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal
point are not significant.
13
argument (before the power of 10). To illustrate, the examples in rule 6 and rule 7
are presented below in scientific notation, with the number of significant figures
indicated.
! ! "
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a. 350,892 351,000
b. 86,524 86,500
c. 7.514 7.51
14
2. Additions and Subtractions
Examples:
)
a. 5.852 m *
+ 3.25 m
+ 38.6 m _ +
47.702 m 47.7 m
) *
, -
b. 809 kg
+ 273.2 kg
+ 75.699 kg +
1157.899 kg 1160 kg , -
Examples:
15
4. Square Roots and Trigonometric Functions
Round off the final answer such that it has the same number of significant
figures as the measure value
Examples:
The main scale has 25 main divisions etched on the sleeve or barrel,
which is located along the trunk of the micrometer caliper. The distance between
the lines is 1.0 mm. thus the maximum reading possible is 25 mm. The lines just
below the main divisions divide the upper lines such that the distance between
an upper line and an adjacent lower line is 0.5 mm.
16
2. Place the body to be measured between the anvil and spindle. Rotate the
thimble until the object is gripped gently between the two jaws of the caliper.
Turn the ratchet slowly until it clicks several times. This prevents an error due
to varying degrees of tightness of the jaws.
3. Read the main scale and the circular scale. Refer to the examples below.
Example #1:
Example #2:
Example #3:
17
The Vernier Caliper
Inside calipers
Main scale
Depth gauge
vernier scale
Outside calipers
6 /
The vernier caliper consists of a fixed part with a main engraved scale and
a movable jaw with an engraved vernier scale. The main scale is calibrated in
inches on the upper part and millimeters on the lower part. The lower calibration
has a maximum of 200 divisions with each division equal to one mm. The vernier
scale usually has 10 major divisions. The least count of the caliper is the smallest
value that can be read directly from a vernier scale. For example if the least
count indicated on the caliper is 0.05 mm and its vernier scale has 20 divisions,
each division corresponds to a 0.05 mm. This means that the vernier scale
divides one division on the main scale into 20 subdivisions. When the jaws are
closed the zero line or index of the vernier scale coincides with the zero line on
the main scale. When the jaws are opened, the fraction of the main scale division
that the vernier scale has moved is determined by noting which vernier divisions
coincides with a main scale division.
The vernier caliper measures lengths, outer and inner diameters, and
internal depths with the use of its outside jaws or calipers, inner calipers, and
depth gauge respectively. To measure the width of a small rectangular block,
open the movable jaw and place between the outside jaws the block to be
measured. Close the jaws on the object and do the following steps to get the
reading:
1. Observe where the zero line or index of the vernier scale falls on the main
scale. For example, Fig. 4 shows the zero line of vernier scale just after the
21 mm mark of the main scale. Thus the main scale reading is 21mm.
2. Note the line on the vernier scale that coincides on the main scale. In Fig.4,
the vernier division marked “1” coincides exactly with a line on the main scale.
18
This division is the second from the zero line. If the least count of the vernier
is 0.05 mm, this means that two divisions correspond to 0.05 mm x 2, which is
equal to 0.1 mm. So the scale marked “1” in the vernier coinciding with the
main scale corresponds to a 0.1 mm reading.
3. Obtain the final reading by adding the main scale reading obtained in number
1 and vernier scale reading in number 2. That is:
REFERENCES
APPARATUS/MATERIALS:
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the length (L), width (W), and thickness (T) of the rectangular block
sing a ruler.
2. Calculate the volume (V) of the block by multiplying the length, width and
height using the rules of significant figures for multiplication. (Volume of a
rectangular block = L x W x H)
3. Repeat steps 1 & 2 using a vernier caliper. Tabulate the results.
19
B. Volume and Surface Area of a Coin
1. Measure the diameter (D), and the thickness or height (H) of a coin using a
ruler.
2. Calculate the volume (V) and the area (A) of the coin using the rules of
significant figures for multiplication. (Surface area (A) = πr2; Volume of a
cylinder = πr2 H where r is the radius of the cylinder.)
3. Repeat steps 1 & 2 using a vernier caliper and a micrometer caliper. Tabulate
the results.
1. Measure the thickness (T) of three identical DLSU ID cards using a vernier
caliper. Divide the reading by three to get the thickness of one ID card.
2. Repeat the above procedure using a micrometer caliper. Tabulate the results.
3. Measure the length (L), and width (W) of an ID card using a ruler.
4. Calculate the perimeter of the card by adding twice the length and twice the
width using the rules of significant figures for multiplication (Perimeter of a
rectangular ID card = 2L + 2W)
20
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! " # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
$ $ # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
DATA SHEET:
6 /
6 /
. /
) - ) -
* *8 *8 9
% & % & % &
% & % &
6 /
. / : : :
:; 3 ! $ 5 2
5 < 3 233 = 2 5
2 3
SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
21
QUESTIONS:
a. 4.0659 cm x 3.81 cm =
b. 378.2 m – 56 m =
22
EXPERIMENT NO. Skills Lab 2
EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS
OBJECTIVES:
Identify the types of experimental errors and its sources, and explain how
these errors can be reduced.
Interpret data with the use of statistical methods of dealing with errors.
THEORY:
1. Systematic Errors
A systematic error is one that always produces an error of the same sign,
e.g., one that would make all observations too low. Systematic errors may be due
to personal, instrumental or external factors.
Personal errors may arise from a personal bias of the observer in reading
an instrument, in recording an observation, or his particular method of taking
data, as well as mistakes in mathematical calculations. Some specific examples
include: (1) Having a bias for a particular measurement. (e.g. favoring the first
measurement obtained, being prejudiced in favor of the smartest member of the
group or consciously taking the lowest reading, trying to fit the measurements to
some preconceived idea.) (2) Taking incorrect readings form measuring
instruments caused by not looking at the scale markers at a perpendicular angle.
This is also called a parallax error. For instance, the position of the water level in
a graduated cylinder may appear different if viewed from above or below a line of
sight perpendicular to the scale. (3) Not following the rules on significant figures.
(4) Human reaction time when instantaneous measurements are necessary.
23
(b) External Errors
2. Random Errors
A random error is one in which positive and negative errors are equally
probably. Random or erratic errors appear as variations due to a large number of
unpredictable conditions and other unknown factors each of which contributes to
a total error. These unknown factors or unpredictable variations in experimental
situations are usually beyond the control of the observer. The unpredictable
fluctuations in temperature or line voltage, and the mechanical vibrations of the
experimental set-up are examples of these contributing factors.
There are two major classes of descriptive measures. One class measures
the central tendency or location, and the other class measures the dispersion or
variability among the observed values.
24
Definition of terms
2. Deviation (d)
d i = xi – x
The absolute value of the deviation di which is equal to di = xi
= x is just the value of di without taking into account its algebraic sign.
4. Variance (σ2)
25
5. Standard Deviation (σ)
6. Numerical Error
7. Percentage Error
8. Percentage Difference
26
If there are only two observations (e.g., x1 and x2) to compare, the
percentage difference is given as:
> / 5 4 - ; 4
MATERIALS:
PROCEDURE:
1. Place a bull’s eye level on the lip of the ramp-down and level the ramp.
Drop a plumb line from the lip of the ramp down to the floor, and mark the
position where the tip of the plumb line touches the floor as O. This is the
reference point for all horizontal distance measurements.
2. Place the metal ball at the highest position and release from rest. Observe
where it will land and mark this as C. This gives you an idea of the
approximate range of the metal ball. Tape a piece of bond paper on the
approximate range on the table and place a carbon paper face down on
top of the paper.
3. Measure the height h, the vertical distance y, and the horizontal distance x
as shown in Figure 1.
4. Starting from rest at the highest position, release the metal ball ten times.
27
5. Measure the distances (xn) of each of the markings made by the meal ball
as it drops on the carbon paper and bond paper from the starting point
marked in #1. Record these distances as x1, x2, x3, … x10.
6. Repeats steps 4 & 5 for another 10 trials using a new bond paper, and still
another for another 10 trials.
Consider the ball shown in the diagram. If the ball is released from rest at
point A, its potential energy (U) is converted to kinetic energy (K). The potential
energy can be transformed to kinetic energy and vice versa but in the process of
transformation the total mechanical energy (ME) of the system remains constant
(neglecting friction). It can be stated that the sum of the initial potential energy
and initial kinetic energy is equal to the sum of the final potential energy and final
kinetic energy. In equation form:
The ball is initially at rest at point A. The kinetic energy is zero (KA = 0)
since it is at rest and the potential energy is UA = mgh where m is the mass of the
ball, g is acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2), and h is the height of the ball
relative to the reference level (point B). At point B, the potential energy is zero
28
(UB = 0) and the kinetic energy is KB = ½ mv2 where K is the kinetic energy of the
bob, m is the mass of the bob, and v is the speed of the bob at point B.
MEinitial = MEfinal
UA + KA = UB + KB
___
(Equation 2) mgh + 0 = 0 + 1 mv2 v = √2gh
2
Once the ball is at point B, it now moves with a velocity, which is almost
horizontal. From point B to point C, the motion of the bob is now similar to that of
a projectile. At point B, the velocity has zero vertical components and its
horizontal component is given by:
(Equation 3) v=x x = vt
t
where x is the horizontal distance and t is the time of fall from point B to point C.
To find the time t, consider the vertical component of the motion. Let y be the
height of the bob from point O to point B.
(Equation 4) y = 1 gt2 t=
2
___
(Equation 5) x = 2√hy
29
With the additional rotation term for kinetic energy, equation (2) becomes:
2 2 5 R
(Equation 6)
(Equation 7)
REFERENCES
30
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! " # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
$ $ # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
DATA SHEET
8 5 % &
)
5 5
"
"
"
"
= ________
31
= ________
√
= ________ _____%
x ± σ = ______________cm
QUESTIONS:
3. An experiment was carried out to determine the specific heat of water under
standard conditions. If the experiment arrived at a value of 1.1 cal/gm-oC and
the standard value under normal conditions is 1.0 cal/gm-oC, what expression
should be used to compare the two, percentage error or percentage
difference? Show the computation.
32
EXPERIMENT NO. Skills Lab 3
GRAPHS & EQUATIONS
OBJECTIVES:
THEORY:
The specific equation relating the two variables of the graph can only be
formulated when the graph is linearized. We will see how this can be done in the
succeeding discussion.
Figure 1 shows a straight-line graph that does not pass through the origin.
This is a linear graph. it shows a linear relationship between the two variables. It
means that there is a first-degree relationship between the Celsius readings and
the Fahrenheit readings. The general equation for a linear graph is
(Equation 1) y = mx + b
33
where m and b are constants; m is the slope of the lien and b is the y-intercept.
The y-intercept of the line is the value of y when x is zero. If we take y = 68o, x =
20o, and b = 32o in graph #1, the slope can be obtained using Eq. (1):
Fahrenheit Celsius
(oF) (oC)
32 0
68 20
104 40
140 60
176 80
Celcius Reading (°°C)
& + 5 /
Substituting the value of the slope obtained in Eq. (2) to Eq. (1) and considering
that the y-axis is oF and the x-axis is oC, the equation relating Fahrenheit reading
and Celsius reading is therefore:
o
(Equation 3) F = (9/5)oC + 32o
We can also extrapolate values from the graph. If we extend the line downward
until the temperature is 0oF, we get the corresponding value in Celsius which is
17.8 oC. By interpolation, we get values within the line such as 50oC for the
corresponding Fahrenheit reading of 122oF.
A.2 Direct Proportionality
Figure #2 shows a straight line passing through the origin. The zero
values for both variables simultaneously occur. When time is doubled the
distance is also doubled. In this case, we say that the distance is directly
proportional to time. In general, when two variables x and y are directly
proportional to each other, the equation relating them is:
(Equation 4) y α x y = kx or k=y
x
34
where k is the constant of proportionality. This equation shows that the quotient
of the two variables is always equal to a constant.
Distance Time
(m) (s)
0 0
20 1
40 2
60 3
80 4
100 5
120 6
Time (s)
& 8 5 ) ?
(Equation 5) slope = ∆y = y2 – y1 ∆d
∆x x2 – x1 ∆t
The physical slope is always our concern in graphical analysis. The value is
independent of the choice of scales and it expresses a significant fact about the
relationship between the plotted variables. For example, the slope of the distance
vs. time graph represents the average speed of the object.
B. Parabolic Graphs
The relationship between x and y can be expressed as y α xn. Rewriting Eq. (6),
35
y
= k(constant)
xn
the ratio of y and xn is a constant. To verify the actual relationship, one has to
linearize the graph, i.e., plot y vs. xn, where n = 2,3,4…
@ %3& ) %&
Height (y) vs. time (t)
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#
#
! ! & > 9 2 ?
36
@ %3& ) %& ) A % &
% & % & % &
"
! ! !
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#
# #
In general, if one quantity (y) varies directly with the square of another quantity
(x2) we write, y α x2. In this case n = 2. Thus the equation that correctly
expresses the relationship of height (h) and time (t) in the data is:
h = k(constant) h = kt2
t2
where the constant k represents the slope of height vs. time squared graph.
C. Hyperbolic Graphs
37
y vs. x
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y vs 1/x
3 '
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1/x
38
C.2 Inverse Square Proportionality
Sometimes, plotting y vs. 1/x will not yield a straight line but plotting y vs.
2
1/x will yield one. This kind of relationship is called inverse square
proportionality. The variable (y) is inversely proportional to the square of x. Graph
#7 illustrates such a case.
y vs x
# #
! "
"
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& ) > @3 2 ?
The linearized graph is shown in Graph #8. This can only be obtained if n
= 2 such that y = k
x2
y vs x2
3 '
#
# !
"
# # "
! "
"
" !
#
1/ x2
& * > B 5 ?
39
D. Method of Least Squares
The method of least squares usually yields a straight line whose slope and
whose y-intercept can be solved by applying the following equations:
__ _ _
(Equation 9) xy – x y
m = ____________
__ _2
2
x − x
The y-intercept is:
__ _ _ __
x2 y − x xy
(Equation 10) b = ____________
__ _2
2
x − x
where n represents the number of samples. After determining the slope (m) and
the y-intercept, the equation for the best line is determined by:
y = mx + b
40
Rules for Drawing Graphs on Rectangular Coordinate Paper
1. Determination of Coordinates
Determine which of the quantities to be graphed the dependent variable is
and which one is the independent variable. The independent variable is the
quantity, which controls or causes a change in the other quantity (dependent
variable) whenever it is increased or decreased. By convention, plot the
independent variable along the x-axis and dependent variable on the y-axis.
4. Location of Points
Encircle each point plotted on the graph to indicate that the value lies
anywhere close to that point. Draw the curve up to the circle on one side. If
several curves appear on the same sheet and the points might interfere, use
squares and triangles to surround the dots of the second and third curves,
respectively.
41
42
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! " # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
$ $ # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
APPARATUS/MATERIALS:
Graphing paper, pencil and pen, ruler, Computer with Microsoft Excel
EXERCISES:
1. The following data were obtained in an experiment relating time (t) (the
independent variable) to the speed (v) of an accelerating object.
Plot these data on rectangular coordinate paper. For those with computers,
use Microsoft Excel.
2. The heating effect of an electric in a rheostat is found to vary directly with the
square of the current. What type of graph is obtained when the heat is plotted
as a function of current? How could the variables be adjusted so that a linear
relation would be obtained?
43
Do the following for exercises #4 to #8
(a) Plot the given values (y vs. x). select proper coordinate scales, label
plot points, draw a smooth curve through points.
(b) Linearize the graph. If necessary, compute different powers of
variables and plot until you get a straight line.
(c) Determine the equation of the line obtained. Indicate the value of n, k,
and other constants or intercepts present in the graph.
4. The data below shows how the electric field (E) due to a point charge varies
with distance (r).
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4 4 ! "!
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9. Determine the equation, which will represent the best line for the following set
of data and plot the graph of the equation.
44
Method of Least Squares
X y xx xy
1 0 4.6 0 0
2 1 7.1 1 7.1
3 2 9.5 4 19.0
4 3 11.5 9 34.5
5 4 13.7 16 54.8
6 5 15.9 25 79.5
7 6 18.6 36 111.6
8 7 20.9 49 146.3
9 8 23.5 64 188.0
10 9 25.4 81 228.6
_ _
x= = _____ y= = ______
n n
__
x2 = = _____
n
__
xy = = _____
n
__ _ _
xy – x y
m = __________ = ___________ = ______
__ _2
2
x − x
The equation of the best line for the data is: y = mx + b = _____ x + _____
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
EXPERIMENT NO.
Assembly
There are two ways to attach the strings to the table: The first way uses
the conventional ring in the center of the table and the second way uses an
anchor string through the hole in the center of the table. The advantage of the
anchor string is that a higher precision can be achieved because a single knot is
being centered instead of the massive ring. The anchor string keeps the masses
from falling to one side when the system is not in equilibrium.
NOTE: In both methods it is important to adjust the pulleys so that the strings are
parallel to the top surface of the Force Table, and as close to the top surface as
possible. When adjusting the pulleys, don' t let the ring rest on the top surface.
53
Figure 2 Ring Method of Stringing Force Table
Ring Method
See Figure 2. To use this method, screw the center post up until it stops
so that it sticks up above the table. Place the ring over the post and tie one 30
cm long string to the ring for each pulley. The strings must be long enough to
reach over the pulleys. Place each string over a pulley and tie a mass hanger to
it.
NOTE: A string can be attached to the PASCO mass hanger by wrapping the
string several times (4 or 5) around the notch at the top of each mass hanger.
See Figure 3. Cut two 60cm lengths of string and tie them together at their
centers (to form an "X"). Three of the ends will reach from the center of the table
over a pulley; the fourth will be threaded down through the hole in the center post
to act as the anchor string. Screw the center post down so it is flush with the top
54
surface of the table. Thread the anchor string down through the hole in the center
post and tie that end to one of the legs. Put each of the other strings over a
pulley and tie a mass hanger on the end of each string.
NOTE: A string can be attached to the PASCO mass hanger by wrapping the
string several times (4 or 5) around the notch at the top of each mass hanger.
Theory
NOTE: In all cases, the force caused by the mass hanging over the pulley is
found by multiplying the mass by the acceleration due to gravity.
Experimental Method
Two forces are applied on the force table by hanging masses over pulleys
positioned at certain angles. Then the angle and mass hung over a third pulley
are adjusted until it balances the other two forces. This third force is called the
equilibrant (FE ) since it is the force which establishes equilibrium. The
equilibrant is not the same as the resultant (FR ). The resultant is the addition of
the two forces. While the equilibrant is equal in magnitude to the resultant, it is in
the opposite direction because it balances the resultant (see Figure 4). So the
equilibrant is the negative of the resultant:
– FE = FR = FA + FB
55
Figure 5 Components
Component Method
Two forces are added together by adding the x- and y-components of the
forces. First the two forces are broken into their x- and y-components using
trigonometry:
FA = Ax x + Ay y and Bx x + By y
2 2
FR = R x + R y
Ry
tan θ =
Rx
Graphical Method
Two forces are added together by drawing them to scale using a ruler and
protractor. The second force (FB ) is drawn with its tail to the head of the first
force (FA ). The resultant (FR ) is drawn from the tail of FA to the head of FB . See
56
Figure 6. Then the magnitude of the resultant can be measured directly from the
diagram and converted to the proper force using the chosen scale. The angle
can also be measured using the protractor.
MATERIALS NEEDED:
ME-9447 Force Table, –3 pulleys and pulley clamps, –3 mass hangers, –mass
set, –string,– metric ruler, –protractor, –2 sheets of paper
Setup
1. Assemble the force table as shown in the Assembly section. Use three
pulleys (two for the forces that will be added and one for the force that
balances the sum of the two forces).
2. If you are using the Ring Method, screw the center post up so that it will
hold the ring in place when the masses are suspended from the two
pulleys. If you are using the Anchor String Method, leave the center post
so that it is flush with the top surface of the force table. Make sure the
anchor string is tied to one of the legs of the force table so the anchor
string will hold the strings that are attached to the masses that will be
suspended from the two pulleys.
3. Hang the following masses on two of the pulleys and clamp the pulleys at
the given angles:
Force A = 50 g at 30°
By trial and error, find the angle for the third pulley and the mass which
must be suspended from it that will balance the forces exerted on the strings by
the other two masses. The third force is called the equilibrant (FE ) since it is the
force which establishes equilibrium. The equilibrant is the negative of the
resultant:
57
– F E = FR = FA + FB
Record the mass and angle required for the third pulley to put the system into
equilibrium in Table 1.
The ring should be centered over the post when the system is in equilibrium.
Screw the center post down so that it is flush with the top surface of the force table and
no longer able to hold the ring in position. Pull the ring slightly to one side and let it go.
Check to see that the ring returns to the center. If not, adjust the mass and/or angle of the
pulley until the ring always returns to the center when pulled slightly to one side.
The knot should be centered over the hole in the middle of the center post when
the system is in equilibrium. The anchor string should be slack. Adjust the pulleys
downward until the strings are close to the top surface of the force table. Pull the knot
slightly to one side and let it go. Check to see that the knot returns to the center. If not,
adjust the mass and/or angle of the third pulley until the knot always returns to the center
when pulled slightly to one side.
REFERENCES
Analysis
Component Method
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% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
Graphical Method
1. How do the theoretical values for the magnitude and direction of the
equilibrant compare to the actual magnitude and direction?
59
60
61
62
EXPERIMENT NO. Elective Activity
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
OBJECTIVES
In this lab, the Dynamics Cart will be launched over the floor using the on-
board spring launcher. The cart will “decelerate” over the floor under the
combined action of rolling friction and the average floor slope. To determine both
the coefficient of rolling friction µ r and θ, the small angle at which the floor is
inclined, two separate experiments must be done. (Recall that to determine the
value of two unknowns, you must have two equations.)
Theory
The cart will be launched several times in one direction, and then it will be
launched several times along the same course, but in the opposite direction. For
example, if the first few runs are toward the east, then the next few runs will be
toward the west (See Figure 5.1). In the direction which is slightly down-slope,
the acceleration of the cart is given by:
And the acceleration in the direction that is slightly up-slope will be:
a 2 = − g sin θ − µ r g EQN-2
Having obtained numerical values for a1 and a 2 , EQN-1 and EQN-2 can
be solved simultaneously for µ r and θ
2d
a= EQN-3
t2
63
Having obtained numerical values for a1 and a 2 , EQN-1 and EQN-2 can
be solved simultaneously for µ r and θ
MATERIALS NEEDED:
– Dynamics Cart Metric tape Stopwatch
Procedure
1. Place the cart in its starting position and then launch it. To cock the spring
plunger, push the plunger in, and then push the plunger upward slightly to
allow one of the notches on the plunger bar to “catch” on the edge of the
small metal bar at the top of the hole. Using a stopwatch and metric tape,
determine the range d and the total time spent rolling t. Record these in
Table 5.1.
2. Repeat step 1 six times for each direction and enter your results in Table
5.1.
4. Using the results of step 3, determine µ r and θby solving for the two
unknowns algebraically.
REFERENCES
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! " # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
$ $ # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
65
Data Analysis
Questions
1. Can you think of another way to determine the acceleration of the cart?
2. How large is the effect of floor slope compared to that of rolling friction?
66
EXPERIMENT NO. Required Activity
UNIFORM ACCELERATION
Objectives
Theory
To determine the acceleration, you will release the cart from rest and
1
measure the time (t) for it to travel a certain distance (d ) . Since d = at 2 , the
2
2d
acceleration can be calculated as a = 2 .
t
A plot of a versus sinθ will be a straight line with a slope equal to the
acceleration of an object in free-fall, g.
Materials Needed
67
Other Required Equipment
Procedure
1. Set up the track as shown in Figure 6.2 with a pivot clamp and support
stand. Elevate the end of the track by about 10 cm.
2. Set the cart on the track against the end stop and record this final position
in Table 6.1. (Use the non-magnetic end of the cart so it touches the end
stop.)
3. Pull the cart up to the top of the track and record the initial position where
the cart will be released from rest.
4. Release the cart from rest and use the stopwatch to time how long it takes
the cart to reach the end stop. The person who releases the cart should
also operate the stopwatch. Repeat this measurement 10 times (with
different people doing the timing). Record all the values in Table 6.1.
5. Lower the end of the track by 1 cm and repeat step 4. Use the same
release position.
6. Repeat step 4 for a total of 7 angles, lowering the end of the track by 1 cm
for each new angle.
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% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
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__ ___________________________________
Table 6.1: Position and time of a cart rolling down an incline
Final Position
Height on Track
Time 15 cm 14 cm 13 cm 12 cm 11 cm 10 cm 9 cm
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
Trial 5
Trial 6
Trial 7
Trial 8
Trial 9
Trial 10
Average
Time
69
Data Analysis
1. Calculate the average time for each angle and record it in Table 6.1.
2. Calculate the distance traveled, d, from the initial to the final position.
3. Use the distance traveled and average time to calculate the acceleration
for each angle and record it in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Acceleration of a cart rolling down an incline
15 cm
14 cm
13 cm
12 cm
11 cm
10 cm
9 cm
4. Measure the hypotenuse of the triangle formed by the track and use this to
calculate sin θ for each angle.
Hypotenuse
5. Plot acceleration versus sinθ Draw the best-fit straight line and calculate
its slope. Calculate the percent difference between the slope and g = 9.8
m/s2.
Slope
% Difference
70
Questions
2. How will doubling the mass of the cart affect the results? Try it.
REFERENCES
71
72
73
74
EXPERIMENT NO. Required Activity
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
Objectives
Theory
According to Newton’s Second Law, this net force should be equal to ma,
where m is the total mass that is being accelerated, which in this case is m1 + m2 .
This experiment will check to see if m1 g is equal to (m1 + m2 )a when friction is
ignored.
To obtain the acceleration, the cart will be started from rest and the time
(t) it takes for it to travel a certain distance (d) will be measured. Then since
1 2d
d = at 2 , the acceleration can be calculated using a = 2 (assuming a =
2 t
constant)
MATERIALS NEEDED:
– Dynamics Cart (ME-9430) – Dynamics Cart Track
– Super Pulley with clamp – Base and Support rod
– String – Mass hanger and mass set
– Stopwatch – Wooden or metal stopping block
– Mass balance
Procedure
1. Level the track by setting the cart on the track to see which way it rolls.
Adjust the leveling feet to raise or lower the ends until the cart placed at
rest on the track will not move.
2. Use the balance to find the mass of the cart and record in Table 7.1.
75
3. Attach the pulley to the end of the track as shown in Figure 7.1. Place the
dynamics cart on the track and attach a string to the hole in the end of the
cart and tie a mass hanger on the other end of the string. The string must
be just long enough so the cart hits the stopping block before the mass
hanger reaches the floor.
4. Pull the cart back until the mass hanger reaches the pulley. Record this
position at the top of Table 7.1. This will be the release position for all the
trials. Make a test run to determine how much mass is required on the
mass hanger so that the cart takes about 2 seconds to complete the run.
Because of reaction time, too short of a total time will cause too much
error. However, if the cart moves too slowly, friction causes too much
error. Record the hanging mass in Table 7.1.
5. Place the cart against the adjustable end stop on the pulley end of the
track and record the final position of the cart in Table 7.1.
6. Measure the time at least 5 times and record these values in Table 7.1.
REFERENCES
1. Physics Laboratory Experiments 4th Edition, Jerry D. Wilson @ 1994 D.C.
Heath and Company; Lexington, Massachusetts
2. Laboratory Manual In Conceptual Physics 2nd Edition, Bill W. Tillery @
1995 Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc. Dubuque, IA
3. Laboratory Experiments in College Physics 7th Edition, Cicero H. Bernard,
Chirold D. Epp @ 1995, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York
4. Experiments in Physics 2nd Edition, Peter J. Nolan, and Raymond E.
Bigliani @ 1995 Wm. C. Brown Publishers; Dubuque, IA
5. College Physics 5th Edition, John D. Cutnell and Kenneth W. Johnson @
2001 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York
6. Physics for Scientists and Engineers (with Modern Physics) 5th Edition by
Raymond A. Serway & Robert J. Beichner @2000 Saunders College
Publishing, Philadelphia
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__ ___________________________________
Final Position
Data Analysis
2. Calculate the total distance traveled by taking the difference between the
initial and final positions of the cart as given in Table 7.1.
4. For each case, calculate the total mass multiplied by the acceleration and
record in Table 7.2.
5. For each case, calculate the net force acting on the system and record in
Table 7.2.
6. Calculate the percent difference between FNET and (m1 + m2 )a and record
in Table 7.2.
77
Table 7.2 Acceleration of the cart and mass system
Questions
3. Why is the mass in F = ma not just equal to the mass of the cart?
4. When calculating the force on the cart using mass multiplied by gravity,
why isn’t the mass of cart included?
78
EXPERIMENT NO. Elective Activity
PROJECTILE MOTION
OBJECTIVES:
THEORY:
Any object that is given an initial velocity and subsequently follows a path
determined by the effect of the gravitational force acting on it and by the frictional
resistance of the atmosphere is called a projectile. The path followed by a
projectile is called its trajectory. The instantaneous velocity (v) of a projectile can
be resolved into its vertical (vy) and horizontal (vx) components.
_______
(Equation 1) v = √vx2 + vy2
_______
(Equation 2) vinitial = √vox2 + 02 = vox
There are no horizontal forces acting on the ball. This suggests that the
horizontal acceleration is zero (ax = 0). Therefore, the horizontal velocity remains
the same or is constant. In equation form,
(Equation 3) vx = ∆x
∆t
(Equation 4) ax = ∆vx ax = 0
∆t
On the other hand, there is only one force acting on the ball along the
vertical and that is the force due to gravity. The force due to gravity for small
distances is approximately constant. A constant vertical force results to a
constant vertical acceleration (ay = constant). This vertical acceleration is the
acceleration due to gravity (g) near the earth’s surface, the magnitude of which is
79
equal to 9.8 m/s2. Since the vertical acceleration ay is constant, it may be
expressed as:
(Equation 5) ay = ∆vy
∆t
In this experiment, you will observe the motion of a metal ball released
from a ramp-down by recording its position at equal time intervals. From these
data, you will see how a projectile behaves and observe the horizontal and
vertical motions of the projectile. The trajectory may be obtained with the use of
two pieces of board, the impact board and the plotting board, which are situated
perpendicular to each other as shown in Figure 1. A graphing paper is attached
to the face of each board. When a metal ball is released form the ramp it hits the
impact board and this is recorded in the plotting board. After marking the
positions of the projectile at different intervals, the points are connected to
produce the trajectory of the projectile.
APPARATUS/MATERIALS:
Iron stand, plotting and impact boards, curve track (ramp-down), meter
stick, carbon paper, graphing paper
Plotting board
Carbon paper
Ramp down
Graphing paper
+ ) 5 - 2 2
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the curved track before starting. See to it that the portion where the
metal ball will eventually leave the ramp is horizontal or level. To level that
portion of the ramp-down, place a bull’s eye on the lip of the ramp-down and
80
adjust the screws located on the legs of the iron stand. (This step is
necessary to ensure that the projectile leaves the ramp horizontally).
2. Tape a piece of graphing paper on the impact board. Place a piece of carbon
paper over the graphing paper such that the darker side of the carbon paper
is facing the graphing paper.
3. Get another piece of graphing paper and this time tape it to the plotting board
with the left-hand edge of the graphing paper in line with the lip of the ramp-
down. It is preferable that the grids on the graphing paper of the plotting
board coincide with those of the impact board. This will facilitate the transfer
of the marks on the impact board to the plotting board.
4. Divide the graphing paper on the plotting board into several grids. Starting
from the first upper horizontal line of the graphing paper, divide the grids such
that there are five square grids per subdivision. Mark each subdivision. This
will serve as a timing device, the unit of time being “ter”, with one subdivision
or one interval equal to one “ter”. One “ter” is the time it takes the ball to travel
a distance of five square grids horizontally.
5. Set the impact board on the plotting board so that the metal ball released
from the ramp will hit the impact board. The impact board must be facing the
lip of the ramp-down.
6. Lift the carbon paper for trial test. Release the metal ball from various points
on the ramp. Find the height wherein the ball hits the impact board even up to
the last interval as you move it from one interval to the next. (For the last
interval, the ball should fall close to the bottom right-hand corner of the
graphing paper.) Take note of the height that gives this result. This serves as
starting position for the ball all throughout the experiment. *When releasing
the metal ball, be sure that it stars from rest.
7. Position the impact board at the beginning of the first interval with the carbon
paper in place.
8. Release the ball from the starting point marked in step 6. Check that the
impact board does not move too much when the metal ball hits it. Repeat to
obtain two more dots on the impact board (for the same interval) and get the
average coordinate of these three points.
9. Transfer the average point on the impact board to the plotting board. Do this
by extending a horizontal line from the average point to the plotting board.
10. Move the impact board backward to the start of the next subdivision
previously marked in step 4, and repeat steps 8 and 9.
11. Repeat procedure 10 until the ball no longer hits the impact board. Release
from the same starting position previously defined in step 6.
12. Remove the impact board without changing the orientation of the ramp-down
and the plotting board with respect to each other. Release the ball once more
from the starting position and observe the path followed by the metal ball. It
should move along the points marked on the plotting board.
13. Trace the path taken by the metal ball on the plotting board by connecting the
points. This is the trajectory of the projectile.
14. Detach the graphing paper from the plotting board. With the leftmost solid line
and the uppermost solid line as your +y and +x-axes, respectively. Measure
81
the distance traveled by the metal ball both horizontally and vertically after
each ter. Measuring the perpendicular distance of each point from your +x
and +y-axes does this. Record the values in the data table.
15. Determine the velocity and acceleration for each interval.
16. Plot y (cm) vs. t (ter)
17. Repeat the experiment. This time, place the ramp at a different height relative
to the impact board but release the ball from the same starting point.
REFERENCES
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% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
DATA SHEETS:
@ B @ B @ B 6 6 6
) 6 3 > ) 6 3 >
% & % & 3 3
% & % ' & % ' & % & % ' & % ' &
" "
! !
SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
83
Trial II. New height of the lip of the ramp, h’ = ________mm
@ B @ B @ B 6 6 6
) 6 3 > ) 6 3 >
% & % & 3 3
% & % ' & % ' & % & % ' & % ' &
" "
! !
SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
84
85
86
87
88
EXPERIMENT NO. Required Activity
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Objectives
The purpose of this experiment is to study the effects of varying the mass
of the object, the radius of the circle, and the centripetal force on an object
rotating in a circular path.
Theory
mv 2
F= = mrw 2
r
2πr
v=
T
4π 2 mr
F=
T2
MATERIALS NEEDED
REFERENCES
89
Procedure
1. The centripetal force and the mass of the hanging object will be held
constant for this part of the experiment. Weigh the object and record its
mass in Table 9.1. Hang the object from the side post and connect the
string from the spring to the object. The string must pass under the pulley
on the center post. See Figure 9.1.
2. Attach the clamp-on pulley to the end of the track nearer to the hanging
object. Attach a string to the hanging object and hang a known mass over
the clamp-on pulley. Record this mass in Table 9.1. This establishes the
constant centripetal force.
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__ ___________________________________
3. Select a radius by aligning the line on the side post with any desired
position on the measuring tape. While pressing down on the side post to
assure that it is vertical, tighten the thumb screw on the side post to
secure its position. Record this radius in Table 9.1.
4. The object on the side bracket must hang vertically: On the center post,
adjust the spring bracket vertically until the string from which the object
hangs on the side post is aligned with the vertical line on the side post.
5. Align the indicator bracket on the center post with the orange indicator.
6. Remove the mass that is hanging over the pulley and remove the pulley.
7. Rotate the apparatus, increasing the speed until the orange indicator is
centered in the indicator bracket on the center post. This indicates that the
string supporting the hanging object is once again vertical and thus the
hanging object is at the desired radius.
91
8. Maintaining this speed, use a stopwatch to time ten revolutions. Divide the
time by ten and record the period in Table 9.1.
9. Move the side post to a new radius and repeat the procedure. Do this for a
total of five radii.
Analysis
1. The weight of the mass hanging over the pulley is equal to the centripetal
force applied by the spring. Calculate this force by multiplying the mass
hung over the pulley by “g” and record this force at the top of Table 9.2.
Centripetal Force
Percentage Difference
2. Calculate the square of the period for each trial and record this in Table
9.1.
3. Plot the radius versus the square of the period. This will give a straight line
since:
F
r= T2
4π m 2
4. Draw the best-fit line through the data points and measure the slope of the
line. Record the slope in Table 9.1.
5. Calculate the centripetal force from the slope and record in Table 9.2.
6. Calculate the percent difference between the two values found for the
centripetal force and record in Table 9.2.
92
Part II: Vary Force (constant radius and mass)
The radius of rotation and the mass of the hanging object will be held constant
for this part of the experiment.
1. Weigh the object and record its mass in Table 9.3. Hang the object from
the side post and connect the string from the spring to the object. The
string must pass under the pulley on the center post.
2. Attach the clamp-on pulley to the end of the track nearer to the hanging
object. Attach a string to the hanging object and hang a known mass over
the clamp-on pulley. Record this mass in Table 9.3. This determines the
centripetal force.
3. Select a radius by aligning the line on the side post with any desired
position on the measuring tape. While pressing down on the side post to
assure that it is vertical, tighten the thumb screw on the side post to
secure its position. Record this radius in Table 9.3.
4. The object on the side bracket must hang vertically: On the center post,
adjust the spring bracket vertically until the string from which the object
hangs on the side post is aligned with the vertical line on the side post.
5. Align the indicator bracket on the center post with the orange indicator.
6. Remove the mass that is hanging over the pulley and remove the pulley.
7. Rotate the apparatus, increasing the speed until the orange indicator is
centered in the indicator bracket on the center post. This indicates that the
string supporting the hanging object is once again vertical and thus the
hanging object is at the desired radius.
8. Maintaining this speed, use a stopwatch to time ten revolutions. Divide the
time by ten and record the period in Table 9.3.
9. To vary the centripetal force, clamp the pulley to the track again and hang
a different mass over the pulley. Keep the radius constant and repeat the
procedure from Step #4. Do this for a total of five different forces.
93
Table 9.3 Varying the centripetal Force
Radius
1
Mass over pulley Centripetal Force = Period (T)
mg T2
Analysis
1. The weight of the mass hanging over the pulley is equal to the centripetal
force applied by the spring. Calculate this force for each trial by multiplying
the mass hung over the pulley by “g” and record the results in Table 9.3.
2. Calculate the inverse of the square of the period for each trial and record
this in Table 9.3.
3. Plot the centripetal force versus the inverse square of the period. This will
give a straight line since:
4π 2 mr
F=
T2
4. Draw the best-fit line through the data points and measure the slope of the
line. Record the slope in Table 9.3.
5. Calculate the mass of the object from the slope and record in Table 9.4.
94
Table 9.4 Results (varying the centripetal force)
Percentage Difference
6. Calculate the percent difference between the two values found for the
mass of the object and record in Table 9.4.
95
96
97
98
EXPERIMENT NO. Required Activity
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Purpose
Theory
MATERIALS NEEDED:
Procedure
1. Level the track by setting the cart on the track to see which way it rolls.
Adjust the leveling feet to raise or lower the ends until the cart placed at
rest on the track will not move.
2. Use the balance to find the mass of the cart. Record this value in Table
9.2.
99
Determining the Spring Constant
3. Set the cart on the track with the spring plunger against the stopping block
as shown in Figure 9.1. Attach a string to the cart and attach the other end
to a mass hanger, passing the string over the pulley.
4. Record the cart’s position in Table 9.1.
5. Add mass to the mass hanger and record the new position. Repeat this for
a total of 5 different masses.
REFERENCES
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__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
Potential Energy
height
angle = arcsin
hypotenuse
101
9. Record the initial position of the cart in Table 9.2
10. Release the plunger by tapping it with a stick and record the distance the
cart goes up the track. Repeat this five times. Record the maximum
distance the cart went in Table 9.2.
11. Change the angle of inclination and repeat the measurements.
12. Add mass to the cart and repeat the measurements.
102
Data Analysis
1. Using the data in Table 9.1, plot force versus displacement. Draw the
best-fit straight line through the data points and determine the slope of the
line. The slope is equal to the effective spring constant, k.
k = ____________
3. Calculate the gravitational potential energy for each case and record in
Table 9.3.
4. Calculate the percent difference between the spring potential energy and
the gravitational potential energy.
Questions
1. Which of the potential energies was larger? Where did this “lost” energy
go?
2. When the mass of the cart was doubled, why did the gravitational potential
energy remain about the same?
103
104
EXPERIMENT NO. Elective Activity
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Objectives
Theory
When two carts push away from each other (and there is no net force on
the system), the total momentum is conserved. If the system is initially at rest, the
final momentum of the two carts must be equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to each other so the resulting total momentum of the system is zero:
p = m1v1 + m2 v 2 = 0
Therefore, the ratio of the final speeds of the carts is equal to the ratio of
the masses of the carts.
v1 m1
=
v2 m2
To simplify this experiment, the starting point for the carts at rest is chosen
so that the two carts will reach the ends of the track simultaneously. The speed,
which is the distance divided by the time, can be determined by measuring the
distance traveled since the time traveled by each cart is the same.
∆x1
v1 ∆x
= ∆t = 1
v 2 ∆x 2 ∆x 2
∆t
Thus the ratio of the distances is equal to the ratio of the masses:
∆x1 m1
=
∆x 2 m2
MATERIALS NEEDED:
105
Procedure
1. Install the feet on the track and level it. Install one end stop at each end
with the magnetic sides facing away from the carts.
Figure 11.1
2. For each of the cases in Table 11.1, place the two carts against each
other with the plunger of one cart pushed completely in and latched in its
maximum position (see Figure 11.1).
3. Tap the plunger release button with a short stick and watch the two carts
move to the ends of the track. Experiment with different starting positions
until the two carts reach the ends of the track at the same time. Measure
the masses of the carts. Record the masses and the starting position in
Table 11.1.
REFERENCES
106
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! " # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
$ $ # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
0 0
500 g 0
1000 g 0
500 g 250 g
Data Analysis
1. For each of the cases, calculate the distances traveled from the starting
position to the end of the track. Record the result in Table 11.1.
2. Calculate the ratio of the distances traveled and record in the table.
Questions
1. Does the ratio of the distances equal the ratio of the masses in each of the
cases? In other words, is momentum conserved?
107
2. When carts of unequal masses push away from each other, which cart
has more momentum?
3. When the carts of unequal masses push away from each other, which cart
has more kinetic energy?
4. Is the starting position dependent on which cart has the plunger? Why?
Objective
Theory
When two carts collide with each other, the total momentum of both carts
is conserved regardless of the type of collision.
An elastic collision is one in which the carts bounce off each other with no
loss of kinetic energy. In this experiment, magnetic bumpers are used to
minimize the energy losses due to friction during the collision. In reality, this
“elastic” collision is slightly inelastic.
A completely inelastic collision is one in which the carts hit and stick to
each other. In this experiment, this is accomplished with the hook-and-loop
bumpers on the carts.
MATERIALS NEEDED:
108
Part I: Elastic Collisions
Figure 11.2
2. Orient the two carts on the track so their magnetic bumpers are toward
each other.
In every diagram, show a velocity vector for each cart with a length that
approximately represents the relative speed of the cart.
Case A1: Place one cart at rest in the middle of the track. Give the other cart an
initial velocity toward the cart at rest.
Case A2: Start the carts with one at each end of the track. Give each cart
approximately the same velocity toward each other.
Case A3: Start both carts at one end of the track. Give the first cart a slow
velocity and the second cart a faster velocity so that the second cart catches the
first cart.
Put two mass bars in one of the carts so that the mass of one cart is
approximately three times the mass (3M) of the other cart (1M).
Case B1: Place the 3M cart at rest in the middle of the track. Give the other cart
an initial velocity toward the cart at rest.
Case B2: Place the 1M cart at rest in the middle of the track. Give the 3M cart an
initial velocity toward the cart at rest.
Case B3: Start the carts with one at each end of the track. Give each cart
approximately the same velocity toward each other.
109
Case B4: Start both carts at one end of the track. Give the first cart a slow
velocity and the second cart a faster velocity so that the second cart catches the
first cart. Do this for both cases: with the 1M cart first and then for the 3M cart
first.
1. Orient the two carts so their hook-and-loop bumpers are toward each
other. Push the plunger in all the way so it will not interfere with the
collision.
Questions
1. When two carts having the same mass and the same speed collide and
stick together, they stop. Is momentum conserved?
2. When two carts having the same mass and the same speed collide and
bounce off of each other elastically, what is the final total momentum of
the carts?
110
EXPERIMENT NO. Elective Activity
TORQUE & ROTATION
OBJECTIVES:
THEORY:
Consider the plank shown in Figure 1. The fulcrum is exactly at the center.
The blocks on the plank have the same weight (F1 = F2) and are placed at the
same distance r (r1 = r2) away from the fulcrum. The length of the perpendicular
drawn form the fulcrum (or pivot or axis of rotation) to the line of the force is
called the lever arm. (This is also often called the moment arm). The cross
product of the moment arm (r) and the force (F) is defined as torque (Γ). In
equation form, torque is defined as:
+ > - A 2
For simplicity, the direction of torque in this experiment will just be limited
to two directions. A torque that results to a counterclockwise rotation will be
assigned a negative (-) sign and for clockwise rotation, a positive (+) sign.
Applying the definition of torque to the three forces present in Figure 1. yields the
following:
111
For an object to be in complete equilibrium, it must satisfy two conditions.
The first condition of equilibrium is that the net force acting on the object must be
equal to zero. The second condition of equilibrium (also called rotational
equilibrium) is that the net torque about an arbitrary axis of rotation must be
equal to zero.
(Equation 2) Fy = F3 – F1 – F2 = 0
+ ) - 3 3 2 A 2
Moving the left block near the fulcrum as in Figure 2(a) would tend to
rotate (or tilt) the plank in a clockwise manner even though the forces acting on
the plank remain the same. The clockwise torque is not equal to the
counterclockwise torque since the moment arm on the left is now less than the
moment arm on the right side.
Adding another block on the right side of the fulcrum as in Figure 2(b)
would also tend to rotated (or tilt) the plank in a clockwise manner even through
the moment arm on the left is equal to the moment arm on the right. The
clockwise torque is not equal to the counterclockwise torque since the left force
(weight) is now less than the force (weight) on the right side.
112
MATERIALS:
Weights, weight holder, clamp, iron stand, meter stick, weighing scale
REFERENCES
PROCEDURE:
A. Center of Gravity
Locate the center of gravity of the meter stick by placing it in the clamp as
shown in Figure 3. Adjust the meter stick (without weights) until it is in
equilibrium.
On the balanced meter stick, place an equal amount of loads (about 200 g)
on both sides of the meter stick at a distance of about 25 cm from the fulcrum.
(Include the weight of the clamp and weight holder in all of the forces in this
exercise.) Adjust slightly the position of the loads to maintain equilibrium. Record
the forces and their moment arms. Calculate and record the clockwise torque
and the counterclockwise torque. How do they compare? Record the percentage
difference between them.
113
Repeat the above procedure for two more trials, adding 50 g each time to the
original loads.
On the balanced meter stick, place two unequal amounts of loads (about 100
g and 250 g) on both sides of the meter stick at a distance of about 25 cm from
the fulcrum. (Include the weight of the clam and weight holder in all of the forces
in this exercise.) Adjust the position of the loads to maintain equilibrium. Record
the forces and their moment arms. Calculate and record the clockwise torque
and the counterclockwise torque. How do they compare? Record the percentage
difference between them.
Repeat the above procedure for two more trials, adding 50 g each time to the
lesser load.
114
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! " # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
$ $ # 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
% 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
DATA SHEET:
) . + . > ) A %D & 9
%- & %D & % & / - / / - C
+
) . + . > ) A %D & 9
%- & %D & % & / - / / - C
+
115
116
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
1. In the force table method, how was the vector sum of the forces
determined? Differentiate from each other resultant force and equilibrant
force.
2. When adding vectors using the graphical method, why is it very important
to first specify the scale to be used? Give two reasons.
117
118
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
Guide Questions
40% of the Written Report (Group Report) Grade
1. Can you think of another way to determine the acceleration of the cart?
Discuss the method.
2. How large is the effect of floor slope compared to that of rolling friction?
4. Why is it that the coefficient of static friction is greater than the coefficient
of kinetic friction?
119
120
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
UNIFORM ACCELERATION
Guide Questions
40% of the Written Report (Group Report) Grade
1. In this experiment, as the height of one end of the inclined plane is increased,
what happens to (a) the time needed for the cart to go down the inclined
plane and (b) the acceleration of the cart?
2. Based from the data, what relationship exists between the acceleration of the
cart and sinθ (or θ)? What is the slope of the plot of acceleration versus sinθ?
How is the slope of the plot related to the acceleration due to gravity (g)?
3. Analyzing the data, what happens to the results (time, acceleration, and
slope) when the height is increased further? Does the acceleration and/or
slope approach a constant value? If yes, what do you think will the constant
value be?
4. Does doubling the mass of the cart have any effect on the results? Explain
your answer.
5. Identify possible sources of error in this experiment and explain how these will
affect the data?
121
122
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
m2 2d
a= g (Eq. 1) a= (Eq. 2)
m1 + m2 (t ave )2
Calculate the acceleration of the system. Are the results for the two equations the
same? Why? (Use CGS units, g = 980 cm/s2)
123
124
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
PROJECTILE MOTION
Guide Questions
40% of the Written Report (Group Report) Grade
1. What changes should you make to the equations used in the experiment if
the ramp is not leveled?
2. What quantity does a “ter” really measure? Why is it justifiable to use “ter”
as a unit for time interval?
3. What is the average value of the horizontal acceleration? What does this
say about the horizontal motion of the ball?
4. What is the shape of the vertical position versus time graph? What does
this say about the motion of the ball along the vertical direction?
5. If the vertical component of the velocity (vy) is plotted against time (t), what
would be the shape of the graph? What physical quantity does the slope
of the vy, vs. t graph represent? How does the value of the slope compare
to the value of the acceleration due to gravity?
125
126
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Guide Questions
40% of the Written Report (Group Report) Grade
2. Explain the relationship between radius and period. What happens to the
period as the radius is increased? By how much should the period
increase or decrease?
3. Explain the relationship between force and period. What happens to the
period as the force is increased? By how much should the period increase
or decrease?
4. Why is there a need to take the inverse square of the period to obtain the
mass of the object?
4π 2 mr
F=
T2
127
128
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
1. Which of the potential energies was larger? Where did this “lost” energy
go?
2. What possible sources of error can be seen in the experiment? How can
they be minimized?
3. What effect did the angle of inclination and the mass have on the potential
energy of the cart?
4. What is the spring constant in (N/m) of a spring that stores 30J of elastic
potential energy when compressed by 10.0cm from its relaxed length?
c. How far along the incline is the highest point of the block from the
release point?
129
130
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
3. Does the ratio of the distance equal the ratio of the masses in all of your
trials? What factors do you think may cause difference in these ratios?
131
132
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
1. Three identical uniform rods are each acted on by two or more forces, all
perpendicular to the rods and all equal in magnitude. Which of the rods
could be in static equilibrium if an additional force is applied at the center
of mass of the rod? Explain.
1 2 3
2. Discuss what happens to the moment arm when the force is varied
(increased or decreased) so as to maintain a constant torque.
5. The meter stick shown below rotates about an axis through the point
marked •, 20cm from one end. Five forces act on the stick: one at each
end, one at the pivot point, and two 40cm from one end, as shown. The
magnitudes of the forces are all the same. Rank the forces according to
the magnitudes of the torques they produce about the pivot point, least to
greatest. [Hint: the forces could have the same magnitude]
F1 F3
F2 F4
F5
0cm 20cm 40cm 60cm 80cm 100cm
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134