MWCPIII

Fundamentals of MIMO W
Wireless Communications
Part III
Prof. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum

Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless Communications
Part III
• It covers
• Chapter 7: Introduction to Space-time
time codes
• Chapter 8: Space-time
time block and trellis codes
Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

2/8/2018 2
Communications, Cambridge University Press, 2017
Why do we need channel coding?
• It is done to
• improve transmission quality
• when the signal encounters
• noise
• interference,
• Doppler shift,
• multipath propagation
• What is space time codes?

2/8/2018 3
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• Space-time
time coding: coding over both space and time
• Code-word matrix for Alamouti space-time
space code
 s1   s1 − s2* 
S =  2 =  * 
 s   s2 s1 
+S. M. Alamouti,, “A simple transmit diversity technique for wireless

communications,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications,
Communications 16(8), 1998,
pp. 1451-8.

2/8/2018 4
Why space-time codes?
• Space-time codes:
• Two types
• Space-time
time block codes which is an extension of block codes
• Space-time block codes give
• diversity gain
• but no coding gain
• Space-time
time trellis codes which is an extension of convolutional codes
• space-time trellis codes give
• both coding and diversity gain

2/8/2018 5
• What do we mean by the terms diversity and coding gain?
• the approximate symbol error rate (SER) for space-time
space coded
systems+
c
Pe ≈
(Gc S )G d
• where S represents the SNR,

• c is some constant,
• Gc is the coding gain and
• Gd represents the diversity order of the system
+ R. Bose, Information Theory, Coding and Cryptography,
Cryptography Tata McGraw Hill, 2008.

2/8/2018 6
• If we take log to the base 2 of the above equation, we have,
( )
log 2 Pe ≈ log 2 c − Gd log 2 Gc − Gd log 2 S
• What was diversity order/gain?
• The diversity gain/order determines the negative slope of an
• error rate curve plotted vs SNR on a log-log
log scale

2/8/2018 7
• In other words, a space-time
time coded scheme with diversity order Gd
• has an error probability at high SNR behaving as
− Gd
Pe ≈ ( S )
• If there is some coding gain,

• then average probability of error will be of the form
1
Pe ≈ Gd
( Gc S )
+ E. Biglieri, R. Calderbank, A. Constantinides,, A. Goldsmith, A. Paulraj and H. V. Poor,
MIMO wireless communications, Cambridge University Press, 2007
.

2/8/2018 8
• If there were no array or power gain
• then the probability of error expression will be of the form
1
Pe ≈ Gd
Gc ( S )
• The coding gain gives the horizontal shifting of the uncoded system
error rate curve
• to the space time coded error rate curve plotted on a log-log
log scale
obtained for the same diversity order
( )
log 2 Pe ≈ log 2 c − Gd log 2 Gc − Gd log 2 S

2/8/2018 9
2/8/2018 10
Code design criteria
• Let us consider two of the simplest cases:

• First case:
• Consider we have two codewords which simply send 0 and 1 bits
{C1=0, C2= 1}
• Pairwise error probability (PEP)
• You send codeword C1 and decode that it is codeword C2 at the
receiver
• If the two bits have equal probability then,
• PEP should be ½ for a binary symmetric channel with equal
probabilities

2/8/2018 11
Code design criteria
• Second case:
• Consider we have two codewords in which we send codeword C1
for bit 0 and codeword C2 for bit 1
• {C1=00000, C2= 11111}
• We have added a lot of redundancy (coding)
• PEP in this case is reduced (½×½
½×½×½×½)
• Hamming distance between codewords C1 and C2 for the first case is 1
and second case is 5
• Code design criteria:
• Maximize the Hamming distance between two codewords
• Minimize the error in decoding
2/8/2018 12
What are the design criteria for space-time
space codes?
• three criteria for designing space-time
time codes
• Rank criterion
• Determinant criterion
• Trace criterion
• Note in space-time codes, codewords are matrices like in Alamouti
space-time code
• Pairwise error probability is defined as
• the probability that the decoder decides in
• favor of codeword matrix C2
• instead of the codeword matrix C1 which was transmitted
+ H. Jafarkhani, Space time coding: theory and practice,
practice Cambridge University Press, 2005.

2/8/2018 13
space codes?
Example − NR
1 r  γλn µ m  1 4 rN R
Given that ⇒ P ( C1 → C2 )bound ≤ ∏ =
2 n =1  4  2 r 
NR
∏ n  γ
rN R
λ
 n =1 
Show that the diversity gain of space-time
space codes is rNR
where r is the rank of the codeword difference matrix D C1 ,C 2 ( )
which is basically the difference of two codeword matrices
Solution: Diversity gain is defined as
log 2 ( Pe )
Gd = − lim
SNR →∞ log 2 ( γ )

2/8/2018 14
space codes?
 
 
1 4rN R 
log 2  NR 
 
2  
r
 ∏ n 
rN R
λ γ 
Gd = lim −   n =1   ( )
log 2 Pe ≈ log 2 c − Gd log 2 Gc − Gd log
γ →∞ log 2 ( γ )
NR
 r 
( )
log 2 ( 2 ) + log 2  ∏ λn  − log 2 4rN R + rN R log 2 {γ }
= lim  n =1 
γ →∞ log 2 ( γ )
rN R log 2 g {γ }
≈ lim = rN R
γ →∞ log 2 ( γ )
2/8/2018 15
space codes?
• A sound design policy to assure full diversity is

• to ensure that for every possible codeword pairs Ci and Cj, iǂj, the
codeword distance matrix
( ) ( )(
A Ci , C j = D H Ci , C j D Ci , C j )
• is full rank (RANK CRITERION)

2/8/2018 16
space codes?
1
1
 r  r
• Similarly the coding gain is defined as ∏ n λ = A C1
, C 2
( ) r
 n =1 
• where the codeword distance matrix is

( 1
A C ,C 2
) = D (C , C )• D(C , C ) = (C
H 1 2 1 2 1
−C ) • (C
2 H 1
− C2 )

2/8/2018 17
space codes?
• We can define coding gain distance (CGD) between two codewords

and
( )
CGD C1 , C 2 = det A C1 , C 2 (( ))
• Coding gain is defined as
1
[ (
G c = CGD C1 , C 2 )] r

2/8/2018 18
space codes?
• To augment the coding gain of a full diversity code,

• further good design policy would be to maximize the minimum
determinant of the matrices A(C i , C j ) ∀i ≠ j
(DETERMINANT CRITERION)
Example
• Find the CGD and coding gain of two codeword matrices and for
Space time trellis code given by

2/8/2018 19
space codes?
 1 1  2  1 − 1
C = 
1
, C =  
 1 1  −1 1 
• Also find the rank and trace of the codeword distance matrix.
• Solution:
• The codeword difference matrix is
 0 2
( 1
D C ,C 2
) = C − C = 
1 2

 2 0
• The codeword distance matrix is

2/8/2018 20
space codes?
( ) ( )(
A C1 , C 2 = D C1 , C 2 D C1 , C 2 ) H
 0 2  0 2   4 0 
=    =  
 2 0  2 0   0 4 
• The rank and trace of the codeword distance matrix is 2 and 8
obviously
• The coding gain distance
( ) (
CGD = C 1 , C 2 = A C 1 , C 2 = 16 )

2/8/2018 21
space codes?
1
• The coding gain is GC = ( CGD ) = 16 = 4 2
• The diversity order of the system is twice the number of receiving

antennas
• We can also express average PEP upper bound of space-time

space codes
over flat fading iid Rayleigh channel as
1  2 γ
( 1
P C →C 2
) (
≤ exp  − N R D C1 , C2
4 
) F 4 

2/8/2018 22
space codes?
• Another good design policy is to maximize the minimum squared

Frobenius norm of codeword difference matrix among all possible iǂj
(TRACE CRITERION)
2
(
D C ,C i j
) F
( ( ) (
= Trace D H Ci , C j • D Ci , C j )) ( (
= Trace A Ci , C j ))
• If we maximize the minimum trace of codeword distance matrix
between all pairs of codeword matrices
• then we can minimize the probability of error bound

2/8/2018 23
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• Coding over space and time
 s1   s1 − s2* 
S =  2 =  * 
 s   s2 s1 
H
1
s ,s 2 1
=s s ( )
2
=0
+S. M. Alamouti,, “A simple transmit diversity technique for wireless

communications,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications,
Communications 16(8), 1998,
pp. 1451-8.

2/8/2018 24
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• If we allow the channel gain coefficients to remain equal for two

successive symbol periods
h1 (t ) = h1 (t + T ) = h1 = h1 e jθ1
h2 (t ) = h 2 (t + T ) = h2 = h2 e jθ 2

2/8/2018 25
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• At the receiver the signals after passing through the additive white
Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel may be expressed as
• Signal received in first time instant by the receiving antenna is
r1 = h1 s1 + h2 s 2 + n1
• Signal received in second time instant by the receiving antenna is
r2 = −h1 s 2* + h2 s1* + n 2
• In matrix form, component-wise
* T
 r1   s1 − s   h1   n1 
2
r  =  *  + 
 2   s2 s   h2   n2 
1

2/8/2018 26
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• An equivalent form of the above equation,
 r1   h1 h2   s1   n1 
r *  = h * *   +  * 
− h1   s 2  n 2 
 2  2
• In compact matrix form, the received signal vector may be written as

r = Hs + n
• The combining operation at the receiver is
r% = H H Hs + n%
~ = HHn
• where n
2/8/2018 27
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• The 2×1
1 vector signal output of the combiner is given as:
~
r1  h1* h2   r1  h1* r1 + h2 r2* 
~  = *  *  =  * *
r2  h2 − h1   2   h2 r1 − h1 r2 
r
• Similarly the 2×11 vector of additive complex noise in the combiner

output is
~
 1  h1* h2   n1  h1* n1 + h2 n 2* 
n
n~  =  *  *  =  * * 
 2  h2 − h1  n 2   h2 n1 − h1 n 2 

2/8/2018 28
Alamouti space-time
time codes
~
r1  h1* h2   h1 h2   s1   n~1 
~  = *  * *    + ~ 
r2  h2 − h1  h2 − h1   s 2  n 2 
• In matrix form, the output of the combiner can be written as
%r = H H Hs + n%

2/8/2018 29
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• which can be simplified as
r1   h1
~   s   n~   s1   n~1   s1   n~1 
2 2
~  =
r2  
+ h2
0 h1
2
0
 1
+
2   ~ 
1
+ h2   2   2 
s n
= h1 ( 2
+ h2
2
) (
I 2   +  ~  = h1
 s 2  n 2 
2
+ h2
2
)
 s  + n~ 
 2  2
• In order to perform this operation, the combiner needs the channel

state information (CSI)
• The above matrix equation can be written as
~ 2
( 2 ~ ~ 2
)
r1 = h1 + h2 s1 + n1 ; r2 = h1 + h2 s 2 + n~2
2
( )
2/8/2018 30
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• ML detection
arg
sˆ1 =
min{m}
(
r%1 − h1 + h2
2 2
)sm 0≤t ≤T
s
• m ∈ {s }M
k k =1 is one of the M-ary
ary symbols
• We may express above decision criterion as
arg r%1
sˆ1 = − sm
2
min{m} h + h
1 ( 2
2
)
2/8/2018 31
Alamouti space-time
time codes
• ML detection
arg
sˆ2 =
min{m}
2 2
r%2 − h1 + h2 sm ( ) T ≤ t ≤ 2T
• sm ∈ { }
M
s k k =1
is one of the M-ary
ary symbols
• We may express above decision criterion as
arg r%2
sˆ2 = − sm
2
min{m} h1 + h2 2
( )
2/8/2018 32
What is the equivalent MRC receiver diversity?
• 2×1 Alamouti space-time
time code have similar performance to 1×2
1 SIMO
system
• For SIMO system, the received signals are
r1 = h1 s 0 + n1
r2 = h2 s 0 + n 2
• and the signal after the Maximall rat
ratio combining operation is given by
~
r0 = h1* r1 + h2* r2 = h1( 2
+ h2
2
)s 0 + h1* n1 + h2* n 2
+ M. Jankiraman, Space-time systems Artech House, 2004
time codes and MIMO systems,
2/8/2018 33
• Note that the MRC signal is equivalent to

• the resulting combined signals of the transmit diversity scheme
(Alamouti space-time
time code) above,
• except for a phase difference in the noise components
• Hence, the two schemes have the same effective SNR
• This shows that the diversity order from Alamouti space-time code
(with one receive antenna) is the
• same as that of the two branch MRC

2/8/2018 34
• In general,
• Alamouti space-time
time code with NT=2 and NR number of receiving
antennas
• has the same performance of a MRC with 2NR receive antennas

2/8/2018 35
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Diversity gain, coding gain and code rate
• Consider two distinct Alamouti codeword matrices
 s A1 − s*A 2   sB1 − sB* 2 

SA =  * 
; SB =  * 
(s A1 s A2 ) ≠ (s B1 s B2 )
 sA2 s A1   sB 2 sB1 
• The code word difference matrix is given by

 s A1 − s B1 − s *A2 + s *B 2 
D(S A , S B ) =  * * 
 s A2 − s B 2 s A1 − s B1 

2/8/2018 36
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Distance matrices of every two unequal

uneq code words have a full rank of
two
• Alamouti scheme provides full transmit diversity of two
• The code word distance matrix
A(S A , S B ) = D(S A , S B )D H (S A , S B )
 s A1 − s B1 2
+ s A2 − s B 2
2
0 
A(S A , S B ) =  2 2
 0 s A1 − s B1 + s A2 − s B 2 

2/8/2018 37
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Coding gain
 s − s 2
+ s A2 − s B 2
2
0 
A(S A , S B ) = det   A1 B1
2 

 0 s A1 − s B1
2
+ s A2 − s B 2  

(
= s A1 − s B1
2
+ s A2 − s B 2 )
2 2
1 1/ 2
 2

( 2
CGD =  s A1 − sB1 + s A 2 − sB 2
r

2
) 

( 2
= s A1 − sB1 + s A 2 − sB 2
2
)
• We can observe that the Gc is equal to that of the uncoded system

2/8/2018 38
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Note that code rate is 1

• For SER analysis, there are two basic steps:
• a) First, find the conditional error probability (CEP) for the specific
modulation scheme (refer to any wireless book for this)
• b) Second, average it over the pdf of the received SNR to obtain
average symbol error rate (SER)
+ A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications,, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

2/8/2018 39
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• SER analysis for Alamouti space-time
time code over fading channels
• Since we know that symbol error rate (SER)
• is a function of the received SNR
• For Alamouti space-time
time code, the received signal for 0≤t≤T
0 is
~ (
r1 = h1
2
+ h2
2
)s + h n + h n
1
*
1 1
*
2 2

2/8/2018 40
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Hence the received SNR can be expressed as
SNR Alamouti =
( h
1
2
+ h2 ) E = (h
2 2
s 1
2
+ h2
2
)E = (h )E + (h )E
s 1
2
s 2
2
s
= γ1 +γ 2
(h
1
2
+ h2
2
)σ 2 σ 2
σ 2
σ 2
• If channel state information (CSI) is not available at the transmitter,

• then we will allot equal power to each channel

2/8/2018 41
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Hence, we should modify the above equation as follows
(h ) E2 (h ) E2 (h ) PT2 (h ) PT2
1
2 s
2
2 s
1
2
2
2
γ1 + γ 2
SNR Alamouti = + = + =
σ2 σ2 σ2 σ2 2
• where T is the symbol period
• For Alamouti space-time code, cond
onditional error probability (CEP) for
BPSK is given by
 γ1 +γ 2 
( 
Pb (E | γ 1 , γ 2 ) = Q 2 SNR = Q 2
 2
) (
 = Q γ1 +γ 2

)
 

2/8/2018 42
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Then average bit error rate (BER) of BPSK for Alamouti space-time
code over a fading channel can be calculated as
∞∞
Pb (E ) = ∫ ∫ Q(
0 0
)
γ 1 + γ 2 p γ 1 ,γ 2 (γ 1 , γ 2 )dγ 1 dγ 2
• For independent channel, we have,

∞∞
Pb (E ) = ∫ ∫ Q(
0 0
)
γ 1 + γ 2 p γ 1 (γ 1 ) p γ 2 (γ 2 )dγ 1 dγ 2

2/8/2018 43
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
π π
1 2
 γ +γ  1 2  γ1   γ2 
QQ ( γ1 + γ 2 ) = ∫ exp  − 1 2 2
π 0  2sin θ


d θ =
π ∫0
exp −
 2sin 2 θ



exp −
 2sin 2 θ

dθ

• Hence, for iid case
π
∞∞
1 2
 γ1   γ2 
Pb ( E ) = ∫ ∫ ∫  2sin 2 θ
exp −  exp −
 2sin 2 θ dθ pγ 1 ( γ 1 ) pγ 2 ( γ 2 )d γ 1d γ 2
0 0 π 0   
π
2 ∞∞
1  γ1   γ2 
π ∫0 ∫0 ∫0  pγ 1 ( γ 1 ) pγ 2 ( γ 2 )d γ 1d γ 2 dθ
= exp −
 2sin 2 θ  exp  − 2
   2sin θ 
J. Craig, “A new, simple and exact result for calculating the probability of error for two-dimensional
two
ignal constellations”, in Proc. IEEE MILCOM,, pp. 25.5.1-25.5.5,
25.5.1 Boston, MA, 1991.

2/8/2018 44
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
M X (s ) = E [exp(sX )]
• Expressing in terms of MGF, we have, ∞
π M X (s) = ∫ exp ( sx ) p X ( x ) dx
1 2
 1   1  −∞
Pb ( E ) = ∫ Μ γ1  − 2  Μγ 2  − 2sin 2 θ  dθ
π 0  2sin θ   
• For identical channels, we have the BER of BPSK for Alamouti space-
time code over any fading channel is given as
π
2
1 2
 1 
Pb ( E ) = ∫  Μ γ  − 2 sin 2 θ   dθ
π 0  

2/8/2018 45
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• For Rayleigh fading case, the average BER for Alamouti space-time
code employing BPSK is given by
π
2
1  2sin θ 
2 2
Pb ( E ) = ∫  2  dθ
π 0  2sin θ + γ 
∞
 γ
∞ ∞ exp
 sγ − 
1  γ 1  γ 1  γ 1
∫
Μ γ (s ) = exp(sγ ) exp − dγ =
0
γ  γ γ
0 
∫
exp sγ − dγ =
γ γ
s−
1
=
1 − sγ
γ
0

2/8/2018 46
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• BER for DBPSK over Nakagami fading channel
• Note that in BPSK and MPSK information is carried in signal phase
• In differential modulation,
• we can utilize the previous symbol’s phase as phase reference for
the current symbol
• Hence, we do not have the necessitssity of the coherent phase reference
at the receiver
Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

2/8/2018 47
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• For differential binary phase shift keying (DBPSK), the CEP for SISO
case is given as 1
Pb (E | γ ) = e −γ
2
• For Alamouti space-time code,
• we have average BER for DBPSK over any fading channel is given as
∞∞ γ 1 +γ 2
1 −
Pb (E ) = ∫∫
0 0
2
e 2 p γ 1 (γ 1 ) p γ 2 (γ 2 )dγ 1 dγ 2

2/8/2018 48
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
∞∞ γ1 γ2
1 − −
⇒ Pb (E ) = ∫∫
0 0
2
e 2 e 2 pγ 1 (γ 1 ) pγ 2 (γ 2 )dγ 1 dγ 2
• Expressing in terms of MGF,

• we have the average BER of DBPSK over any fading channel as
2
1  1  1 1  1 
Pb ( E ) = Μ γ1  −  Μ γ 2  − 2  = 2  Μ γ1  − 2  
2  2     

2/8/2018 49
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Hence for Nakagami fading,
• the average BER for Alamouti space-time
space code employing DBPSK is
obtained as
−m
 sγ 
−2 m Μ γ (s ) = 1 − 
1 γ   m
Pb (E ) = 1 + 
2  2m 

2/8/2018 50
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• SER for MPSK over Hoyt fading channel
• For M-ary phase shift keying (M-PSK),
PSK), CEP is given by
M −1
π
1 M
 g PSK γ  2 π 
Pb (E | γ ) =
π ∫0
exp − 2
 sin θ 
d θ ; g PSK = sin  
M 

2/8/2018 51
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• MPSK over fading channel, we have SER as
M −1
π  γ1 +γ 2 
∞∞ M  g PSK 
1
Pb (E ) = ∫∫π ∫ exp − 2 dθp (γ ) p (γ )dγ dγ
 sin 2 θ  γ1 1 γ 2 2 1 2
0 0 0  
 

2/8/2018 52
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Expressing in terms of MGF,
• we have the average SER of MPSK for Alamouti space-time code
• over any fading channel as
M −1
π
M 2
1   g 
Pb (E ) =
π ∫
0
 Μ γ  − PSK

  2 sin 2
θ
  dθ


2/8/2018 53
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• For Hoyt fading MGF is given by
1
−
 ( γ ) 2 2  2

Μ γ (s ) = (1 − 2sγ ) +
2 s q 
 
 1+ q 2 2
( ) 

2/8/2018 54
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• For Hoyt fading,
• the average SER for Alamouti space-time
space code employing M-PSK is
−1
   2
 2 π   
 sin   
  M   2 
  γ q 
M −1      sin θ 2
π  2 π  
M  sin     
 1 + M    
1
Pb (E ) =
π ∫
0
  sin 2
θ
γ +
 1+ q 2(2
 dθ
 )
 
  
 
 
 
2/8/2018 55
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• SER for M-QAM
QAM over Rice fading channel
• In MQAM, information is carried in both phase and amplitude of the
signal
• For M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (M-QAM),
(M the CEP for
SISO is given as
2
 1   1  2
Pb (E | γ ) = 41 − ( )
Q 2 g QAM γ − 41 −  Q ( )
2 g QAM γ ; g QAM =
3
2(M − 1)
 M   M 
+ A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications,, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

2/8/2018 56
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
π
1
4
 x 2 
Q Q 2 (x ) =
π
0
∫
exp −
 2 sin 2
θ
dθ ; x ≥ 0


• M-QAM
QAM over fading channel, we have SER as
∞∞     γ +γ 2   
2
 
41 − 1 Q 2 g QAM 1  − 41 − 1  Q 2  2 g QAM γ 1 + γ 2
Pb (E ) = ∫∫
0
 
0 
M
 
  2  


M  
 2
 p γ (γ 1 ) p γ (γ 2 )dγ 1 dγ 2
 1

2

2/8/2018 57
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Integrating w.r.t. γ1 and γ2 first, we have,
π
 γ1 +γ 2 
 2 ∞∞  g 
1 1 −
QAM
 p (γ ) p (γ )dγ dγ dθ
∫∫∫
Pb (E ) = 41 −  exp 2
  sin 2 θ  γ1 1 γ 2 2 1 2
 M π 0 0 0
 
 
π
 γ +γ 2 

2 4∞∞  g QAM 1 
1  1
− 41 − 
 ∫∫∫ exp − 2  p (γ ) p (γ )dγ dγ dθ
 M  π  sin 2
θ  γ1 1 γ 2 2 1 2
0 0 0  
 

2/8/2018 58
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• Expressing in terms of MGF, we have,
π
4  1  2
 g QAM   g QAM 
Pb (E ) = 1 −
π 
M 0 ∫
 Μγ −
1  2
 2 sin θ
Μ γ  −
 2  2 sin 2 θ
 
dθ


π
2 4
4 1   g QAM   g QAM 
− 1 −
π


M  ∫
0
Μ γ 1  −
 2 sin 2
θ
Μ γ  −
 2  2 sin 2 θ
 
dθ



2/8/2018 59
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• For equal channels,
• we have the SER of M-QAM for Alamouti space-time code over any
fading channel as
π π
2 2 4 2
1    g QAM    g 
2
4   dθ − 4
 1 
Pb (E ) = 1 −
π ∫
 Μγ −
M  0   2 sin 2 θ


 π
1 −




M  ∫ Μ γ  − QAM

0
 2 sin 2 θ

  dθ



2/8/2018 60
Alamouti Space-Time
Time Code
• For Rice fading,
• the SER of M-QAM for Alamouti space-time
space code is given by
2

π  g QAM 
2  −K γ 
4  1  1+ K  2 
  2 sin θ
Pb (E ) = 1 −
π  ∫
M 0  g QAM
exp 

g QAM   dθ

1 + K + γ 1+ K + γ 
 
2 2
2 sin θ  2 sin θ
2
π  g QAM 
2 4  −K γ 
4  1  1+ K  2 
  2 sin θ
− 1 −
π 
M  0 ∫ g QAM
exp 

g QAM   dθ

1 + K + γ 1+ K + γ 
 2
2 sin θ  2 sin θ2

2/8/2018 61
Space-time block codes
• The Alamouti space-time

time code was for two transmitting antennas
only
• How do we generalize it for any number of transmitting antennas?
• Orthogonal space-time
time block codes (OSTBC) for any number of
transmitting antennas
• based on the theory of orthogonal designs
• The orthogonal property makes the decoding complexity minimal
• and we can decouple the symbols at the decoder

2/8/2018 62
2/8/2018 63
• Much of the characteristics of space-time

space block code (STBC) is
specified by the generator matrix
 S11 S12 L S 1N T 
S S 22 L S 2 NT 
G=  21
 M M O M 
  R=
k
 S N L 1 S NL 2 L S N L NT  NL

2/8/2018 64
• We have observed that Alamouti space-time

space code achieves
• the maximum diversity
• and can be detected easily using maximum likelihood (ML)
detector
• These two desirable characteristics were achieved
• as a result of the orthogonality characteristic
char of the generator matrix
G for the Alamouti code

2/8/2018 65
• The column vectors are orthogonal
1  s1   s2 
s =  *
− s2 
2
s =  *
 s1 
(s )
1 H
• s2 = 0
• orthogonality property of G
 s1 s2 
[ 2
G H G = s1 + s2 I 2
2
] G= *
 − s2 s1* 

2/8/2018 66
• The Alamouti space-time

time code provides full diversity of two
• without channel state information (CSI) at the transmitter and
• an uncomplicated ML decoding system at the receiver
• Such a system provides a guaranteed overall diversity gain
• Because of these, the scheme was extended to any number of
transmit antennas
• by using the theory of orthogonal designs

2/8/2018 67
• The generalized schemes are known as orthogonal space time block

codes
• These codes achieve full transmit diversity of NT N R
• while allowing an uncomplicated ML decoding algorithm
• The entries of the G are chosen such that they are linear
combinations of s1 , s2 , L, s N T and their conjugates
• The matrix itself is constructed base
based on orthogonal designs such that
H  2 2 2
G G =  s1 + s2 + L + s N T  I N T
 
2/8/2018 68
• OSTBC presumes that the channel el co

coefficients remains the same over
a period of symbols, i.e.,
hij ( t ) = hij ; t = 1, 2,L, NT
• This block fading assumption is needed for uncomplicated linear
decoding of OSTBC
• The orthogonality allows us to achieve full transmit diversity
• and enables receiver to decouple the signals transmitted from
different antennas

2/8/2018 69
• Dependent on the type of signal constellation used,

• space-time
time block codes can be divided into
• OSTBC with real signals
• or OSTBC with complex signals
• OSTBC for real signals
• Such matrices exist if the number of transmit antennas
N T = 2,4,8
• Real orthogonal generator matrix designs provide a diversity order of
NT N R
2/8/2018 70
• each column of an orthogonal design is a permutation with sign

change of the first column
• Just a simple check, see all the columns are orthogonal or not
 s1 − s2 − s3 − s4 
s s1 s4 − s3 
 s1 − s2 
G2 =  G4 =  2
 s2 s1   s3 − s4 s1 s2 
 
 s4 s3 − s2 s1 

2/8/2018 71
• The code rate for all these matrices is equal to one

 s1 − s2 − s3 − s4 − s5 − s6 − s7 − s8 
s s1 − s4 s3 − s6 s5 s8 − s7 
 2
 s3 s4 s1 − s2 − s7 − s8 s5 s6 
 
 s4 − s3 s2 s1 − s8 s7 − s6 s5 
G8 =
s s6 s7 s8 s1 − s2 − s3 − s4 
 5 
 s6 − s5 s8 − s7 s2 s1 s4 − s3 
s − s8 − s5 s6 s3 − s4 s1 s2 
 7 
 s8 s7 − s6 − s5 s4 s3 − s2 s1 

2/8/2018 72
• We can also find the diversity gain for the given generator matrices
• For instance, for 2×2
2 generator matrix of
 s1 − s2 
G2 =  
s 2 s1 
• For two different space-time codewords,

codewords
• let us find the codeword difference matrix and
• codeword distance matrix

2/8/2018 73
• codeword difference matrix of SA and SB is

 s A1 − sB1 − s A 2 + sB 2 
D (S A , SB ) =  
 s A 2 − sB 2 sA1 − sB1 
• The codeword distance matrix of SA and SB is
T
( s − s ) 2 + ( s − s ) 2 0 
A (S A , SB ) = D (S A , SB ) ( D (S A , SB )) = 
A1 B1 A2 B2
 0 ( s A1 − sB1 ) + ( sA2 − sB 2 ) 
2 2


2/8/2018 74
• Rank of this matrix is 2,

• hence it achieves diversity gain of 2NR
• Similarly, we can show that generator matrices of G4 and G8
• also achieve diversity gain of 4NR and 8NR respectively
• But there is no coding gain
1 1
(
Gd = ( CGD ) = A ( S A , S B )
r
) (
2
=
2
( s A1 − sB1 ) + ( s A2 − sB 2 )
2
)
• which is the same as the squared Euclidean distance of the symbols
for uncoded system
2/8/2018 75
• Assuming a single receiving antenna (two transmitting antennas)

• and we can check the decoding of this real OSTBC
• For instance, let us consider generator matrix of G2
• For this case, the received signal is
Es  s1 − s2 
[y1 y2 ] = [h1 h2 ]  + [n1 n2 ]
2N 0 s 2 s1 

2/8/2018 76
• Note that we have normalized the power

Es
• by introducing a term of the form N N explicitly
T 0
• If this term is not included,
• then we have to consider this power division separately
• when we calculate the received SNR
• The above equation can be expressed in equivalent form as

2/8/2018 77
• Hence, the ML detection is
arg r%j
sˆ j = − sm ; j = 1, 2
min{m} ES
2 N0
(
h12 + h2 2 )
• where s m ∈ {s k }kM=1 is one of the M-ary

M pulse amplitude
modulation (MPAM) symbols

2/8/2018 78
• OSTBC for Complex Signal Constellations

• The Alamouti scheme gives the full diversity of 2NR with a full code
rate of 1
• It has been shown in the literature+ that orthogonal complex designs
with code rate R=1 do not exist for NT>2 transmit antennas
+H. Jafarkhani, Space time coding: theory and practice,

practice Cambridge University Press,
2005.
V. Tarokh, H. Jafarkhani and A. R. Calderbank,, “Space-time
“Space block coding for wireless
communications: performance results,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in
Communications, 17(3), 1999, pp. 451-60
2/8/2018 79
• However by reducing the code rate,

• it is possible to devise complex orthogonal designs for 2-D
2 signal
constellations
• For example,
• an orthogonal generator matrix for a STBC that transmits four
• complex-valued
valued Phase shift keying (PSK) or
• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) symbols
• on 4 transmit antennas is given below

2/8/2018 80
 s1 s2 s3 s4 
−s s1 − s4 s3 
 2
 − s3 s4 s1 − s2 
 
 − s4 − s3 s2 s1 
G4 = *
s s2* s3* s4* 
 1* 
 − s2 s1* − s4* *
s3 
 − s* s4* s1* − s2* 
 3* 
 − s4 − s3* s2* s1 
*
• For this code generator, the four complex-valued

complex symbols are
transmitted in eight consecutive time slots (R=1/2)

2/8/2018 81
• We also observe that

H
[ 2 2 2
G G = c s1 + s2 + s3 + s4 I 4
2
]
• where c is a constant
• So this code provides
• fourth order diversity in the case of one receive antenna and
• 4NR diversity with NR receive antennas

2/8/2018 82
• Differential modulation introduces memory in the transmitted data

• This memory can be used to estimate the transmitted data without
knowing CSIR
• It is very useful for high speed wireless communication
• Estimate of the channel fading is poor for fast fading channel
• Hence differential modulation can be used for fast fading channels
+M. R. Bhatnagar, Differential Coding for MIMO and Cooperative Communication,
Communication PhD
thesis, University of Oslo, Norway, 2008.

2/8/2018 83
• Differential OSTBC
• For non-coherent STBC,
• we can apply differential STBC so that
• we can estimate the transmitted symbol without CSIR
• Consider I-O model of a NT×NR MIMO system
• The received signal at time t can be expressed as
Yt = HXt + Nt

2/8/2018 84
• where
• Yt is an NR×NL matrix
• H is an NR×NT matrix (for frequencyncy flat Rayleigh fading, elements of
H are iid distributed as NC(0,1) )
• Xt is an NT×NL OSTBC encoded transmission matrix at time t
• Nt is NR×NL matrix with i.i.d.. complex circular Gaussian random
variables (RVs) with each components distributed as NC(0,σ2)

2/8/2018 85
• Let S denote the symbol alphabet from a unitary constellation

2
• ( ∀s j ∈ S , s j = 1 ), for instance, BPSK, QPSK, M-PSK
M
p
• Assume {s } j j =1
be a block of p symbols to be sent at a time t
p
1
• Then define Ut = ∑( V j s real
j
+ i W s
j j
imag
)
, i = −1
p j =1

2/8/2018 86
• where V j , Wj satisfy the amicable orthogonal designs+
• Then we can show that

U t U tH = I N
T × NT
• which means that Ut is a unitary matrix

+ G. Ganesan and P. Stoica, “Differential
Differential Modulation Using Space–Time
Space Block Codes,”
IEEE Signal Processing Letters,, vol. 9, no. 2, Feb. 2002, pp. 57-60.
57

2/8/2018 87
• Some examples are

• (a) For two antennas and 2 symbols
• Let s1 and s2 be two symbols from a unitary symbol constellation
2 1  s1 − s2* 
Ut =  * 
2  s2 s1 

2/8/2018 88
• (b) For three antennas and 3 symbols
 s1 0 s2 − s3 
3 1 * * 
Ut =  0 s1 s3 s2 
3
− s2* − s3 s1* 0 
• (c)For 4 antennas and 3 symbols
 s1 0 s2 − s3 
 0 s1 s3* s2* 
4 1
Ut =
3 − s2* − s3 s1* 0 
 * * 
 s3 − s2 0 s1 

2/8/2018 89
• Let {Uk} be a set of unitary matrices to be transmitted

• Instead of transmitting {Uk} we encode the information differentially
for forming a new set of matrices {X
{ k}
Xt = Xt −1U t
X0 = I N
T × NT
• Since {Uk} are unitary and X0 is an identity matrix, {X

{ k} are also unitary

2/8/2018 90
• Differential modulation and detection:

• Assume we initially transmit X 0 = I NT ×NT
• At time t, we may transmit X =X U t t −1 t
• The received signal matrix at time t can be expressed as
Yt = HXt + N t = HXt −1U t + N t

2/8/2018 91
• the received signal at the previous time t-1 was

Yt −1 = HXt −1 + N t −1
• Since Nt−1 is a Gaussian white noise
• Yt−1 can be taken as the ML estimate of HXt−1

• It is assumed that channel H remains constant over the transmission
period of Xt-1 and Xt

2/8/2018 92
• Substituting this, we have,
Yt = HXt −1U t + N t ≅ Yt −1U t + N t
• Hence the ML detection could be carried out without CSIR

• We can estimate Ut and correspondingly block of p symbols
{sˆ j }pj=1 = arg max {

trace (Yt − Yt −1U t )H (Yt − Yt −1U t ) }
{s j }, s j ∈ S
2/8/2018 93
Algebraic Space Time Codes
• Alamouti Space Time Codes is the only full rate (rate r=1) and full
diversity
• OSTBC for complex signal constellations
• There are no OSTBC with full rate and full diversity for NT>2
• for complex signal constellations
• Can we have a full rate and full diversity STBC for N×N
N MIMO
system?
• This is possible with some class of space time codes
• popularly known as Algebraic space time codes
2/8/2018 94
• Diagonal Algebraic Space Time Codes

• full diversity and rate one code
• Threaded Algebraic Space Time Codes
• full diversity and rate r code where r≥1
r
• Perfect space time codes
• full diversity and rate r code where r≥1
r

2/8/2018 95
• Diagonal algebraic space time codes

• can be constructed for
• NT=N equal to 2n where n is a positive integer
• The code construction is a two step process:
• find an optimal unitary matrix of dimension N having the maximal
diversity
• use Hadamard matrix to multiple
ltiplex information symbols over space
and time

2/8/2018 96
• Code construction:
• Unitary transformation of symbol vector
• Use Hadamard matrix for multiplexing symbol over space and time
 x1 0 L 0   x1   s1 
     
 0 x2 L 0  Hadm  x2   s2 
G DAST =  HN ; = UN
N
M M O M M  M
     
0 L 0 x 
 N   xN  sN 
2/8/2018 97
• Unitary matrices:
U HN U N = I N
 0.2012 0.3255 − 0.4857 − 0.7859

 − 0.3255 0.2012 0.7859 − 0.4857 
 0 .5257 0 . 8507 
U2 =   ; U4 = 
− 0.8507 0.5257  0.4857 0.7859 0.2012 0.3255 
 
− 0.7859 0.4857 − 0.3255 0.2012 

2/8/2018 98
• Unitary matrices:
  2π 
• For N=2 dimension constructed on number fields Q cos
n  
  8N  
  4 ×1 − 1  
  4 × 2 −1  
2  π   
UN = cos × × [2 ×1 − 1 2 × 2 − 1 L 2 × N − 1]
N 4 N  M 
   
 4 × − 1 
  N  
+M. O. Damen, K. Abed-Meraim and J. C. Belfiore,
Belfiore “Diagonal Algebraic Space Time
Codes,” IEEE Trans. Inform. Theory,, vol. 48, no. 3, March 2002, pp. 628-636.
628

2/8/2018 99
• An N×N Hadamard matrix is a binary matrix H Hadm

N with elements {1,
-1} such that
(
Hadm
HN HN Hadm T
= HN ) (
Hadm T
H Hadm
N = NI N )
• It can be constructed for N=2n where n is a positive integer
• That’s why we can construct Diagon
gonal Algebraic Space Time Codes for
N=2n only
• For example, a 2×2 Hadamard matrix is
Hadm 1 1 
H 2 = 
1 − 1
2/8/2018 100
• H Hadm
N is the Hadamard matrix of N dimension
• which could be obtained from N N Hadamard matrix as follows
×
2 2
 H Hadm H Hadm 
 Hadm
N /2 N /2
Hadm

H Hadm
N
=  H N /2 − H N /2 
 
  1 1 1 1 
  1 − 1 1 − 1
H 4Hadm = 
• For example 1 1 − 1 − 1
 
1 − 1 − 1 1 
2/8/2018 101
• Diagonal Algebraic Space-time

time Code for NT=2
 x1 0  x1 0 1 1   x1 x1 
G DAST
2 =  H 2 =    =  ;
0 x2  0 x2 1 − 1  x2 − x2 
• The symbols after unitary transformation is

 x1   s1   0.5257 0.8507   s1   0.5257 s1 + 0.8507 s2 
 x  = U 2  s  = − 0.8507 0.5257   s  = − 0.8507 s + 0.5257 s 
 2  2   2   1 2

2/8/2018 102
• Diagonal Algebraic Space-time
time Code for NT=4
 x1 0 0 0  x1 0 0 0  1 1 1 1 
   
0 x2 0 0 0 x2 0 0  1 − 1 1 − 1
G 4DAST =  H4 = 
0 0 x3 0 0 0 x3 0  1 1 − 1 − 1
    
0 0 0 x4  0 0 0 
x4  1 − 1 − 1 1 
 
 x1 x1 x1 x1 
x − x2 x2 − x2 
= 2 ;
 x3 x3 − x3 − x3 
 
 x4 − x4 − x4 x4 

2/8/2018 103
• The symbols after unitary transformation is

 x1   s1   0.2012 0.3255 − 0.4857 − 0.7859  s1 
x   s   − 0.3255 0.2012 0.7859 − 0.4857  s2 
 2 = U  2 = 
 x3  4
 s3   0.4857 0.7859 0.2012 0.3255   s3 
      
 x4   s4  − 0.7859 0.4857 − 0.3255 0.2012   s4 
 x1   0.2012s1 + 0.3255s2 − 0.4857 s3 − 0.7859s4 
 x  − 0.3255s + 0.2012s + 0.7859s − 0.4857 s 
⇒  2 =  1 2 3 4
 x3   0.4857 s1 + 0.7859s2 + 0.2012s3 + 0.3255s4 

   
 x4  − 0.7859s1 + 0.4857 s2 − 0.3255s3 − 0.2012s4 
2/8/2018 104
• Groups:
• A Group (G) is a set of elements with a binary operation that obeys
• the following four properties (or axioms) and
• an optional fifth property +
• Closure:
∀a , b ∈ G , a • b ∈ G
• Associativity: ( )
∀a , b , c ∈ G , a • b • c = a • b • c ( )
+ B. A. Forouzan, Cryptography and Network Security,
Security Tata Mc-Graw Hill, 2007.

2/8/2018 105
• Existence of identity: ∀a ∈ G , ∃ e , a • e = e • a = a
• Existence of an inverse: ∀a ∈ G , ∃ − a , a − a = − a + a = 0
∀a ∈ G , ∃a −1 , a × a −1 = a −1 × a = 1
• Commutativity (optional): ∀a , b ∈ G , a • b = b • a
true only for Abelian (commutative) group

2/8/2018 106
• Ring:
• A ring is a set R along with
• two binary operations “+” and “×” “
• obeying the following axioms+:
• R is an Abelian group for the operation “+”
• satisfies all five axioms for “+” operation
+ R. B. J. T. Allenby, Rings, Fields and Groups,, Edward Arnold, 1991.

2/8/2018 107
• The operation “×”” is associative and

• certainly closed also
• i.e,, satisfies first two axioms closure and associativity only for the
“×” operation
• The operations satisfy the Distributive Laws
• the second operation is distributed over the first operation
( ) (
∀a , b , c ∈ R , a × b + c = a × b + a × c , a + b × c = a × c + b × c)

2/8/2018 108
• If the second operation “×”” is commutative,

• we call R a commutative ring
• Sometimes the ring has a multiplicative identity and
• we say it a Ring with identity and
• the multiplicative identity is denoted by 1
• Example
• Assume R (set of real numbers) be a commutative ring with an
identity

2/8/2018 109
• Consider a polynomial p (α ) of degree n

• whose coefficients in R with an indeterminate α
• may be represented as
n
p α = ∑ aiα i , an ≠ 0 , ai ∈ R
( ) i =0
• Addition and multiplication of polynomials are carried out as usual

• The ring of such polynomials is denoted by R α 

2/8/2018 110
• Fields:
• A field is a commutative ring with identity (1 ≠ 0 )
• in which each non-zero
zero element has a multiplicative inverse
• Let Z be the set of integers
 
 
 
Z = L , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, L
 
 
∀a ∈ G , ∃a −1 , a × a −1 = a −1 × a = 1

2/8/2018 111
• Q is the set of rational numbers

a 
Q =  | a , b ∈ Z , b ≠ 0
b 
• R is the set of real numbers and
• C is the set of complex numbers
• The rings Q, R, C are fields

2/8/2018 112
• Field extension of Q: Example 1:
• Consider an irreducible polynomial in α (it cann’t be factored into
product of two non-constant
constant polynomials over Q, but it can be
factored over irrational number)
α2 − 2 = 0 ⇒α = 2
• α is not an element of Q (set of rational numbers)

• One may extend Q by adding 2 to Q,
( )
• denoted by Q 2 which contains both Q and 2
+E.
Viterbo and F. Oggier, Algebraic Number Theory and Code Design for Rayleigh Fading Channels,
Channels Now
publishers, 2004

2/8/2018 113
• Any element in extended field Q ( 2) can be expressed in

polynomial form
a + b 2 , a,b ∈ Q
• The basis vector for Q ( 2) 




 
1, 2
 
 
• and the dimension of Q ( 2) is 2 over Q

2/8/2018 114
• Field extension of q-QAM:
QAM: Example 2: 2
 iπ

• Consider a number field K = Q  i ,θ = e  of degree two over base field
4
Q(i) (q-QAM constellations)  
• Consider the minimum polynomial of θ
()
pθ x = x 2 − i
iπ
• Its root θ = i = e is called an algebraic number and
4
• we will consider algebra of θ

2/8/2018 115
iπ
• Its conjugate θ = − e 4
• the integral basis of

b = [1 θ ]
• and each element of ( ) can be expressed in polynomial form

K = Q i ,θ
as
x = a + bθ , a , b ∈ Q i ()

2/8/2018 116
• Consider a generator matrix as
1 θ 
G= 
1 θ 
• You may also find the value of θ = e jω
• By finding the value of ω which will minimize the PEP (trace
criterion)
• Or by minimizing the trace of codeword distance matrix
• The unitary matrix of dimension two can be constructed as
G
U2 =
2
2/8/2018 117
• For two QAM information symbols

 s1 
s= 
 s2 
• Unitary transformation: we can rotate this input symbol vector by
multiplying with the unitary matrix U as
1 1 θ   s1  1  s1 + θs2 
x = U 2s = 1 − θ   s  =  
2  2  21s − θs 2

2/8/2018 118
• This operation increase the algebraic dimension of constellation as

• K = Q (θ , i ) is a vector space of dimension two over Q(i)
Q(
• An Space Time Block Code will not incur any information loss
• if the maximum instantaneous mutual information of the
equivalent MIMO channel that includes the Space Time Block
Code codeword is equal
• to the maximum instantaneous mutual information of the MIMO
channel without the Space Time Block Code codeword

2/8/2018 119
• Any unitary transform will preserve the mutual information

• while changing the diversity and coding gain+
• The above codeword could be rewritten in a diagonal matrix form as
1  s1 + θs2 0 
X=  0
2 s1 − θs2 
+B. S. Rajan, “Space-time block codes,” in Channel coding: Theory, Algorithms and Applications,
Applications D.
Declerq, M. Fossorier and E. Biglieri,, Eds., Oxford, UK: Elsevier Academic Press, 2014, pp. 451-495.
451

2/8/2018 120
• Now applying the Hadamard transformation,

• we have the codeword matrix off Dia Diagonal Algebraic Space Time code
for N=2
DAST Hadm 1 − 1 1  s1 + θs2 0  1  s1 + θs2 − (s1 − θs2 )
C2 = H2 X=   = 
1 1  2  0 s1 − θs2  2  s1 + θs2 s1 − θs2 

2/8/2018 121
• For dimension N,, we can construct codes similarly
C DAST = H Hadm
N
• X = H Hadm
N
• diag U • s ( )
• Note that we need to construct an optimal unitary matrix in the
above equation  s1 
• symbol vector  
 s2 
 
s= M 
 sN 
 
 
2/8/2018 122
• The coding gain of N-dimension Dia
Diagonal Algebraic Space Time codes
are given by

 2
 2N
 , N = 2, 4

δ min = 5
 1
 N −1 , N ≥ 8
 N
2

• Minimum coding gain for N=2,4,8 are 0.8944, 0.6324 and 0.545
respectively

2/8/2018 123
• Threaded Algebraic Space Time Codes

• are fully diverse and full rate (can achieve any rate r≥1)
r for any
number of transmit antennas
• Note that the maximum value of r is min{NR,NT}
• The rate r TAST code for NR×NT MIMO system can be constructed as
r k −1
CTAST
NT
k=1
(
= ∑ Dk U N x k γ Π
T
)( )
2/8/2018 124
Π = e , e ,L, e , e 
•  T
N 1 NT − 2 NT −1  and ei is the ith column of a identity
matrix
• γ is a unit-magnitude
magnitude complex number which makes the TAST full
diverse and it is dependent on the QAM alphabet size and NT
( ) (
Dk U N x k = diag U N x k
T T
)
• is the diagonal matrix with diagonal elements consisting of a rotated
version of the kth symbol
2/8/2018 125
• xk is the vector consisting of information symbols of the kth thread

 xk ,0 
 
x
 k ,1 
 M 
xk =  x 
 k , NT − 2 
x 
 k ,NT −1 
 
 
• UN is the NT × NT unitary rotation matrix

T

2/8/2018 126
• For example for NT=2 and r=2, TAST code can be generated as
follows:
2 k −1
CTAST
2
k=1
(
= ∑ Dk U N x k γ Π
T
)( ) ( ) (
= D1 U 2 x1 + D2 U 2 x 2 γ Π )
• where x1 and x2 are symbols sent for layer 1 and 2
• For this case,  iπ

1 e 4
 0 1 
1  iπ   
1 0
U2 = 1 −e 4  ;γ Π = γ  
2   
   
 
2/8/2018 127
• Hence
  iπ
    iπ
 
 1 e 4   x1,0    1 e 4   x2 ,0    0 γ 
 1  iπ x   1  iπ   x   γ 0 
∴ CTAST
2
= Diag  1 −e 4   ,
11   + Diag  1 −e 4   2 ,1    
 2    2     
             
       

2/8/2018 128
• Diagonalize
 iπ
   iπ

 x1,0 + e 4 x1,1 0   0 γ  x2 ,0 + e 4 x2 ,1  
  
1  iπ  1  iπ
  
⇒ CTAST =  x1,0 − e 4 x1,1  + γ x − e 4 x 
2
2
0 
2   2 ,0 
2 ,1 
0


     
   

2/8/2018 129
 iπ
 iπ

 x1,0 + e 4 x1,1 γ  x2 ,0 + e 4 x2 ,1  
  
1  iπ
  iπ 
⇒ CTAST = γ x − e 4 x 
2

2   2 ,0 
2 ,1 
x1,0
− e 4
x1,1 
   
 
iπ iπ
• where for γ = e 6
for QPSK and γ = e for 16-QAM
16 constellations 4
• Note that ϒ is a unit-magnitude

magnitude complex number that ensures a full-
full
diversity TAST code (rank criterion)

2/8/2018 130
• Z ring of integers
• Q field of rational numbers
• R field of real numbers
• C field of complex numbers
• Z(i) set of numbers a+ib, where a,b belongs to Z
• Q(i) set of numbers a+ib, where a,b belongs to Q
• R(i) is field of complex numbers C

2/8/2018 131
• An algebraic number field K=Q(θ)) is the

• set of all possible algebraic
• combinations of an algebraic number θ
• with the rational numbers of Q
• θ is a root of an irreducible polynomial mθ over Q which is called
minimal polynomial
• Let n be the degree of this polynomial,
• it is also the degree of the algebraic number field.
field

2/8/2018 132
• mθ has n distinct roots in C called the conjugates of θ: θ1, θ2, …, θn.

• (1, θ, θ2, …, θn-1) forms a basis of for K.
• K is called an extension of degree n over Q.
Example
• Let θ = 2 , K = {a + bθ , a, b ∈ Q}
• The minimal polynomial of θ is mθ = x 2 − 2
• The conjugates of θ are θ1 = 2 ,θ 2 = − 2
• The degree of the algebraic number field is 2
• (1, θ) forms a basis of for K=Q(θ).

2/8/2018 133
• Let F denote either the real field R or the complex field C.

• It is possible to uniquely represent each element of K by
• means of canonical embeddings (ring homomorphism in field
theory)
• with a point in Fn.
φ ∈ K a (σ 1 (φ ), σ 2 (φ ), L, σ n (φ )) ∈ F n
• The above mapping is additive homomorphism

• so it preserves the additive structure
2/8/2018 134
Ring homomorphism:
• a transformation of one set into another that preserves in the
second set the relations such between elements of the first
• i.e., it is a function f f:K Fn such that
• f(a+b)=f(a)+f(b)
)=f(a)+f(b) for all a and b in K
• f(a×b)=f(a) × f(b) for all a and b in K
• f(1 in K)=1 in Fn
• We call the algebraic number field totally real if all the roots of the
minimal polynomial are real.

2/8/2018 135
• A set of algebraic integers w1,w2,…,w ,…, n in K is called an integral basis of
K if every algebraic integers in K can be expressed in linear
combinations of w1,w2,…,wn
• A set Let Fn=Rn and consider an integral basis (w1,w2,…,wn)
• The n-vectors vj=(σ1(wj), σ2(wj),…, σn(wj)) belongs to Fn for j=1,2,…,n
are linearly independent
• So they define a full rank lattice of Fn with generator matrix.
σ 1 (ω1 ) σ 2 (ω1 ) L σ n (ω1 )
σ (ω ) σ (ω ) L σ (ω )
G=  1 2 2 2 n 2 
 M M O M 
 
σ 1 (ωn ) σ 2 (ωn ) L σ n (ωn )
2/8/2018 136
• Thus studying the properties of a lattice in Fn is equivalent to studying

the algebraic number field K
• Example
• Q 2 + 2  is a degree 4 over Q, the minimal polynomial is
 
mθ = x − 4 x 2 + 2
4
• which has four distinct roots over R also called as conjugates of θ

{θ =1 2 + 2 ,θ 2 = − 2 + 2 ,θ3 = 2 − 2 ,θ 4 = − 2 − 2 }
2/8/2018 137
• The four canonical embeddings are

σ1 : θ aθ
σ2 : θ a −θ
σ3 : θ aθ
σ4 : θ a −θ
• One notices that {σ1, σ2, σ3, σ4} forms a Galois group w.r.t. the
function composition law

2/8/2018 138
• The basis {w1=1, w2=θ, w3=θ2, w4=θ θ3} is integral.

• The lattice of R4 defined by the following generator matrix has a full
rank
1 1 1 1 
 
 θ −θ θ −θ 
G4 =  2
θ θ2 θ 2 θ 2 
 3 
θ − θ 3 θ 3 − θ 3 
 

2/8/2018 139
• Q is the set of rational numbers,
• L = Q(i ) is the extended field of Q
• Choice of the extension
• In case of PSTBC, we shall then choose an extension cyclic base K of L
of degree n
• Golden codes
• [K=Q(i, θ) : L=Q(i)] = n (for Golden codes n=2)
2
• θ is root of minimal polynomial x − x − 1 = 0
• and θ is also called as Golden number
• The conjugates of θ are θ = 1 + 5 ,θ = 1 − 5
1 2
2 2
2/8/2018 140
• Definition of the cyclic algebra
• Let K=Q(i,θ)) be a cyclic extension of the base field L (such as Q(i)) of
degree n with Galois group GK/L=<σ σ>
• where the canonical embeddings are usually denoted as {σ { 1=1, σ2=
σ, σ3= σ2, …, σn= σn-1}
• We can build a non-commutative
commutative algebra A based on K usually
denoted as A(K/L,σ,ϒ)
• A(K/L,σ,ϒ)) is a cyclic algebra of degree n iff
n−1
A = 1• K ⊕ e • K ⊕ L⊕ e K
• As a vector space A can be seen as a sum of n copies of the chosen
number field K of degree n
2/8/2018 141
• For example, A(K/L,σ,ϒ) is a cyclic algebra of degree 2 iff A = 1 • K ⊕ e • K

2
• where e =γ
• The PSTBC also known as Golden code is a finite subset of the Cyclic
Algebra of degree n=2
• Galois group GK/L=<σ>> with canonical embeddings {σ { 1=1, σ2= σ}
σ : θ a −θ
• We can construct the cyclic algebra for any z1,z2 belongs to K
• where a1 = z1 + e z2 and a2 = z3 + e z4

2/8/2018 142
• When we suffix e (non-commutative

commutative algebra)
algebra to an element z which
belongs to an extended field K, σ will operate on z, the outcome is
() (
ze = eσ z = eσ a + bθ = e a + bθ ) ( )
• There is a corresponding matrix representation for a1 = z1 + ez 2 ∈ A
  z1 z2  
   
( )
A =  X a = γσ z2 ( )
σ z1   ; z , z ∈ K
1 2
  
   

2/8/2018 143
• How do we come up with this matrix representation?

• Let us find the multiplication of two elements a1 , a2 ∈ A
()
ze = eσ z , ∀z ∈ K
(
a1a2 = z1 + ez2 )( z 3 )( )
+ ez4 = z1 z3 + z1e z4 + ez2 z3 + e z2 e z4 ( )
= z1 z3 + eσ ( z ) z + ez z + γσ ( z ) z
1 4 2 3 2 4
= z1 z3 + γσ ( z ) z + e (σ ( z ) z + z z )
2 4 1 4 2 3
e2 = γ

2/8/2018 144
 
 
• For the basis  
 1 e 
 
 
( ) ( ( )
a1a2 = z1 z3 + γσ z2 z4 + e σ z1 z4 + z2 z3 )
• we may express the above equation in matrix form as
 z1 γσ (z 2 ) z3 
a1a2 = (1 e )  
 z2 σ ( z1 )  z 4 

2/8/2018 145
• Thus there is a corresponding matrix for every element
T
z γσ ( z2 )   z1 z2 
 1   
( )
a1 = z1 + ez2 ∈ A ↔  z2 σ ( z1 )  =  γσ z2 ( ) ( )
σ z1 
   
   
   
• A Space-time
time Block Code can be obtained by considering the matrix
of left multiplication in the given basis (1, e)
• If for a1 = z1 + e z2 belongs to A and z1, z2 belongs to K=Q(i,θ)
• Then the corresponding multiplication matrix as given above

2/8/2018 146
• A(K/L,σ,ϒ) is a cyclic algebra of degree 4 iff

A = 1 • K ⊕ e • K ⊕ e 2 • K ⊕ e3 • K
• where e 4 = γ
• Let K=Q(θ)) be a cyclic extension of the base field L=Q of degree 4
with Galois group GK/L=<σ>
• where the canonical embeddings are usually denoted as {σ { 1=1, σ2=
σ, σ3= σ2, σ4= σ3}

2/8/2018 147
• Q(θ)={x=a+b θ+c θ2+d θ3,a,b,c,d ϵ Q}

• It is of degree 4, that is of dimension 4 as a vector space over Q
• PAM symbols can be seen as elements of Q
• Q(θ)) actually encodes 4 PAM symbols namely a,b,c,d
• The four canonical embeddings are
σ1 = 1 : θ aθ
σ2 =σ : θ a −θ
σ3 = σ 2 : θ aθ
σ4 =σ 3 : θ a −θ
2/8/2018 148
• It yields a cyclic Galois group GK/L=<σ>

=<
• We can build a non-commutative
commutative algebra A on GK/L=<σ> which we
denote by K
• In our case n=4, A = 1 • K ⊕ e • K ⊕ e 2 • K ⊕ e 3 • K
• where {1, e, e2, e3} forms a basis and
• ϒ:=e4 must be an element of the base field Q.
• Such a cyclic algebra is shortly denoted by A(K/L,σ,ϒ)

2/8/2018 149
• A space-time
time block code can be obtained by
• considering the matrix of left multiplication
• in the given basis {1, e, e2, e3}
• If a1=z1+ez2+e2z3+e3z4 belongs to A, z1,z2,z3,z4 belongs to K=Q(θ),
• and a2=z5+ez6+e2z7+e3z8 belongs to A, z1,z2,z3,z4 belongs to K=Q(θ),
• then the corresponding multiplication table can be obtained by
• considering multiplication of two elements a1, a2 belongs to A

2/8/2018 150
• Let us find the multiplication of two elements a1, a2 belongs to A

( )(
a1a2 = z1 + ez2 + e 2 z3 + e 3 z 4 z5 + ez6 + e 2 z7 + e 3 z8 )
= z1 z5 + eσ ( z1 )z6 + e 2σ 2 ( z1 )z7 + e3σ 3 ( z1 )z8
+ ez2 z5 + e 2σ ( z 2 )z6 + e 3σ 2 ( z 2 )z7 + γσ 3 (z 2 )z8
+ e 2 z3 z5 + e 3σ ( z3 )z6 + γσ 2 ( z3 )z7 + γeσ 3 (z3 )z8
+ e3 z4 z5 + γσ ( z4 )z6 + eγσ 2 (z 4 )z7 + e 2γσ 3 ( z 4 )z8

2/8/2018 151
• which can be expressed as
 z1 γσ ( z 4 ) γσ 2 ( z3 ) γσ 3 ( z 2 ) z5 
  
3  z2 σ ( z1 ) γσ ( z4 ) γσ ( z3 ) z6 
2 3
(
1 e e e  2
) z 
z
 3 σ ( z 2 ) σ 2
( z 1 ) γσ 3
( z )
4  7 
z σ ( ) σ 2
( ) σ 3
( )  z 
 4 z 3 z 2 z1  8 
• Transpose of the above matrix gives the space-time

space block code
• where the factor ϒ comes from e4=ϒ ϒ and
• {1, σ ,σ2, σ3} are the elements of the Galois group,
• appearing due to the non-commutative
commutative multiplication defined in A
• by ze=e σ(z) for z belongs to K

2/8/2018 152
• Elements in a cyclic algebra A of degree n can be described by
matrices of the form
 z0 z1 L zn−1
 
( )
 γσ zn−1 σ ( z0 ) L σ z n −2  ( )
 M O O M 
 

( )
 γσ n−1 z1 γσ n−1 ( z2 ) L σ n−1
z0 

( )
 
• where  
• zl belongs to K, l=0,1,2,…,n-1.
• the factor ϒ comes from e ∈ A, e n = γ ∈ L* and L* is the set of non-
non
zero elements of L

2/8/2018 153
• How to find ϒ?
• Example
• Let K=Q(i),
), L=Q and p be any rational prime integer of the form 4k+1
• Then any matrix of the form
 x1 px2* 
X= * 
 x2 x1 

2/8/2018 154
• is an invertible matrix
• Because
( ) (
det (X ) = x1 x1* − p x2 x2* = 0 )
x1 x1*
⇒ p= *
= yy *
, y = x x
1 2
−1
x 2 x2
• From number theory, any prime of the form 4k+1 cann’t be factorized
this way

2/8/2018 155
• If we restrict to take values of x1,x2 from Z(i)

Z( which is a subset of Q(i)
• Then the design X will have a non-vanishing
vanishing determinant
• Hence for
• p=5, ϒ=2+i
• p=13, ϒ=3+2i
• p=29, ϒ=5+2i
• p=37, ϒ=6+i
• p=53, ϒ=7+2i
+P. Elias, K. R. Kumar, S. A. Pawar, P. V. Kumar and H.-F.
F. Lu, “Explicit space-time
space codes achieving the
diversity-multiplexing gain tradeoff,” IEEE Trans. on Inform. Theory,
Theory vol. 52, no. 9, Sept. 2006, pp. 3869-
3884.
2/8/2018 156
• Another way: If ϒl for l=0,1,2,…,n-1,

1, does not belong to norm NK/L(K),
i.e.,
n −1
• γ l ≠ σ i (x )
∏
i =0
• for any z belongs to K, then

• the cyclic algebra A is a division algebra,
algebra i.e.,
• every non-zero
zero element in A has a multiplicative inverse
• The above condition imposed on ϒ is called norm condition.
• A ϒ satisfying norm condition is said to be a non-norm element.

2/8/2018 157
• Finding Norm of field

Example:
• A basis for complex filed C=R(i)) over real field R is {1,i} and with
x=a+bi, we have,
• (a+bi)(1)=a+bi and (a+bi)(i)=-b+ai
• Therefore matrix representation of (a+bi)
( is
a − b
(1 i ) 
b a 
2/8/2018 158
• Hence the norm and trace of (a+bi

a+bi) is
• N(a+bi)=a2+b2 and trace is 2a
Example
• Let x = a + b m be an element of the quadratic extensionQ m / Q ( )
• where m is a square-free
free integer
• Let us find the norm and trace of x
• For Galois group of the extension consists of the identity
• and the automorphism (one-to-oneone mapping) σ a + b m = a − b m ( )
2/8/2018 159
n
• Norm is defined can be obtained as ∏ σ i (x )
i =1
• For our case, n=2, therefore,
• for canonical embeddings of identity (σ
( 1=1) and automorphism
(σ2=σ), we have,
( )(
N ( x ) = xσ ( x ) = a + b m a − b m = a 2 − mb 2 )
• and trace is T(x) =x+σ(x)=2a

2/8/2018 160
• For our case for code construction of algebraic space time code
• Note that norm of ϒ should be equal to 1
• in order to guarantee the same average transmitted energy
• from each antenna,
• at each channel use
• This limits our choice to ϒ=+1,-1,+i,
1,+i,-i and usually ϒ=i is chosen
• It means we need to show that norm for 2×2 2 case+
N ( x ) = a 2 − mb 2 ≠ i
+F. Oggier, G. Rekaya, J,-C. Belfiore and E. Viterbo,, “Perfect space-time
space block codes,” IEEE Trans. Inform.
Theory, vol. 52, no. 9, Sept. 2006, pp. 3885-3902.
2/8/2018 161
• Let C be the codebook formed by codewords X of the above form

• For it to be fully diverse,
• it is enough to have det{X’-X’’}≠0
’’}≠0 for X’ ≠X’’ in C
• or equivalently det{X}≠0 for X ≠0 ≠ in C
• it is true for codes designed from cyclic division algebra
• since every codeword matrix has an inverse

2/8/2018 162
• Perfect Space Time Codes:

• Exist for 2,3,4 and 6 transmit antennas
• Designed to meet the following four important criteria
• Full rate (minimum of NR or NT)
• Non-vanishing
vanishing determinant (Fully diverse)
• Constellation shaping: Unitary transformation (No change in
energy in transmitting symbols after the transformation)
• Uniform average transmitted energy (ϒ ( should be unit magnitude)

2/8/2018 163
• The rate r PSTBC for a MIMO system with NT transmit antennas+ can
be constructed as
r
1
C PSTBC
NT
= ∑ k
D Γ k −1
λ k =1
• where ( ( ) ( )
Dk = diag zk ,σ zk ,σ 2 zk ,L ,σ
NT −1
( z ))
k
+P. Elia, B. A. Sethuraman and P. Vijay Kumar, “Perfect space-time

space codes with minimum and non-
minimum delay for any number of transmit antennas,” IEEE Trans. Inform. Theory, vol. 53, no. 11, Nov.
2007, pp. 3853-3868.
2/8/2018 164
• λ is a suitable real-valued scalar desi
designed so that the STBC meets the
energy constraint
• γ is a unit magnitude complex number makes the PSTBC fully diverse
(
Γ = γ e N , e1 , e 2 ,L, e N
T T −2
,eN
T −1 )
• For rate r=2 and NT=2, λ=5,, we have
 z 0   z2 0   0 1 
1  0 σ z    
1
1
C2PSTBC =  D1 + D2 Γ  =  1 ( )  +  0 σ z2( )   γ 0 
5 
5     
    
     

2/8/2018 165
• For γ=i,
 z1 z2   z1 z2 
1 γσ z  
σ z1  = 1 iσ z2

⇒ C2PSTBC =  2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
σ z1 
5  5 
   
• which is also called as Golden code

2/8/2018 166
Basics of convolutional codes
• In convolutional code+,
• the block of n code bits produced by the encoder in a particular
moment is dependent on
• the block of k message bits in that particular moment and
• the block of data bits for N-1
1 moments (N>1) before
+ B. P. Lathi, Modern digital and analog communication systems,

systems Oxford University Press, 2009 .
E. Biglieri, Coding for wireless channels, Springer, 2005
S. G. Wilson, Digital Modulation and Coding,, Pearson, 1996
T. Oberg, Modulation, Detection and Coding,, John Wiley and Sons, 2001

2/8/2018 167
• A convolutional code with constraint length N

• consists of an N-stage
stage shift register (SR) and
• ν modulo-2 adders

2/8/2018 168

2/8/2018 169
• Fig. shows such a coder for the case N=3 and ν=2
• The output samples the ν modulo--2 adders in a sequence,
• once during each input-bit
bit interval
Example
• Assume that the input digits are 0101
• Find the coded sequence output
• Initially, the SRs s1 = s 2 = s 3 = 0

2/8/2018 170
• Note that SR just shifts the inputt da

data to the next SR in the next time
instant
• When the first message bit 1 enters the
s1 = 1, s 2 = s 3 = 0
• Then
y1 = y2 = 1
• The coder output is 11

• When the second message bit 0 enters the SR, s1 = 0, s 2 = 1, s 3 = 0

2/8/2018 171
• Then y1 = 1, y2 = 0
• When the third message bit 1 enters the SR,
s 1 = 1, s 2 = 0 , s 3 = 1
• Then y1 = y2 = 0
• When the fourth message bit 0 enters the SR,
s1 = 0, s 2 = 1, s 3 = 0

2/8/2018 172
• Then y1 = 1, y2 = 0
• State diagram:
• When a message bit enters the SR (s1),
• the coder outputs are dependent on both the message bit in s1 and
the two past bits already in s3 and s2
• There are four feasible combinations of the two past bits in s3 and s2 :
00, 01,10,11
• We will name these four states as a, b, c, d respectively

2/8/2018 173
Fig. 3-shift
shift registers showing states a, b, c and d
2/8/2018 174
• we will adopt
• solid lines for 0 input bit, and
• dashed lines for 1 input bit
• State a goes to State a for 0 input and 00 output
• State a goes to State b for 1 input and 11 output
• State b goes to State c for 0 input and 00 output
• State b goes to State d for 1 input and 01 output

2/8/2018 175
• State c goes to State a for 0 input and 11 output

• State c goes to State b for 1 input and 00 output
• State d goes to State c for 0 input and 01 output
• State d goes to State d for 1 input and 01 output

2/8/2018 176
Fig. State diagram for the coder

2/8/2018 177
• Trellis diagram:
• Trellis diagram may be easily drawn from the above state diagram
• It commences from entire 0s in the SR, i.e., state a and
• makes transitions depending on every input data digit
• Such changes are represented by
• a solid line (ensuing data digit 0) and
• by a dashed line (ensuing data digit 1)

2/8/2018 178
Fig. Survivor paths after the 3rd branch of the Trellis diagram for
received sequence 01 00 01
2/8/2018 179
• As usual, ML receiver selects a code word nearest to the received

code word
• Since there are code words (k input data digits),
• the ML decoder needs to store 2k code words and compares with
the received code word
• For large k, there is exponential incr
increase in complexity of the decoder
• Viterbi simplify such ML calculation by observing that
• every four nodes (a, b, c and d) has only two antecessors

2/8/2018 180
• only the path that matches most with the received sequence
• (the minimum distance path)) requires to be kept for each node
• For a received bit stream,
• it is necessary to determine a path in the trellis diagram with
• the output digit stream which matches most with the received
stream
Example
• Assume that the initial six received digits are 01 00 01
• Find the survivor paths (minimum--distance path with the received
sequence)
2/8/2018 181
• Survivor paths after the 3rd branch of the Trellis diagram for received
sequence 01 00 01
• Note that every node can be checked in from two nodes only
• With four paths eliminated as illustrated in Table, the four survivor
paths are the only contestants
• To truncate the Viterbi algorithm and ultimately we need to resolve
on single path rather than four

2/8/2018 182
After 3rd branches Paths Distance with received sequence Survivor?
Node a 00 00 00 2 Yes
11 10 11 3
Node b 00 00 11 2 Yes
11 10 00 3
Node c 00 11 10 5
11 01 01 2 Yes
Node d 00 11 01 3 Yes
11 01 10 4
2/8/2018 183
• This is made possible for 00 given to the last two data digits
• When the first 0 is input to the SR,
• we look for the survivors at nodes a and c only
• When the second 0 enters the SR, we scrutinize survivor at node a
• For Viterbi algorithm, storage andd co
computational complexity reduces
considerably (proportional to 2N)
Table: Survivor paths after the 3rd branch of the Trellis diagram for
received sequence 01 00 01

2/8/2018 184
Space-time trellis codes
• Space Time Trellis Code is
• an extension of conventional trellis codes to multi-antenna
systems
• These codes may be designed to
• extract the diversity gain and coding gain+
• The literal meaning of “trellis” is
• “a light frame made of long narrow pipes of wood that cross each
other, used to support climbing plants”
plants
• Note the similarity of trellis with the trellis diagram
+ V. Kuhn, Wireless Communications over MIMO channels, Wiley, 2006

2/8/2018 185
Fig. Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) constellation diagram

(Ξ(0)e0=1; Ξ(1)ejΠ/2=j; Ξ(2)e2jΠ/2
/2=-1; Ξ(3)e3jΠ/2=-j where Ξ is the M-
ary mapping function)

2/8/2018 186
• The number of nodes in the trellis diagram

• corresponds to the number of states in the trellis
• Fig. Trellis diagram of a QPSK, four--state trellis code for NT=2 with a
rate of 2bps/Hz

2/8/2018 187
2/8/2018 188
Input States 0 1 2 3
0 00 10 20 30
1 01 11 21 31
2 02 12 22 32
3 03 13 23 33

2/8/2018 189
• For example,
• when the encoder is in state St=0 and
• the input bits are 11, the symbol is a 3
• The Space Time Trellis Code outputs the pair of symbols (3,0),
• corresponding to the phases 3π/2 /2 and 0
• (corresponding signals Ξ(3)e3jΠ/2 3j =-j
• and Ξ(0)e0=1 where Ξ is the M-aryM mapping function)
• The signal -jj is transmitted in the second antenna
• and 1 signal is transmitted on the first antenna

2/8/2018 190
• At this point encoder goes to state St=3

• If the next two input bits are 01,
• the encoder outputs the symbols (2,3) which are transmitted on
the two antennas
• (second antenna transmits -1 1 and first antenna transmits -j)
• Thus the encoder goes to state St=2 and the process goes on
• At the end of a block of input bits, say a frame of data,
• zeros are inserted in the data str
stream to return the encoder to the
state St=0
2/8/2018 191
• The delay diversity scheme was started by A. Wittneben (1993)

• We will denote the generator matrix
atrix for the above Space Time Trellis
Code by
W(M , S , NT )
• where M signifies M-ary modulation scheme,

• S is the number of states in the trellis diagram and
• NT is the number of transmitting antennas

2/8/2018 192
Space-time
time trellis codes
• The generator matrix will have

• NT columns and m+s rows
• (m=log2M and s is the numberer of memory elements in the encoder
and it is equal to m=log2S where S is the number of states)
• Each entry is being a number between 0 to M-1M
• The generator matrix for Wittneben Delay diversity is given by
1 0
2 0 
=
T
W ( 4, 4, 2 )
0 1
 
0 2
2/8/2018 193
Space-time
time trellis codes
• The transmit antennas send delayed version of the message bits

• We are considering QPSK, trellis with four states and
• number of transmitting antennas equal to 2 as depicted in Fig.
1 0
  Input bits State bits    2 0 
=
T
Ξ  
  [ G]  mod ( M ) 

T
W ( 4, 4, 2 )
0 1
  d 2 ( n ) d1 ( n ) q2 ( n ) q1 ( n )     
0 2
Output bits 
= Ξ  =  s2 ( n ) s1 ( n )  ; Ξ M − ary mapping function
 o2 ( n ) o1 ( n ) 
Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

2/8/2018 194
• The output bits will be mapped to M-ary

M symbols using the M-ary
mapping function Ξ
• which maps integer values to the M-ary
M symbols
• For instance for M-PSKPSK constellation,
• Ξ (i) =exp(2πji/M)
• where j is the √(-1) and
• i is an integer between 0 and M-1
M

2/8/2018 195
2/8/2018 196
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Let us revisit the space time trellis code of Fig.

• Let us assume that the input bit stream for this code is 01110010
• Fig. below shows the trellis path corresponding to this input bits
stream
• Note that we have to add 00 at the end to guarantee that the state-
state
machine return to state zero
1 0 
• Using the generator matrix , 2 0
G T
=  
• find the set of transmitted symbols 0 1 
 
0 2
2/8/2018 197
Space-time
time trellis codes

2/8/2018 198
Space-time
time trellis codes
• First two inputs are 10 and state is 00 (State 0)

• Hence, the output can be obtained as
1 0
2 0 
(1 0 0 0 )  = (1 0 )
0 1
 
0 2

2/8/2018 199
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Therefore, Ξ(1)= ejΠ/2=j and Ξ(0)= ej0Π/2=1 are sent at time t=1 from
the second and first antennas respectively
• Now the next state is 10 (State 1)
• Next two input bits are 00, hence, the outputs are
1 0
2 0 
( 0 0 1 0 )  = ( 0 1)
0 1
 
0 2

2/8/2018 200
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Therefore, Ξ(0)=ej0Π/2=1 and Ξ(1)= ej1Π/2=j are sent at time t=2 from
1 0
2 0 
(1 1 0 0 )  = (3 0)
0 1
 
0 2

2/8/2018 201
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Therefore, Ξ(3)= ej3Π/2=-jj and Ξ(0)= ej0Π/2=1 are sent at time t=3 from
1 0
2 0 
( 0 1 1 1)  
= ( 2 3)
0 1
 
0 2

2/8/2018 202
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Therefore, Ξ(2)= ej2Π/2=-1

1 and Ξ(3)= ej3Π/2=-j are sent at time t=4 from
1 0
2 0 
( 0 0 0 1)  = (0 2)
0 1
 
0 2

2/8/2018 203
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Therefore, Ξ(0)= ej0Π/2=1 and Ξ(2)= ej2Π/2=-1 are sent at time t=5 from
• Rank and coding gain distance (CGD) calculations
Example:
• The first path stays in state zero during both transitions that is 000
• The second path goes to state 2 in the first transition and merges to
state zero in the second transition that is 020
• Find the rank and CGD for these two trellis paths shown in next slide

2/8/2018 204
Space-time
time trellis codes

2/8/2018 205
Space-time
time trellis codes
• The corresponding codewords for

or th
the two different trellis paths after
doing M-ary mapping Ξ for QPSK shown in Fig.
 j2
π

 ( ) ( ) = 1 2  Ξ ( 2 ) = e = −1 Ξ ( 0 ) = e = 1 
j0 j0 2 j0
Ξ 0 = e = 1 Ξ 0 = e
C1 =   ; C =  
 Ξ (0) = e j0 = 1 Ξ (0) = e j0 = 1 π
  Ξ ( 0 ) = e j 0 = 1 Ξ ( 2 ) = e 2 = −1
j2
 
• Then codeword difference and distance matrix of C1 and C2 and CGD

can be calculated as

2/8/2018 206
Space-time
time trellis codes
2 0
(
D C ,C 1 2
) 1
= C −C =  2

0 2
T 2 0 2 0 4 0
( 1
A C ,C 2
) = D (C , C ) ( D (C , C ))
1 2 1 2
=
0 2   0 2  =
0 4 
    
1 1
(
CGD = A C , C 1 2
) = 16 ( (
Gd = A C1 , C2 )) r
( (
= A C1 , C2 )) 2
= 16 = 4
2/8/2018 Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, of MIMO Wireless Communications, 207

Cambridge UniFundamentals versity Press, 2017
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Assume that for an Space Time Trellis Code with NT=2, the
transmitted codeword is 220313 and the decoder decides in favor of
the codeword 330122
• The symbols transmitted are from QPSK scheme
(Ξ(0) 0=1;
• Find the coding gain and diversity gain for this case (Ξ(0)e
Ξ(1)ejΠ/2=j; Ξ(2)e2jΠ/2=-1; Ξ(3)
e3jΠ/2=-j )
 j − j  −1 −1 
1   2  
C =  1 − j ;C =  1 j 
 −1 −1  − j − j
   
2/8/2018 208
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Codeword difference matrix

 −1 − j −1 + j 
 
2
( 1 2 1
D C ,C = C − C =  0 ) 2j 
 − j + 1 − j + 1
 
• Codeword distance matrix
 4 2 + 2 j −2 − 2 j 
=  2 − 2 j −2 + 2 j 
H
( ) ( )( (
A C2 , C1 = D C2 , C1 D C2 , C1 )) 4
 −2 + 2 j −2 − 2 j 4 

2/8/2018 209
Space-time
time trellis codes
• The codeword distance matrix has only two eigenvalues 2.5359 and
9.4641
• Therefore, rank of codeword distance matrix is 2 (diversity gain is 2NR)
and coding gain is
1/ r 1/ 2 1/ 2
Gd = ( CGD ) = ( CGD ) = ( 2.5359 × 9.4641) = 24

2/8/2018 210
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Space Time Trellis Code employing QPSK for two transmit antennas
designed based on rank and determinant criteria
• T(4,4,2) 1 2 0 0 
T (4 , 4 , 2 ) = 
0 0 1 2 
• M=4, S=4, NT=2 (rows = 2, columns = 4)
• Rank 2, Coding gain 2
+ V. Tarokh, N. Seshadri and A. Calderbank, “Space-time

“Space codes for high data rate wireless
communication: performance criterion and code construction”, IEEE Transactions on Information
Theory, 44(2), 1998, pp. 744-765.

2/8/2018 211
Space-time
time trellis codes
• Space Time Trellis Code employing QPSK for two transmit antennas
designed based on rank and determinant criteria
• Y(4,16,2) 0 2 1 1 2 0 
Y (4,16 , 2 ) = 
2 2 1 2 0 2 
+Q. Yan and R. S. Blum, “Optimum space-time convolutional codes”, in Proc. Wireless Communications
and Networking Conference, 2000, Chicago, USA.

2/8/2018 212
Space-time
time trellis codes
• B(4,16,2) 2 1 0 2 2 0
B (4 ,16 , 2 ) = 
0 2 2 1 0 2 

+S. Baro, G. Baush and A. Hansmann, “Improved Codes for Space-time trellis coded modulation”, IEEE
Communications Letters, 4(1), 2000, pp. 20-22.

2/8/2018 213
Space-time
time trellis codes
• P(4,16,3)
0 2 1 2 2 0 

P(4,16,3) = 2 1 2 0 3 2 
2 1 3 2 1 2
• Full rank and coding gain is 24

2/8/2018 214
Performance analysis of Space-time
Space codes
over separately correlated MIMO channel
• Let us denote the codeword difference matrix between two
codewords C1 and C2 by
∆ = C1 − C2
• Assume that we are sending the space-time
space codeword C1 and the
decoder decides in favor of C2
• Hence the conditional pairwise error probability (PEP)+ is given as
 Es 2   γ 2 
(
P C → C H = Q
1 2
 2N0
H )
H∆  = Q 
  2
H∆ 

   
+G. Taricco and E. Biglieri, “Exact pairwise error probability of space-time codes”, IEEE Trans. On Inform.
Theor., 48(2), Feb. 2002, pp. 510-513.
2/8/2018 215
Space codes
• Using the alternate form of Q-function,
function, we have,
π
1  γ H∆
2
2 
(1 2
π 0

P C → C H = ∫ exp − )
 4sin 2 θ
dθ

 
• Hence the unconditional pairwise error probability (PEP) is given as

π π
1 2 ∞  γ H∆ 2
 1 2  γ 
(
P C →C 1 2
) = ∫ ∫ exp  −
π 00  4sin 2 θ
 p 2 (ζ )d ζ dθ = ∫ M 2
 H∆∆ π 0 H∆  − 4sin 2 θ

dθ

 

2/8/2018 216
Space codes
γ
• In the above equation, assuming s=− 2
,
4sin θ
• we can denote M H∆ ( s )
2 as thee m
moment generating function (MGF)
of H∆ 2

2/8/2018 217
Space codes
• Note that
H
H∆
2
(
= trace H∆∆ H H H
) {
= vect H ( )} (H
) ( )
I N R ⊗ ∆∆ H vect H H
• For separately correlated MIMO channel, we have,
vect ( H ) = R H vect ( H w )

2/8/2018 218
Space codes
• Therefore,
H
H∆
2
{
= vect H ( )} H
w (RH )
H /2
( I N R ⊗ ∆∆ H ) 1/ 2
(RH ) ( )
vect H wH
• where RH = RR ⊗ RT is the spatial correlation matrix

X X
• Assume that A is a Hermitian matrix
A = (RH )
H /2
( I N R ⊗ ∆∆ H ) (RH )
1/ 2

2/8/2018 219
Space codes
• Rayleigh fading MIMO channel
H
• Assuming { ( )}
v = vect H H
w is a zero mean ( µ v = 0 ) Gaussian
vector with covariance matrix as an identity matrix
R v = I N R NT

2/8/2018 220
Space codes
Theorem:
• Consider the random quadratic form of a Hermitian matrix A in
C (µv , RV )
N
complex Gaussian multivariate (row vector) v = N
y = Quad A ( v ) = vAv H
• The MGF of the y is given as
exp sµ v A {I − sR v A} ( µ v ) 
 −1 H
M y (s) =  
I − sR v A
2/8/2018 221
Space codes
• Note that for ( µ v = 0 ) , the expone
onential term in the MGF expression
of equation will become 1
exp  sµ v A {I − sR v A} 
−1 H

(µv ) 
M y (s) =
I − sR v A
Hence, the MGF for random quadratic form of a Hermitian matrix A for
correlated Rayleigh fading channel is
−1 R v = I N R NT
M y (s ) = I N R N T − sA

2/8/2018 222
Space codes
• Then, after substituting A,, the MGF of y becomes
−1
M y ( s ) = I N R NT − s ( R H )
H /2
(I NR ⊗ ∆∆ H
)(R )H
1/ 2
• Since I + AB = I + BA , we have,
−1
(
M y ( s ) = I N R NT − s I N R ⊗ ∆∆ H
)R H

2/8/2018 223
Space codes
• Since R H = R RX ⊗ RTX for Kronecker model, we have,
−1
(
M y ( s ) = I N R NT − s I N R ⊗ ∆∆ H
)( R RX ⊗ R TX )
• Since (A ⊗ B )(C ⊗ D ) = AC ⊗ BD , we have,
−1
(
M y ( s ) = I N R NT − s R RX ⊗ ∆∆ R TX H
)
• If λA is an eigenvalue of A and λB is an eigenvalue of B,
• then λA λB is an eigenvalue of A ⊗ B

2/8/2018 224
Space codes
r rˆ
−1
M y ( s ) = ∏∏ (1 − sλn µm )
n =1 m =1
• where −1
H
• r is the rank of ∆∆ R TX M y (s) = IN R NT
( H
− s R RX ⊗ ∆∆ R TX )
• r̂ is the rank of R RX
• λ n is the eignvalue of ∆∆ H R TX
• µ m is the eignvalue of R RX

2/8/2018 225
Space codes
γ
• In our case, we have taken, s = −
4sin 2 θ
• hence, the exact PEP becomes
π π
1  γ H∆
2 ∞
2
 1 2  γ 
(
P C →C 1 2
) = ∫ ∫ exp  −
π 00  4sin 2 θ
 p 2 (ζ )d ζ dθ = ∫ M 2
 H∆ π 0 H∆  − 4sin 2 θ

dθ

 
π
2 r rˆ −1 rˆ
 γλn µ m  r
(
P C1 → C 2 = ) π
1
∫ ∏∏  1 + 2 
dθ M y ( s ) = ∏∏ (1 − sλn µm )
−1
m =1 
0 n =1
4 sin θ 
n =1 m =1

2/8/2018 226
Space codes
• Find the PEP for the following two space-time
space codewords:
1 1  1 − 1
1
  2  
C = 1 1; C =  1 − 1
1 1  −1 1 
   
• Assume i.i.d.. Rayleigh fading MIMO channel.
channel
• Note that Δ is the codeword difference matrix
• Δ ΔH is the codeword distance matrix

2/8/2018 227
Space codes
• For i.i.d. Rayleigh fading MIMO channel,
R TX = I NT ⇒ ∆∆ H R TX = ∆∆ H
R R X = I N R ⇒ µ m = 1, rˆ = N R
 0 2
   4 0
( ) (
D C , C =  0 2; A C , C = 
1 2 1 2
 )
 2 0  0 8
 

2/8/2018 228
Space codes
• Hence the eigenvalues of codeword distance matrix are 4 and 8

π
2 r rˆ −1
 γλn µ m 
(
P C1 → C 2 = ) 1
π ∫ ∏∏
∏ 1 + 2 
dθ
0 n =1 m =1  4 sin θ 
π π
NR NR NR NR
1  4 sin2 θ   4 sin2 θ  1  sin2 θ   sin2 θ 
2 2
(1 2
P C →C = ) ∫
 
π  4 sin2 θ + γ 4
 2  dθ = ∫ 
π sin2 θ + γ 
 2  dθ
0
 4 sin θ + γ 8 0
sin θ + 2γ 

2/8/2018 229
Space codes
π
• For Chernoff bound of PEP, put θ= or sin 2 (θ ) = 1
2
• for PEP, then
−1
1 r
 γλn µm 
rˆ
(
P C →C1 2
) bound
≤ ∏∏ 1 +
2 n =1 m =1  4 
• For high SNR case, PEP is bounded as
−1
1 r
 γλn µm 
rˆ
(
P C →C1 2
) bound
≤ ∏∏ 
2 n =1 m =1  4 


2/8/2018 230
Space codes
• For i.i.d.. Rayleigh fading MIMO channel,
∆∆ H RTX = ∆∆ H
−1
1 r rˆ
 γλn µm 
R R X = I N R ⇒ µ m = 1, rˆ = N R P ( C → C ) ≤ ∏∏ 
1 2

bound 2 n =1 m =1  4 
− NR
1  γλn 
r
1 4 rN R
(
⇒ P C →C1 2
) ≤ ∏
2 n =1  4 
=
2 r NR
bound

∏ n 
rN R
λ γ
 n =1 

2/8/2018 231
Space codes
• Once we have the PEP between all codewords,
• we can find the union bound for error probability
∑ ∑ P (C → Cˆ )
1
P (e ) ≤
M ˆ
C C≠C
• where M is the total number of codewords

2/8/2018 232
Capacity approaching codes
• Capacity approaching codes

• Codes which can approach the Shannon’s capacity limit
• It can be obtained from the Shannon’s capacity for AWGN channel
 Es 
η = log 2 (1 + SNR ) = log 2 1 + 
 N0 
• where Es is the energy per symbol and
• N0 is the variance of the noise

2/8/2018 233
• An error correcting code maps k input bits to n symbols

• Code rate r=k/n is a measure of spectral efficiency of code
• For reliable communication, code rate r should be less than or equal
to η
• Note that Eb=Es/r is the energy per bit
• Assume that we are transmittingg at the Shannon’s spectral efficiency
η
Eb 1 η
• From Shannon’s capacity, one may obtain+, N > η (2 − 1)
0
+ D. J. Costello, Jr. and G. D. Forney, Jr., “Channel coding:
coding the road to channel capacity”, Proceedings of IEEE,
vol. 95, no. 6, June 2007, pp. 1150-1177.
+ M. C. Valenti, “Turbo codes and iterative processing”, in Proc. IEEE New Zealand Wire. Symp., Nov. 1998.

2/8/2018 234
• This is called the Shannon’s limit (lower bound) on the Eb/N0 as a
function of spectral efficiency η
• For example
• η=0, lower bound on Eb/N0 is ln2=0.693 and -1.59 dB
• η=1/2, lower bound on Eb/N0 is 0.828 and -0.817 dB, Eb 1 η
> (2 − 1)
• η=2/3, lower bound on Eb/N0 is 0.88 and -0.55 dB N0 η
• η=1, lower bound on Eb/N0 is 1 and 0 dB
• It can be also calculated for any higher values of η as well
+S. Benedetto, G. Montorsi and D. Divsalar, “Concatenated Convolutional Codes with Interleavers”, IEEE
Communications Magazine, Aug. 2003, pp. 102-109.
2/8/2018 235
• Large coding gains for a given spectral efficiency by coding such as

• Turbo codes
• Low density parity check (LDPC) codes
• Turbo codes started by Claude Berrou
• Reported a turbo code of code rate ½
• very close to Shannon limit (0.5 dB) in 1993
• It is possible since
• it consists of two separated codes (concatenated code)
• which are combined to form a larger code
2/8/2018 236
Basics of turbo codes
• Encoder:
• Turbo codes are
• basically parallel concatenation of
• 2 systematic recursive convolutional codes (SRCC)
• Length k-message u encoded
• by the 1st encoder produces parity bits p(1)
• Interleaved u, i.e., Π(u) encoded
• by the 2nd encoder produces parity bits p(2)
+ S. J. Johnson, Iterative error corrections, Cambridge University Press, 2010.

2/8/2018 237
Fig. Turbo code encoder
2/8/2018 238
• Interleaver:
• It is represented by a permutation sequence
∏ = [Π 1 , Π 2 , L , Π n ]
• where the sequences ∏ = [Π 1 , Π 2 , L , Π n ]

• is a permutation of the integers 1 to n

2/8/2018 239
• Interleaver ensures that parity bits of encoder 2 is

• completely different than encoder 1
• If low-weight
weight parity sequence for encoder 1 then
• high-weight
weight parity sequence for encoder 2,
• avoids low-weight turbo codewords (improves error rate)
• Example
=[4 2 5 3 1] acting on the input vector u = [u1 u 2 u 3 u 4
• Π=[4 u5 ]
• will produce Π (u ) = [u 4 u 2 u 5 u 3 u1 ]

2/8/2018 240
• u=[1 0 1 1 0] Π(u)=[1 0 0 1 1] Π (u ) = [u 4 u2 u5 u3 u1 ]

• Code rate:
k
k + n1 − k + n 2 − k
• where code rates for encoder 1 and encoder 2 are chosen as

k
• and k respectively
n1 n2
• Note that n1-k and n2-k are parity bits for SRCC1 and SRCC2

2/8/2018 241
• Puncturing:
• To increase code rate,
• we may puncture the output of one or both convolutional codes
• For example, encoding message bits
• [0 1 0 1 0 0] with an encoder produces the two codeword bits
C1 = [0 1 0 1 0 0]; C 2 = [0 1 1 0 1 0]
• Present code rate=6/12=1/2

2/8/2018 242
• Puncturing every third bit in codeword 2 will produce
C 2 = [0 1 × 0 1 ×]
• where x indicates that the corresponding bit is not transmitted
• That means, for every 6 message bits,
• only 10 codeword bits which means the
• code rate=6/10=3/5

2/8/2018 243
• The puncturing pattern is specified by puncturing matrix P

• For encoder with n output bits the matrix P
• will have n rows one for each output stream
• The zero entry in the third column of the second row indicates
• that every third bit in the output is to be punctured
1 1 1 
P= 
1 1 0

2/8/2018 244
• Systematic recursive convolutional code (SRCC)

• Note there is a feedback loop in encoder diagram
• unlike convolutional codes
• hence, the name recursive
• we can modify the generator polynomial for SRCC accordingly
• First part of the code c(1) is the message bit itself
• so the name systematic
+ S. Haykin and M. Moher, Communication systems, John Wiley & Sons, 2010.

2/8/2018 245
Fig. A SRCC encoder

2/8/2018 246
• Consider SRCC shown in Fig.

(a) Find the generator matrix of this SRCC
 1+ D 2 
G = 1 2
 1 + D + D 
• 1 in the generator matrix means

• we are sending the first part of the codeword same as the message
bit

2/8/2018 247
(b) Consider an input message bit of 100, find the output of the code
Solution:
• Assume input bits are coming as 1, 0 and 0
• Note that subscript denote the time, at time t=1,
• First part of the code is equal to the input message bit at that time
c1(1) = u1 = 1
• Second part of the code can be calculated as
( )
c1(2 ) = u1 ⊕ s1(1) ⊕ s1(2 ) ⊕ s1(2 ) = 1

2/8/2018 248
• Note that subscript denote the time

• At time t=2,
(1)
c2 = u 2 = 0
( )
c 2(2 ) = u 2 ⊕ s 2(1) ⊕ s 2(2 ) ⊕ s 2(2 )

2/8/2018 249
• We need to find the states of the SR1 and SR2 first

(1)
( (1) ( 2)
s 2 = u1 ⊕ s1 ⊕ s1 = 1 )
s 2(2 ) = s1(1) = 0
• Hence,
( )
c 2(2 ) = u 2 ⊕ s 2(1) ⊕ s 2(2 ) ⊕ s 2(2 ) = 1

2/8/2018 250
• At time t=3,
c 3(1) = u 3 = 0
( )
c 3(2 ) = u 3 ⊕ s 3(1) ⊕ s 3(2 ) ⊕ s 3(2 )

2/8/2018 251
• We need to find the states of the SR1 and SR2 first
(
s 3(1) = u 2 ⊕ s 2(1) ⊕ s 2(2 ) = 1 )
( 2) (1)
s3 = s 2 = 1
• Hence,
( )
c 3(2 ) = u 3 ⊕ s 3(1) ⊕ s 3(2 ) ⊕ s 3(2 ) = 1

2/8/2018 252
• The final code word for the input message bit 100 is
[
C = c1(1) c1(2 ) ; c 2(1) c 2(2 ) ; c 3(1) ]
c 3(2 ) ; = [1 1; 0 1; 0 1;]
• ½ rate turbo code by Berrou, Glavieux and Thitimajshima
• It uses the same encoder 1 and 2: rate ½ SRCC shown in Fig.
• Hence it will produce rate 1/3 turbo code
+C. Berrou, A. Glavieux and P. Thitimajshima, “Near Shannon limit error-correcting coding and decoding:
turbo-codes,” in Proc. International Conference on Communications,
Communications Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 1064-1070,
1993. {citations 10,721 as of 07-Feb-2018}

2/8/2018 253
Fig. Berrou, Glavieux and Thitimajshima turbo code encoder
2/8/2018 254
• we can increase the code rate to 1/2 by puncturing both the SRCC
encoders
1 1 0 0 
P1 =  ; P2 =  
1 0   0 1 
• The generator matrix for the SRCC depicted in Fig.
 1+ D 4 
G = 1 2 3 4
 1 + D + D + D + D 

2/8/2018 255
• Interleaver used is
Π = [3,7,6,2,5,10,1,8,9,4]
• Assume a message bit

• u=[1
=[1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0] is entering the turbo code encoder
• Let us find out what is the output codeword
• The input bit to SRCC 1 is u

2/8/2018 256
• The bit interleaved input for the SRCC 2 is given by

• v=Π(u)=[1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0]
• At time t=1,
c1(1) = u1 = 1
• Second part of the code (for SRCC 1) can be calculated as

2/8/2018 257

(
c1(2 ) = p1(1) = u1 ⊕ s1(1) ⊕ s1(2 ) ⊕ s1(3) ⊕ s1(4 ) ⊕ s1(4 ) = 1 )
• Note that subscript denote the time
• Also note that v1 = 1
• Third part of the code (SRCC 2) can be calculated as
(3) ( 2) ((
1) ( 2) (3) ( 4) ( 4)
c1 = p1 = v1 ⊕ s1 ⊕ s1 ⊕ s1 ⊕ s1 ⊕ s1 = 1 )
• At time t=1, c1=111
2/8/2018 258
• At time t=2,
c 2(1) = u 2 = 0

( 2) (1) ( (
1)
c = p = u ⊕s ⊕s +s +s ⊕s
2 2
(
2
2) (3)
2
( 4) ( 4)
2 2 2 ) 2

2/8/2018 259
• We need to find the SRCC 1 states of the SR1, SR2, SR3 and SR4 first
(
s 2(1) = u1 ⊕ s1(1) ⊕ s1(2 ) ⊕ s1(3) ⊕ s1(4 ) = 1 )
s 2(2 ) = s1(1) = 1
s 2(3) = s 2(4 ) = 0
• Hence, c 2(2 ) = p 2(1) = 0

2/8/2018 260
• Note that v 2 = 1
• Third part of the code (SRCC 2) can be calculated as
(
c 2(3) = p 2(2 ) = v 2 ⊕ s 2(1) ⊕ s 2(2 ) + s 2(3) + s 2(4 ) ⊕ s 2(4 ) )
• We need to find the SRCC 1 states of the SR1, SR2, SR3 and SR4 first

2/8/2018 261
(
s 2(1) = v1 ⊕ s1(1) ⊕ s1(2 ) ⊕ s1(3) ⊕ s1(4 ) = 1 )
( 2) (1)
s 2 = s1 = 1
(3) ( 4)
s2 = s2 = 0
• Hence,
c 2(3) = p 2(1) = 1
• Therefore, at time t=2, c2=001

2/8/2018 262
• Hence the output code from SRCC 1

• u=[1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0]
p(1) = [10 L]
• For puncturing matrix
1 1
P1 =  
1 0 

2/8/2018 263
• We will send u as it is, therefore, u=[1

u 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0]
• We will send 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th bits from parity bit matrix 1,
therefore,
p (1) = [1L]
• Hence, the output code from SRCC 2
• v=Π(u)=[1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0]
( 2)
p = [11L]

2/8/2018 264
• For puncturing matrix 0 0 

P2 =  
 0 1 
• we have,
• We will not send any bit from v
• We will send 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th and 10th bits from parity bit matrix 1,
therefore,
( 2)
p = 1L

2/8/2018 265
• We can observe that for 2 input bits,

• we are sending the same 2 input bits and
• 2 parity bits
• The code rate is ½

2/8/2018 266
Introduction to Space-time
time turbo encoders
• Note that the space-time

time turbo codes are
• extension of turbo codes for multiple antennas
• We will consider the case of two transmit antennas
• for illustration purpose
• Fig. depicts turbo space-time
time coded modulation scheme
• It comprises of two
• parallel concatenated systematic and recursive space time trellis
codes (STTCs)

2/8/2018 267
Fig. Turbo space-time
time coded modulation scheme (STTC: Space-
Space
time trellis code)
2/8/2018 268
time turbo encoders
• One of the antennas is always linked to

• the systematic output of the systematic and recursive STTC 1,
• and the second antenna is joined to
• the parity symbols of the two systematic and recursive STTCs
• With puncturing (full rate may be achieved),
• one parity symbol for each of the
• two systematic and recursive STTCs may be sent through the
channel
• and ignore the other parity symbol
2/8/2018 269
time turbo encoders
• But then full diversity may not be achieved

• This space-time
time turbo codes is very similar to the binary turbo codes
• But there are some differences
• The interleavers operate on symbols rather than on bits
• There are interleavers for the systematic and recursive STTC 2
• and de-interleaving
interleaving operation before sending over the channel
• It makes sure that the systematic symbols for
• both the systematic and recursive STTCs are equal

2/8/2018 270
time turbo encoders
• Its decoders are very similar to the binary turbo decoders

• except that trellis diagram will
ill be used for symbols rather than bits
• One may also find out the Euclid
clidean distance instead of Hamming
distance in Viterbi decoders
• Iterative decoders are employed in turbo codes
+ T. M. Duman & A. Ghrayeb, Coding for MIMO communication systems, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.

2/8/2018 271
Coding theory
• We call a 0 and a 1 a digit

• A word is a sequence of digits
• The length of a word is the number of digits in the word
• For example, 11001 is a word of length five
• A binary code is a set C of codewords.
codewords
• The code consisting of all words of length two is
• C={00,01,10,11}
• A block code is a code having all its word of the same length

2/8/2018 272
Coding theory
• This number is called the length of a code

• We shall denote the number of codewords in a code C by |C|
• Let K={0,1} and Kn be the set of all binary words of length n
• Multiplication is AND
• Addition is XOR
• A code C is called a linear code if v+w is a word in C whenever v and
w are in C
• For example

2/8/2018 273
Coding theory
• C={000, 111} is a linear code

• A linear code C must contain the zero word
• But C1={000,001,101} is not a linear code
• But zero being in a code doess no not guarantee that the code is linear
• We can use tools from linear algebra for linear code
• Polynomial representation of codewords
• The polynomial of degree f ( x ) = a 0 + a1 x + a 2 x + L + a n −1 x n −1
• at most n-11 over K may be regarded as the word v=a0a1a2…an-1

• of length n in Kn
2/8/2018 274
Coding theory
• For example codeword and polynomial are
0000 0
1100 1+ x
0111 x + x 2 + x 3
2
1010 1+ x
• Let v be a codeword of length n, then cyclic shift is denoted by π(v)

v 11100 00111 00001 11110
π (v ) 01110 10011 10000 01111
2/8/2018 275
Coding theory
• A code C is a cyclic code
• if the cyclic shift of each codeword is also a codeword
Example:
• The code C={000,110, 101, 011} is a linear cyclic code
• π(000)=000, π(110)=011, π(101)=101,
(101)=101, π(011)=110
• If we wish to construct a cyclic linear code then
• we pick a codeword v from a set S consisting of
• v and all of its cyclic shifts
{ }
S = v, π (v ), π 2 (v ), L , π n −1 (v ) ; π 2 (v ) = π (π (v )), π 3 (v ) = π (π (π (v ))), L

2/8/2018 276
Coding theory
• We say v is the generator for the cyclic code and

• the corresponding polynomial is called generator polynomial denoted
by g(x)
• For example
• Let n=3 and v=100, w = a0 v + a1π (v ) + a2π (v )
2
• then ⇒ π ( w ) = a 0π (v ) + a1π 2
(v ) + a 2π 3
(v )
• S={v, π(v), π(v)}={100,010,001} ⇒ π (w) = a2 v + a0π (v ) + a1π 2 (v )

2/8/2018 277
Coding Theory
• The simplest generator matrix for linear cyclic codes is  g (x ) 
• the matrix in which the rows are the codewords  xg (x ) 
G =  
• corresponding to the generator polynomial  M 
• and its first k-1 cyclic shifts  k −1 
(
x g x  )
• For example,
• for v=1010,
 x  1 + x 2  1010
• n=4, G=  = 3
= 
 xg ( x )  x + x   0101
• k=2,
• g(x) has degree =n-k=2

2/8/2018 278
Coding theory
• Galois field
• Galois field a special class of cyclic fields
• The order of a finite field is always a prime or a power of a prime
• For each prime power, there exists exactly one finite field GF(pn)
Example:
• Galois Field (2) is the smallest field and
• it has (1,0) as elements
• Addition is XOR and
• Multiplication is AND operation
2/8/2018 279
Coding theory
• Consider the construction of GF(23) using the primitive polynomial
h(x)=1+x+x3
word x i mod h( x )
100 1
010 x
001 x2
110 x3 ≡ 1 + x
011 x4 ≡ x + x2
111 x 5 ≡ 1 + x + x 2
101 x6 ≡ 1 + x2
• Every non-zero codeword in Kn can be represented by some power of x

2/8/2018 280
Coding theory
• Galois Field (GF) construction

• A 4-tuple (a,b,c,d)) expressing a number in GF(24) can be expressed as
a + bα + cα 2 + dα 3
• In other words,
• The elements of GF(24) can be represented as polynomials with
degree less than 4
• A polynomial p(α)) that cannot be factored into polynomials of
lower degree is referred to as irreducible
2/8/2018 281
Coding theory
• Any irreducible polynomial of degree n yields the field

• Consider the irreducible polynomial over GF(24)
( )
p α =1+α + α 4 ⇒ α 4 =1+α
• Hence we may simplify all higher order polynomials to a

polynomial with degree less than 3
α 5 = αα 4 = α + α 2 ,α 6 = αα 5 = α 2 + α 3 ,α 7 = αα 6 = α 3 + α 4 = α 3 + α + 1

2/8/2018 282
Coding theory
• A subgroup H of a group G is a group constructed from a subset of

elements in a group with the same operation “.”
• If a subgroup of a group can be produced using the power of an
element σ (generator),
• the subgroup is known as a cyclic subgroup, denoted by σ
• For example, set of even numbers is <2>
• Elements in a finite cyclic subgroup can be written as {ζ , σ , σ 2
,L , σ n−1
}
• where σ n = ζ and ζ is the identity element
• The order of an element σ in a grou
roup is the smallest integer for which
σn =ζ
2/8/2018 283

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Fundamentals of MIMO W

Prof. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

+S. M. Alamouti,, “A simple transmit diversity technique for wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• where S represents the SNR,

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• If we take log to the base 2 of the above equation, we have,

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• If there is some coding gain,

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• Let us consider two of the simplest cases:

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• A sound design policy to assure full diversity is

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• where the codeword distance matrix is

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• We can define coding gain distance (CGD) between two codewords

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• To augment the coding gain of a full diversity code,

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• The codeword distance matrix is

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• The diversity order of the system is twice the number of receiving

• We can also express average PEP upper bound of space-time

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• Another good design policy is to maximize the minimum squared

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• Coding over space and time

+S. M. Alamouti,, “A simple transmit diversity technique for wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• If we allow the channel gain coefficients to remain equal for two

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• In compact matrix form, the received signal vector may be written as

• Similarly the 2×11 vector of additive complex noise in the combiner

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• In matrix form, the output of the combiner can be written as

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• which can be simplified as

• In order to perform this operation, the combiner needs the channel

• Note that the MRC signal is equivalent to

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

 s A1 − s*A 2   sB1 − sB* 2 

• The code word difference matrix is given by

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• Distance matrices of every two unequal

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• Note that code rate is 1

+ A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications,, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• If channel state information (CSI) is not available at the transmitter,

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum,, Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless

• For independent channel, we have,

 s A1 − sA 2   sB1 − sB 2 