Contents

Contributors xvii

Introduction D.J Allun

I. 1 History of high voltage engineering
1.2 High voltage power networks
1.3 EC Directives
1.4 The future of HV engineering

1. Electric power transmission and distribution systems I. A. Erinmez 9

1.1 Nature and development of transmission and distribution systems 9
I . 1.1 Nature of transmission and distribution systems 9
1.1.2 Early developments (1880-1930) II
I . 1.3 Development of the transmission grid concept 13
1 1 1.4 Recent developments 19
1.2 Structure of transmission and distribution systems 23
1.2.I Typical characteristics of transmission and distribution
systems 26
1.2.2 Organisational structures of transmission and
distribution systems 27
1.3 Design of transmission and distribution systems 31
1.3.1 Security of supply 32
1.3.2 Quality of supply 32
1.3.3 Transmission system capability 32
1.4 Operation of transmission and distribution systems 35
I .4.1 Operational planning 36
1.4.2 Extended real-time operational activities 38
1.4.3 Real-time operation 38
1.4.4 Post real-time operational activities 41
1.5. Future developments 44
1.5.I Organisational developments 44
1.5.2 Technical and technological developments 45
I .6 References 53

2. Insulation co-ordination for AC transmission and distribution systems

7: Irwin and H.M.Ryan 55
2.1 Introduction 55
vi Contents

2.2 Classification of dielectric stress 56

2.2.1 Power frequency voltage 56
2.2.2 Temporary overvoltages 56
2.2.3 Switching overvoltages 59
2.2.4 Lightning overvoltages 60
2.3 Voltage-time characteristics 60
2.4 Factors affecting switching overvoltages 62
2.4.1 Source configuration 62
2.4.2 Remanent charge 62
2.4.3 Transmission line length 64
2.4.4 Compensation 64
2.4.5 Circuit-breaker pole scatter 65
2.4.6 Point-on-wave of circuit-breaker closure 65
2.5 Methods of controlling switching surges 66
2.5.1 Circuit-breaker pre-insertion resistors 66
2.5.2 Metal oxide surge arresters 67
2.5.3 Circuit-breaker point-on-wave control 72
2.5.4 Comparison of switching overvoltage control
methods 73
2.6 Factors affecting lightning overvoltages entering
substations 74
2.6.1 Backflashover 75
2.6.2 Direct strike 80
2.6.3 Attenuation of lightning overvoltage 82
2.7 Methods of controlling lightning overvoltages 82
2.7. I Location o f surge arresters 83
2.8 Conclusions 84
2.9I References 85

3. Applications of gaseous insulants H.M. Ryun 87

3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 Atmospheric air clearances 89
3.2. I Test areas 89
3.2.2 Sphere gaps 93
3.2.3 Spark gaps 93
3.2.4 Overhead lines and conductor bundles 96
3.2.5 Guidelines for live working 98
3.3 Other gases 99
3.4 Switchgear and GIS 103
3.4.1 Introduction 103
3.4.1 Arc extinction media 1 04
3.4.3 General dielectric considerations 108
3.4.4 Performance under contaminated conditions 118
3.4.5 CIS service reliability I I9
3.4.6 Vacuum switches 121
3.5 System modelling 121
3.5. I Field analysis techniques 121
3.5.2 Prediction of breakdown voltages 130
3.6 Summary I33
 Contents vii

3.7 Acknowledgments i34

3.8 References 134

4. HVDC and power electronic systems G Ci hEidhin 137

4. I Introduction 137
4.2 HVDC transmission-a brief overview 138
4.3 General principles 140
4.4 Main components of HVDC links 140
4.4.1 Thyristor valves 140
4.4.2 Convertor transformer 143
4.4.3 Control equipment 147
4.4.4 AC filters and reactive power control 147
4.4.5 Smoothing reactor and DC filter 150
4.4.6 Switchgear 151
4.4.7 Surge arresters 153
4.4.8 Valve cooling 154
4.4.9 Auxiliary supplies 155
4.5 Convertor building 155
4.6 Economics 157
4.7 Power electronic support for AC systems 159
4.7.1 Static Var compensators (SVC) 1 60
4.7.2 STATCOM 161
4.7.3 Series compensators 162
4.7.4 Unified power flow controller (UPFC) 163
4.8 Conclusions 165
4.9 References 165

5. Overhead lines E.?. Liptrot 167

5.1 Introduction 167
5.2 Towers and supports 169
5.2.1 General 169
5.2.2 Self-supporting single circuit towers 170
5.2.3 Self-supporting double circuit towers 171
5.2.4 Guyed towers 172
5.2.5 Tower design 172
5.3 Conductors 181
5.3.1 Conductor types 181
5.3.2 Clamps and joints 183
5.3.3 Equilibrium of the suspended wire 185
5.3.4 Conductor creep 186
5.3.5 Wind and ice loads on conductor 187
5.3.6 Ampacity 188
5.4 Dampers and spacer dampers 189
5.4. I Introduction 189
5.4.2 Single conductors 189
5.4.3 Bundled conductors 192
5.5 Foundations 193
5.5.1 General 193
5.5.2 Types of ground 194
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5.5.3 Types of foundation 194

5.5.4 Foundation calculations 195
5.6 Insulator design 195
5.6.1 General 195
5.6.2 Pin-type insulators 195
5.6.3 Cap and pin insulators 196
5.6.4 Dielectric materials 197
5.6.5 Long rod insulators 199
5.6.6 Composite insulators 199
5.6.7 Insulator sets 200
5.7 Electrical discharges 202
5.7.1 Radio interference 202
5.7.2 Corona loss 207
5.8 Line construction 207
5.8.1 General 207
5.8.2 Route selection 207
5.8.3 Basic span 208
5.8.4 Line route profile 209
5.9 European standards and their impact 210
5.10 References 21 I
Appendix 5.1 Conductor sag and tension calculations 212
Appendix 5.2 Change of state equation 214
Appendix 5.3 Ampacity of O H L conductor 215
Appendix 5.4 Foundation calculations 219
Appendix 5.5 Calculation of RIV generated by a typical transmission
line 220
Appendix 5.6 Calculation of corona loss dissipated by a typical
transmission line 223

6. High voltage cables M. Simrnons 227

6. I Introduction 227
6.2 The components of an insulated power cable system 228
6.3 Design features 230
6.3.1 Rating and thermal design- mainly referring to
super-tension cables 230
6.3.2 Medium voltage distribution cables 23 1
6.3.3 Conductors 232
6.3.4 Insulation system 235
6.3.5 Containment 242
6.3.6 Protection 244
6.3.7 Thermal and mechanical environment 244
6.4 Manufacturing processes and materials 246
6.4.1 Cables 246
6.4.2 Accessories 250
6.4.3 Environmental issues 256
6.5 Tcsting 258
6.5.1 Routine 258
6.5.2 Type testing 259
6.5.3 Special testing 260
 Contents ix

6.5.4 Site testing 262

6.6 Diagnostics 264
6.6.1 Impregnated paper insulation 265
6.6.2 Polymeric insulation 266
6.7 Case studies 267
6.7.1 Typical 267
6.7.2 Special 269
6.8 References 270

7. Gas filled interrupters - fundamentals G R Jones 273

7.1 Introduction 273
7.2 Principles of current interruption in HV systems 274
7.2.1 System-based effects 275
7.2.2 Circuit-breaker characteristics 278
7.3 Arc control and extinction 279
7.3.1 Gas blast circuit-breakers 282
7.3.2 Electromagnetic circuit-breakers 284
7.3.3 Dielectric recovery 286
7.4 Other performance inhibiting factors 286
7.4.1 Particulate material 287
7.4.2 High frequency transients 288
7.4.3 Trapped charges on PTFE nozzles 290
7.5 Other forms of interrupters 292
7.5.1 Domestic circuit-breakers 292
7.5.2 Oil filled circuit-breakers 293
7.5.3 Vacuum interrupter 293
7.6 Future trends 294
7.7 References 298

8. Switchgear design, development and service S.M.Ghufran Ali 30 1

8.1 Introduction 30 I
8.1. I SF, circuit-breakers 30 1
8.1.2 Sulphur hexafluoride 302
8.2 Interruptor development 302
8.2.1 Two-pressure system 303
8.2.2 Single-pressure puffer type interruptors 303
8.3 Arc interruption 307
8.3.1 Fault current 307
8.3.2 Capacitive and inductive current switching 309
8.3.3 Reactor switching 310
8.3.4 Arc interruption: gas mixtures 312
8.4 Third generation interrupters 313
8.5 Dielectric design and insulators 314
8.6 Mechanism 316
8.7 SF, live- and dead-tank circuit-breakers 316
8.7. I Basic GIS substation design 317
8.8 Closing- resistordmetal-oxide arresters 322
8.8.1 Main features of metal oxide surge arresters (MOA) 323
8.9 Disconnector switching 324
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8.10 Ferroresonance 325

8.11 System monitoring 327
8. I I . 1 Monitoring during installation and in service 327
8. I I .2 Continuous monitoring 328
8.1 I .3 Periodic monitoring 328
8.12 Insulation co-ordination 329
8.13 Conclusions 329
8.14 Acknowledgments 330
8. I5 References 330
8.16 Appendix 33 I
8.16.1 SF, circuit breakers in the UK 334

9. Transmission substations R F/otc/rer 335

9. I Introduction 335
9.1.1 System requirements 335
9. I .2 Choice of switching arrangement 336
9.2 Site selection 337
9.2. I Environmental impact 338
9.2.2 Technical characteristics 339
9.3 Substation design 342
9.3. I GIS substations 343
9.3.2 AIS substations 343
9.4 Concluding remarks 348
9.5 References 348

10. Distribution switchgear B. M. Pryor 349

IO. I Introduction 349
10.2 Substations 35 I
10.2.1 Substation types 35 I
10.2.2 Substation layouts 353
10.3 Distribution system configurations 355
10.3. I Urban distribution systems 355
10.3.2 Rural distribution systems 357
10.4 Ratings 359
10.4.1 Rated current 359
10.4.2 Rated short-circuit-breaking current 359
10.4.3 Rated short-circuit-making current 359
10.4.4 Rated asymmetrical breaking current 360
10.4.5 Rated short time current 360
10.4.6 Rated voltage 360
10.4.7 Rated insulation withstand levels 360
10.4.8 Rated transient recovery voltage 361
10.5 Switching equipments 36 I
10.5.1 Circuit-breakers 362
10.5.2 Distribution circuit-breaker types 365
10.5.3 Disconnectors 372
10.5.4 Earth switches 373
10.5.5 Switches 315
10.5.6 Switch disconnector 375
 Contents xi

10.5.7 Switch fuse 376

10.5.8 Fuse switch 376
10.5.9 Fuses 376
10.5. I O Contactors 379
10.5.11 Ring main units 379
10.6 Circuit protection devices 38 I
10.6.1 Surge arresters 38 1
10.6.2 Instrument transformers 38 1
10.7 Switchgear auxiliary equipment 384
10.8 SF, handling and environmental concerns 385
10.8.1 SF, breakdown products 385
10.8.2 SF, environmental concerns 386
10.9 The future 386
10.11 References 389

11. Differences in performance between SF,and vacuum circuit-breakers at

distribution voltage levels S.M. Ghufrun A f i 39 1
11.1 Introduction 39 I
11.2 Circuit-breaker 39 1
11.3 Vacuum circuit-breaker 392
11.4 SF, gas circuit-breakers 394
11.5 Puffer circuit-breaker 394
11.6 Rotating-arc circuit-breaker 395
11.7 Aut o-expansion circuit -brea ker 396
11.8 Operating mechanism 396
11.9 Choice of correct circuit-breaker for special switching duties 398
11.10 Capacitive and inductive current switching 398
11.1 1 Circuit-breakers for generator circuit switching 400
11.11.1 DCoffset 400
1 1.1 1.2 Current chopping and reignition 400
11.12 Synchronised switching 40 1
11.13 Conclusions 402
11.14 Acknowledgments 402
11.15 Bibliography 402

12. High voltage bushings J S. Grukm 405

12.1 Introduction 405
12.2 Types of bushings 405
12.2.1 Noncondenser bushings 405
12.2.2 Condenser bushings 407
12.3 Bushing design 410
12.3.1 Air end clearance 41 1
12.3.2 Oil end clearance 415
12.3.3 Radial gradients 416
12.4 Bushing applications 416
12.4.1 Transformer bushings 416
12.4.2 High current bushings 418
12.4.3 Direct connection to switchgear 419
12.4.4 Switchgear bushings 42 1
xii Contents

12.4.5 Direct current bushings 422

12.5 Testing 425
12.5.1 Capacitance and dielectric dissipation factor
measurement 426
12.5.2 Power frequency withstand and partial discharge
measurement 426
12.5.3 lmpulse voltage tests 428
12.5.4 Thermal stability test 429
12.5.5 Temperature rise test 429
12.5.6 Other tests 430
12.6 Maintenance and diagnosis 43 1
12.7 References 432

13. Design of high voltage power transformers A. White 435

13.1 Introduction 43 5
13.2 Transformer action 435
13.3 The transformer as a circuit parameter 437
13.4 The core 439
13.5 The windings 443
13.6 Cooling systems 447
13.7 The insulation 449
13.8 The tank 450
13.9 The bushings 450
13. IO On-load tapchangers 45 1
13.11 Design features 452
13.12 Dielectric design 452
13. I3 Electromagnetic design 455
13.14 Short-circuit forces 457
13.15 Winding thermal design 458
13.16 Conclusion 459
I 3.1 7 References 460

14. Transformer wer requirements, specificationsand testing 1 A. Lupwortk 463

14. I Introduction 463
14.2 User requirements 464
14.2.1 Specific requirements 464
14.2.2 General requirements 469
14.3 Specification and standards 470
14.3.1 Standards 410
14.3.2 Specifications 470
14.4 Testing 47 I
14.4.1 No-load loss and magnetisation current 412
14.4.2 Noise levels 47 3
14.4.3 Load losses and impedance 473
14.4.4 Tap-changer operation 473
14.4.5 Temperature rise 473
14.4.6 lnduced and applied overvoltage 414
14.4.7 Lightning and switching impulses 476
14.5 Concluding remarks 417
 Contents xiii

14.6 Recent developments regarding life management of transformers 478

14.7 References 479

15. Basic measuring techniques E. Gockenhach 48 1

15.1 Introduction 48 1
15.2 Measuring system 48 1
15.3 Amplitude measurements 488
15.3.1 Direct voltage 488
15.3.2 Alternating voltage 49 1
15.3.3 Impulse voltage 495
15.3.4 Impulse current 499
15.4 Time parameters 500
15.5 Measuring purposes 500
15.5.1 Dielectric tests 50 1
15.5.2 Linearity tests 50 I
15.6 Conclusions 501
15.7 References 502

16. Basic testing techniques E. Gockenhach 503

16.1 Introduction 503
16.2 Recommendations and definitions 504
16.3 Test voltages 506
16.3.1 DC voltage 506
16.3.2 AC voltage 508
16.3.3 Impulse voltage 515
16.4 Impulse current 523
16.5 Test conditions 526
16.6 Conclusions 53 I
16.7 References 53 I

17. Partial discharge measuring technique E. Gockenbach 533

17.1 Introduction 533
17.2 Physical background of partial discharges 534
17.3 Requirements on a partial discharge measuring
system 538
17.4 Measuring systems for apparent charge 54 I
17.5 Calibration of a partial discharge measuring system 543
17.6 Examples of partial discharge measurements 543
17.6.1 Partial discharge measurement on high voltage
transformers 544
17.6.2 Partial discharge measurement and location on high
voltage cables 544
17.6.3 Partial discharge measurement on high
voltage gas insulated substations 546
17.7 Conclusions 547
17.8 References 547

18. Digital measuring technique and evaluation procedures E. Gockenhacli 549

18.1 Introduction 549
xiv Contents

18.2 Requirements on the recording device 550

18.3 Requirements on the evaluation software 554
18.4 Application of digital recording systems 556
18.4.1 DC and AC voltage measurements 556
18.4.2 Impulse voltage or current measurements 557
18.4.3 Partial discharge measurements 558
18.5 Application examples of evaluation procedures 562
18.6 Summary 568
18.7 References 568

19. Traceable measurements in high voltage tests R. C. Hughes 569

19.I Introduction 569
19.2 Direct voltage 570
19.3 Alternating voltage 570
19.4 Impulse voltage 57 1
19.5 Linearity test 572
19.6 Uncertainty of measurement 573
19.7 Definitions related to accreditation 574
19.8 Definitions related to uncertainty 575
19.9 References 579

20. Fundamental aspects of air breakdown N L.Allen 58 I

20. I Introduction 58 1
20.2 Pre-breakdown discharges 58 1
20.3 The 'U-curve' 583
20.4 The gap factor 585
20.5 Sparkover characteristics 589
20.5.1 Test procedures 589
20.5.2 Sparkover voltage characteristics 590
20.6 Atmospheric effects 595
20.6. I Density effects 596
20.6.2 Humidity effects 597
20.6.3 Other atmospheric effects 599
20.7 New developments 599
20.8 References 599

21. Optical fibre based monitoring of high voltage power equipment 60 I

G R. Jones
2 I . 1 Introduction 60 1
2 I .2 Optical fibre fundamentals 602
2 1.2. I Optical propagation in fibres: ray theory 602
21.2.2 Acceptance angle and numerical aperture 602
2 I .2.3 Basic fibre types. modes, mode conversion and bandwidth 603
21.2.4 Fibre protection 607
2 I .3 Optical fibre sensing 608
2 I .3. I Introduction 608
 Contents xv

21.3.2 Formal representation of an optical fibre

sensing system 610
21.3.3 Examples of fibre sensors for high voltage
systems monitoring 612
2 I .3.4 Conclusions 632
2 1.4 Acknowledgments 633
2 I .5 References 633

22. Condition monitoring of high voltage equipment A. White, 635

P Coventry and G R. Jones
22.1 Introduction (A. White) 635
22.2 Condition monitoring overview (P.Coventry) 636
22.2.1 Objectives of condition monitoring 631
22.3 Examples of in-service condition monitoring 638
22.3.1 Partial discharge monitoring of gas-insulated
substations 638
22.3.2 Dielectric loss angle of oil impregnated paper bushings
and current transformers 645
22.4 Condition monitoring of high voltage transformers
(A. White) 648
22.4.1 Introduction 648
22.4.2 Which parameters should be monitored? 648
22.4.3 How do faults develop? 649
22.4.4 Continuous or period monitoring 649
22.4.5 What transformer parameters can be monitored? 649
22.4.6 Conclusions 652
22.5 Intelligent monitoring system-switchgear example
(G. R. Jones) 653
22.5. I Introduction 653
22.5.2 The nature of signals 655
22.5.3 Switchgear condition monitoring using the intelligence
in optical fibre sensor signals 659
22.5.4 Future developments 665
22.6 References 612

23. Life management of electrical plant A Steed 615

23.1 Introduction 675
23.2 Reliability 671
23.2. I Sources of data 611
23.2.2 Typical distribution company requirements
for data 678
23.2.3 Case studies using data 679
23.2.4 The bath tub curve 68 I
23.2.5 Practical exampledistribution transformers 683
23.2.6 Human factors in plant reliability 686
23.2.7 Conclusions on reliability 686
23.3 Condition monitoring 686
23.3.1 Definitions 686
23.3.2 Benefits of condition monitoring 687
xvi Contents

23.3.3 Application to equipment 687

23.3.4 What condition monitoring information can
tell us about asset management 696
23.3.5 Condition assessment leading to asset replacement 698
23.3.6 The new working environment-users’ requirements 70 1
23.3.7 Condition monitoring-the future 70 I
23.4 Plant maintenance 702
23.4.1 General techniques 702
23.4.2 Enhanced maintenance 704
23.4.3 Reliability centred maintenance (RCM) 704
23.4.4 Condition based maintenance (CBM) 705
23.5 Working plant harder 706
23.5. I Towards a risk-based strategy-the reasons why 706
23.5.2 Risk assessment-FMEA and FMECA 707
23.5.3 Working switchgear harder 709
23.5.4 Working transformers harder 709
23.6 Information management 710
23.7 Conclusions 71 1
23.8 References 71 1

Index 713