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Engineering Drawing

Engineering drawing is a technique of creating graphical representation that contains all necessary
information such as dimensions, specifications and notes using which an abstract concept can be
transformed into real world object. To realize such concept, basic tools of construction of drawing has
to be clearly understood as to what standard has to be followed. There is an international standard on
code of practice for drawing which is followed and adopted by Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS).
Note: The ISO ‘A’ series of sheet is based on a constant width to length ratio of 1 : 2
SCALES
The word ‘scale’ is usually employed for an instrument used for drawing or measuring the length of a
straight line. It is also used to represent the proportion in which the drawing is made with respect to
the object. It is used to make full size, reduced size or enlarged size drawing conveniently depending
upon the size of the object and that of the drawing sheet. Usually, the engineers scale is made up of
cardboard and as recommended by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) there are eight set of scales.
These are esignated from M1 to M8
DRAWING PENCIL
Various grades of pencils are available according to the proportion of graphite to clay mixture in the
pencil lead.
HB – (soft grade) : Used for drawing border lines, lettering and freehand sketching.
H – (medium grade) : Used for drawing visible outlines, visible edges and boundary lines.
2H – (hard grade) : Used for construction lines, dimension lines, leader lines, extension
lines, centre lines, hatching lines and hidden lines.
LAYOUT OF A DRAWING SHEET
 It lies within the drawing space of bottom right hand corner of sheet. It has maximum length
170mm.
Centring Marks: Four centring marks are provided on all drawing to meet the requirement of
positioning of the drawing for microfilmed reproduction.
Orientation Marks:
 Two orientation mark is provided in layout to indicate the orientation of drawing.
Border of Layout:
It is enclosed by the edges of the trimmed sheet and frame limiting the drawing space.
Grid Reference System:
 It is practiced for all sizes in order to find easy location on the drawing of details and also to find
the object location for additions and modification work etc.
 A typical layout of a drawing sheet does not contain identification mark.
 Grid references on a drawing sheet provide the following information: Location of details,
additions, modifications, revisions, etc. of drawing.
Lettering should be done freehand using HB grade pencil (conical end).
1. Type B is preferred over type A because of the division of height.
2. Vertical letters are preferred over slopped letters because of easy execution.
3. The line width of type A lettering is always less than that of type B lettering.
DIMENSIONING [IS 11669 : 1986]
BIS (Board of Indian Standards SP 46 : 2003) defines dimension as a numerical value expressed in
appropriate units of measurement and indicated graphically on technical drawings with lines, symbols
and notes.
 Centre line are drawn as, long-dashed dotted narrow lines.
 A long-dashed dotted narrow line is used to represent, line of symmetry, centre line, pitch circle of
gears and holes.
 The inclination of letters as recommended by BIS is 75°
 The two recommended systems of placing the dimensions are unidirectional and aligned systems
 A rounded interior corner is called a Fillet.
 Centreline is used to indicate axis of cylinder, centreline of the hole, axis of symmetry.

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 A short break line is used to indicate a long part of uniform cross section.
 The type of line used to indicate a cutting plane is long dashed dotted.
 In parallel or progressive dimensioning, placement of a number of single dimension lines parallel
to one another starting from a common extension line situated at one end is done. Smaller
dimensions are always placed nearer to the view.

Geometrical Constructions

 When two graphic entities are at a constant distance apart along the length, it is commonly
referred as Parallelism.
 If a line intersects a circle at two points and does not pass through the centre, the line segment
inside the circle is referred as Chord.
 When a circle passes through three given points, its centre lies at the intersection of the
perpendicular bisectors of the lines that connect the points.
 In a big circle, three small circles of equal size are drawn. Each of the small circles is tangent to
the big circle and the other two circles. The centres of the small circles lie at the corner of an
equilateral triangle.
 Knowledge of geometrical constructions is essential in designing the specific profiles on the
n2
object. For a regular polygon, each interior angle is given as    180 , where n is total
 n 
number of sides of the regular polygon. Here n = 5 (for pentagon) 80, each interior angle is 108º.
Hence statement II is wrong.
360
 Each exterior angle =
n
 Sum of exterior angle = 360º.
 Sum of interior angle = 180º×(n–2)
 The perpendicular bisector of the chord of an arc/circle always passes through the centre of the
arc/circle. A regular pentagon can be inscribed exactly in a given circle.

Scales

REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (R.F.): Ratio of the drawing size of an object to its actual size is
called as representative fraction.
Plain Scale: A plain scale is used to represent two consecutive units i.e. a unit and its sub-division.
Diagonal Scale: A diagonal scale is used to represent three units. i.e. main unit, its sub unit and
subdivision of sub unit.
A diagonal scale is constructed on the principle of similarity of triangles.
Scale of Chords: It is used to measure or construct angles when a protractor is not available.
 A plain scale is used to indicate the distances in a unit and its immediate subdivision, whereas a
vernier scale and diagonal scale indicate the distances in a unit and its immediate two
subdivision.
 A diagonal scale is based on the similarity of triangles. Hence statement I is true. A vernier scale
is a backward vernier scales if VSD > MSD and its least count is given by LC = VSD – MSD.
 All the divisions on the base of a scale of chords are not equal but decreases gradually from one
end to other.
 Measurement of the distances is simpler in a diagonal scale then in a vernier scale.
 If in the diagonal scale, horizontal subdivision represents y cm. Then to get LC of the scale, it is
divided into n equal parts so that LC = y/ n cm.

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 Engineering Curves

 A circle is formed when the cutting plane makes an angle   90 with the axis of the cone and is
parallel to the base, cutting all generators of the cone
 An ellipse is formed, when the cutting plane is inclined to the axis at an angle ‘    ’ and cuts all
the generator of the cone
 If the asymptotes are perpendicular to each other then the hyperbola is called rectangular
hyperbola or equilateral hyperbola. In case of rectangular hyperbola, the product of distances of
any point on the curve from the asymptotes is always constant.
Plane Curve: Curve traced by a point which moves in a constantly changing direction on a plane
surface.
Space Curve: Curve traced by a point which moves in a constantly changing direction in space.
 Cycloidal is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls along a
straight line without slipping or sliding.
 HYPOCYCLOID- Hypocycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which
rolls without sliding or slipping inside another circle.
 An involute is a curve traced by the free end of a string when unwound itself from a circle or a
polygon, the string being always tight. It can also be defined as a single-curved line traced by a
point on a straight line when it rolls tangentially along a circle or a polygon without slipping.
 Archimedean spiral: It is the locus of point traced when a point is moving uniformly along a
straight line towards or away from the pole while the straight line revolve about pole with uniform
angular velocity. That is, when the linear motion of the point and the rotary motion of the line is
uniform, then Archimedean spiral exist.
1. Archimede’s spiral inverts to hyperbolic spiral
2. Fermat’s spiral inverts to Lituus spiral
 Golden ratio: Two quantities are in golden ratio if their ratio is same as ratio of their sum to the
larger of the two quantity. It is is also called golden mean or golden section or extreme and mean
ratio or divine proportion or divine section.
Mathematically
ab a
     golden ratio
a b
 Cylindrical Helix, simply known as Helix –Conical helix construction is similar to cylindrical
helix. The difference is that each point is constructed on a different radius. It is generated as the
point moves on the surface of a cylinder such that it moves round the axis and simultaneously
moves towards vertex.
 Conical Helix – Conical helix construction is similar to cylindrical helix. The difference is that
each point is constructed on a different radius. It is generated as the point moves on the surface
of a cone such that it moves around the axis and simultaneously moves towards vertex.
 The locus traced by a point in such a way that the sum of its distances from two fixed points is
always constant is called an ellipse.
 The eccentricity of parabola is less than the eccentricity of a hyperbola.
The ratio of the distance of a point on a conic from the focus to the distance of the point from the
directory is known as Eccentricity
 Boyle’s law, PV = constant generates a curve which is a rectangular hyperbola.
 The line joining any point on an Archimedean spiral with the pole is called the radius vector.
 If the generating point is on the generating circle and the generating circle is outside the directing
circle, the curve obtained is Epicycloid.
 A gear tooth profile is in the form of Involute.
 The sum of distances of any point on the ellipse from the foci is equal to major axis.
 The curve traced out by a point moving in a plane such that the difference between its distances
from two fixed points is constant is known as Hyperbola.

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 When a bullet is shot in air, the path traversed by the bullet is called Parabola.
 When a right-circular cone is cut by a plane passing through its apex, the curve obtained is
Triangle.
 When a right-circular cone is cut which meets its axis at an angle greater than the semiapex
angle, the curve obtained is Ellipse.
 When a right-circular cone is cut which meets its axis at an angle less than the semi-apex angle,
the curve obtained is Hyperbola.
 the curve which has zero eccentricity is known as Ellipse.
 Hyperbolic curve is used in design of Cooling towers.
 The locus of a point lying on the circumference of the circle which rolls on a straight line is known
as cycloid.
 The curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls outside another circle
of same diameter is termed as Cycloid.
 The curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls on another circle of a
larger diameter is termed as Epicycloid.
 An involute curve is used in Gear design.

Theory of Projections

The most common projection method used by engineers are parallel projection method and more
specifically multiview orthographic projection and isometric projection.
 Convergent projection methods find its application in civil and architectural engineering.
 Axonometric projections, oblique projection and perspective projections are called pictorial
projection.
Orthographic Projection: It is a parallel projection technique in which the plane of projection (POP)
is perpendicular to the parallel line of following assumptions has to be made.
(i) Observer is at infinite distance so that the ray of vision is parallel to each other.
(ii) Projection planes are transparent so that observer can look through them.
(iii) Projection planes are rotatable so that 3D views can be converted to 2D views.
 Horizontal plane (HP) : It is a plane parallel to the ground.
 Vertical plane (VP) : It is a plane perpendicular to the ground plane.
 Profile plane (PP) : It is a plane perpendicular to both VP and HP and intersecting both of them.
 XY : It is also known as ground line or reference line. Which is intersection of VP and HP.
 In India, 1st angle projection method is used.
 In rest of the world either 1st or 3rd angle projection method is used.
 2nd and 4th angle projection methods are not used.
 Any projectional view obtained on Vertical Plane (VP) is Front view (FV).
 Any projectional view obtained on Horizontal Plane (HP) is Top View (TV).
 Any projectional view obtained on Profile Plane (PP) is Side View (SV).
For 1st angle projection
 Left Side View (LSV) is obtained on Right Profile Plane (RPP) i.e on the right side of Front View
(FV).
 Right Side View (RSV) is obtained on Left Profile Plane (LPP) i.e. on the left side of Front View
(FV). Note that Side Views (SV) always comes along Front View (FV).
 Front View (FV) lies above XY line, Top View (TV) lies below XY line.
For 3rd angle projection
 Right Side View (RSV) is obtained at Right Profile Plane (RPP) i.e. on the right side of Front View
(FV).
 Left Side View (LSV) is obtained at Left Profile Plane (LPP) i.e. on the left side of Front View (FV).
 Front View (FV) is below XY line and Top View (TV) is above XY line.

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 Axonometric Projection: In this projection, only one view showing all the three dimensions of an
object is drawn on a plane of projection (POP). The object is so placed that its three mutually
perpendicular edges will remain inclined to the plane of projection (POP). Axonometric projection
is a parallel projection technique to create a pictorial drawing of an object by rotating the object on
an axis relative to a projection.
 Isometric Projection: In this projection, the three mutually perpendicular edges of an object
makes equal inclination with plane of projection (POP) because of which true shape of the object
is obtained. In this isometric scale is used due to which its true size cannot be ascertained.
 Diametric Projection : In this projection two of the three mutually perpendicular edges of an
object are equally inclined to the plane of projection (POP). In this two different diametric scales
are used.
Trimetric projection : In this projection, all the three mutually perpendicular edges of an object
make different inclination with plane of projection (POP). In this three different trimetric scales are
used.
Oblique Projection: In oblique projection, the object is aligned such that one face (front face) is
parallel to the projection plane. In such projection, the projectors are not perpendicular to the
plane of projection rather inclined to the plane of projection (POP) at 30°, 45° or 60°. Here oblique
axis is called as receding axis. In oblique projection, projectors from various points on the object
are drawn parallel to each other and inclined to the plane of projection.
 The location of LHSV in the third-angle method of projection is on the left-hand side of FV.
 The TV of a rectangular shaped room will show length and width.
 The face of an object containing circles, irregular shapes, etc., is kept parallel to the plane of
projection is known as oblique projection.
 In an oblique projection, the front surface of the object is kept at an angle either respect to plane
of projection is parallel.
 The drawings in which the receding lines are drawn to half the scale are called Cabinet.
 The distortion in oblique projections can be decreased by reducing the length of the receding
lines.
 In oblique projections, the receding lines meet the plane of projection at an angle less than 90°
 In oblique projections, a semi-circle parallel to the plane of projection appears as semi-circle.
 In the cavalier projection, an angle at which the projectors meet the plane of projection is 45°.
 In the cabinet projection, an angle at which the projectors meet the plane of projection is 6326
 Projection of an object shown by three views is known as Orthographic.
 If the front view of an object exhibits width and height, then what dimensions of an object are
exhibited by a right side view?
 For orthographic projections, BIS recommends which of the following projection first-angle
projection
 If a principal face of an object is parallel to the picture plane, the perspective projection is called
Parallel perspective

Projections of Points

 The actual points are denoted by capital letters A, B, C etc.

 The TV of these points are denoted by small letters a, b, c etc.
 The FV of these points re denoted by small letters a dash a , b , c etc.
 The SV of these points are denoted by small letters with a double dash a , b , c etc.
 The intersection of HP and VP is shown by XY line and is called reference line.
 Projectors are drawn using 2H pencil and thin lines are used.
 The line joining the front and top views of a point is called Projector.
 A point lying in the H.P. has its top view above the XY line. Its front view will be on XY line.
 A point whose elevation and plan are above XY is situated in second-angle.

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 A point whose elevation is above XY line may be situated in
 A point is 20 mm below the H.P. and 30 mm behind the V.P. Its top view will be 30 mm above XY.
 If both the front and the top views of a point lie on opposite sides of the reference line, the point
may be situated in the following angles: First or third.
 If both the front and the top views of a point lie on the same side of the reference line, the point
may be situated in the following angles : Second or fourth.

Projection of Lines

 A line is the locus of a point moving along a fixed path .in space. The shortest distance between
two given points is a straight line.
 Plan length (PL) or Top View length : It is the length of line seen from TV.
 Elevation length (EL) or Front View length : It is the length of line seen from FV.
 Hidden part is shown by keeping it inside small bracket.
 If a line is parallel to both H.P. and V.P., its true length will be seen in both front and top view
 The point at which the line intersects the V.P., extended if necessary, is known as vertical trace
 If the front view of a line is parallel to the XY line, its true length is shown in top view
 If top view of a line is a point, its front view is perpendicular to XY line and of true length
 Horizontal trace of a line exits when the line inclined to horizontal plane
 If a line is inclined at 45° to the H.P. and 30° to the V.P., its front view is inclined at greater than
45°
 For a line situated in the first angle, H.T. and V.T. may lie below XY, H.T. lies below XY and V.T.
lies above XY, H.T. and V.T. may lie above XY
 If a line is inclined to the HP and parallel to the VP, it will have only HT
 If a line is parallel to both the RPs, then TL > EL
 The projection of VT on XY
 To obtain the point view of a line, the auxiliary plane is set perpendicular to TL
 The distance between two skew lines is equal to the length of the perpendicular from the point
view of one line to the corresponding view of another line.

Projection of Planes

 A plane (known as Lamina if it has limited extent) is a two dimensional geometrical entity which
has only two dimensions viz. length and breadth having negligible thickness (since dimension of
thickness is too small compared to other dimensions). A plane can be a regular plane surface (if
all sides are equal) otherwise irregular plane surface. Composite planes are those planes which is
composed of two or more
 Different planes. Ex: plane composed of a triangle and a semi circle.
 If a plane is parallel to the HP, its TV gives the true shape. Hence TV should be drawn first.
 FV will be an edge view parallel to XY and SV will be perpendicular to X1Y1.
 There exist no horizontal trace (HT).
 If a plane is parallel to VP, then its FV gives true shape of it hence it should be drawn first.
 TV will be an edge view parallel to XY and SV will be parallel to X1Y1.
 If a thin set-square is kept perpendicular to both the horizontal and vertical planes, its true shape
is seen in profile plane.
 Planes which are inclined to both the horizontal and vertical planes are called oblique planes.
 In a multi view orthographic projection, the front view of a circular plane may be a circle, an
ellipse, a straight line.
 If both the front and top views of a plane are straight lines, the true shape will lie on profile plane.
 If a circular plane is inclined at 30° with the H.P. and 60° with the V.P. its side view will be a
straight line.

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 The front view of an elliptical plane may be an ellipse, a circle, a straight line.
 If the top view of a plane is a rhombus, the object may be a square or a rhombus.
 The trace of a hexagonal plane may be an equilateral triangle.
 If both the principle views of a plane object are ellipses of the same size, the side view will be an
inclined line.
 If a corner of a pentagonal plate is in the VP, then its TV has one point on XY.
 If a plane is parallel to an RP, its projection on that RP shows the true shape and size.
 The trace of a plane is a line.
 A continuous straight line in FV of an object may represent.
 Either an edge or a face of the object.

Projection of solids

If axis is not perpendicular to its base i.e. it is at any angle then such type of solid is called as oblique
solid. If axis of a solid is perpendicular to HP then its base will be parallel to HP. So the true shape
and size of the base will be seen in the top view. Hence, the top view of the solid should be drawn first
and from its projectors, the front view must be drawn.
Axis Perpendicular to VP: If the axis is perpendicular to VP then the base of the solid is parallel to
VP. Hence true shape and size will be obtained on VP. Therefore, front view (FV) should be drawn
first and then TV is projected from it.
Axis Perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P.: In this case true shape and size will be obtained only
when viewed from side i.e. side view. Hence, side view is drawn first and all other views are projected
from it.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
A solid may be suspended freely in air by attaching a string at some suitable point. The projections of
such a solid should be treated as special case. The interesting fact is that an imaginary line joining the
point of attachment of the string to the centre of gravity (CG) of the solid is always vertical. Therefore,
the location of CGs of the various solids should be known. Table shows the location of CGs of basic
solids
CGS of the Solids
Group of solids Location of CG

Pyramids (including Tetrahedron) and cone 1/4 (Height) from base along the axis
Prims (including cube) and cylinder Midpoint of the axis
Sphere Centre
Hemisphere 3/8 (Radius) from circuar face along the
perpendicular to the face at centre.

Solid Position of the Cutting True Shape of

Plane Section
Cylinder Perpendicular to the axis Circle
Inclined to the axis cutting all generators Ellipse
Parallel to the axis Rectangle
Inclined to the axis cutting all generators Ellipse
Cone Parallel to a generator Parabola
Inclined to and on one side of the axis Hyperbola
Parallel to the axis Rectangular Hyperbola
Passing through the axis or the apex Triangle

 If a cutting plane is parallel to a face of the tetrahedron, the section will be an equilateral triangle.
 If a cutting plane is parallel to a side of the tetrahedron, the section will be a rectangle.
 If a cutting plane is parallel to a side of the tetrahedron and passes through the midpoints of other
edges, the section will be a square of side equal to half of the side of the tetrahedron.

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 An orthographic view of a hemi-sphere may appear as circle
 A square pyramid is resting on a face in the V.P. The number of dotted lines which will appear in
the front view is Two
 A cube is resting on the H.P. with a solid diagonal perpendicular to it. The top view will appear as
regular hexagon
 A cylinder rests on a point of its base circle in the H.P., having the axis inclined at 30° to the H.P.
and 60° to the V.P. The inclination of the top view of the axis with the reference line will be 90°
 A pentagonal pyramid is resting on its triangular face on the HP with its axis parallel to the VP
then FV shows TL of axis, SV of axis is perpendicular to XY, TV of axis is parallel to XY.
 The largest possible section of a pentagonal prism will have Seven edges.
 To obtain the true shape of the section of a solid, an auxiliary plane is set Parallel to cutting plane.
 If the cutting plane includes the axis of a cylinder, the section obtained is a Rectangle.
 The development of all the surface of a cube will be 6 squares.
 Whenever a prism and a pyramid intersect, the curve seen at their intersection is a Segmented-
line curve.
 Type of views are used to provide clarity and reveal interior features of a part is section views.
 A cone is cut by a section plane parallel to the profile plane. Its true shape of section is seen In
side view.
 When two prisms intersect at right angle, the curve of intersection is made up of straight line.
 When two cylinders of equal diameters envelope a common sphere, the curve of intersection is
made up of straight line.
 The line of intersection between cylinder and cone, unless they envelope a common sphere, is
made up of curved line. The study of intersection of surface helps in sheet metal work.
 The intersection of a cone by a plane results in conic section.
 When a cylinder penetrates into a vertical cone with their axes parallel to each other, the top view
of the curve of intersection is a circle.
 When a vertical cylinder is penetrated by a horizontal cylinder, the top view of the curve of
intersection is circular arc
 The curve of intersection of a vertical cone with an auxiliary vertical plane is hyperbolic curve.
 The points at which the curve of intersection changes its nature are known as key points.

Development of Surfaces

Surface generated by moving a straight line is called plane surface and that generated by a curve is
called curved surface.
 The development of a curved surface of a cylinder will be a Rectangle.
 The method by which the development of surface of an oblique solid is obtained is triangulation
method.
 Methods for the development of solids are parallel line method.
 Development of sphere is done by zone or Lune method.
 The nature of lateral surface of a cylinder is singly curved surface.
 The nature of surface of a sphere is doubly curved surface.
 If a semi-circular thin sheet is folded to form a cone, then the front view of the cone appears as
equilateral triangle.
 Isometric drawings fall into the category of axonometric drawings.
 The projectors in isometric view are perpendicular to plane projection.
 Pictorial views drawn on isometric scale are called isometric projection.
 Perspective projections are mostly used in architectural and civil engineering drawings,
advertisement campaigns etc. It is to note that perspective views are not used in manufacturing
drawings.

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 Parallel line development method is suitable for cubes, prisms and cylinders. Since tetrahedron is
not included in any of the above classification, hence this method is not suitable for tetrahedron.
 The shortest possible length of the thread will be the longest chord of the development sector.
 The development of a curved surface of a cylinder will be a rectangle.
Miscellaneous
 Isometric projection of an object is seen smaller in size than its actual size.
 Isometric scale is used to draw isometric projection.
 Isometric view of an object is seen in its actual size.
 Isometric scale is not used to draw isometric view.
 A square is seen as rhombus, rectangle is seen as parallelogram and circle is seen as ellipse in
isometric.
 Any angle in orthographic view is never seen as it is in isometric. It is obtained in isometric by
locating and joining the end points of the two lines making the angle.
 In isometric, extreme generators of cone or cylinders are drawn tangent to base face (in case of
cone) or tangent to both the end faces (in case of cylinder).
 The isometric projection of a sphere appears same in size as that of the actual sphere. The
isometric scale is used to draw isometric projection of the sphere in relation to other solids.
 The isometric view of a sphere is seen larger in size than the actual size of the sphere. The
spherical scale is used to draw the isometric view of the sphere.
 Compared to the actual diameter, the isometric diameter of a sphere is Equal.
 In isometric projection, the length or width of the object is drawn at 30° to the horizontal reference
line.

2. Engineering Design

Engineering design is basically the process of developing workable plans for the construction or
manufacture of equipment’s, processes, machinery, or structures to satisfy an identified requirements.
It basically includes mathematics, natural sciences, engineering sciences in order to develop
elements, systems, and processes to meet the requirement. It is a creative, iterative and open-ended
process, subject to constraints which may be ‘governed by standards or statutory guide line to varying
degrees depending upon the discipline. These constraints may also related to economic, health,
safety, environmental, societal or other interdisciplinary factors.
Original Design (Innovative Design)
This form of design is at the top of the hierarchy. A truly original design involves invention. It involves
an original, innovative concept to achieve a need. Sometimes, the need itself may be original.
Adaptive Design: This from of design occurs when the design team adapts a known solution to
satisfy a different need or to produce a novel application. Adaptive designs involve synthesis and are
relatively common in design.
 Synthesis means pulling together something new or arranging existing things in a new way to
satisfy a recognized need of society.
Redesign: It means improving an existing design. The task may be to redesign a component in a
product that is failing in service, or to redesign a component so as to reduce its cost of manufacture.
Often redesign is accomplished without any change in the working principle or concept of the original
design.
Selection Design : In this case the design task consists of selecting the components with the
needed performance, quality, and cost from the catalogue of potential vendors.
Industrial Design (Aesthetic design): This form of design deals with improving the visual appeal of
a product to the human senses.
Evolutionary Design: Adaptive design and redesign can be combindly called evolutionary design.
THE DESIGN PROCESS:
1. Define the problem.

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2. Gather pertinent information.
3. Generate multiple solutions.
4. Analyse and select a solution.
5. Test and implement the solution.
1. Define the Problem: We need to begin the solution to a design problem with a clear,
unambiguous definition of the problem. The definition of a design problem may evolve
through a series of steps of processes as we develop a more complete understanding of the
problem.
2. Gather Pertinent Information: Before we can go further in the design process, we need to
collect all the information available that relates to the problem. Gathering pertinent information
can reveal facts about the problem that result in redefinition of the problem. We may discover
mistakes and false statements made by other designers.
3. Generate Multiple Solutions: The next step in the design process begins with creativity –
generating new ideas that may solve the problem. Creativity is playing with imagination and
possibilities, leading to new and meaningful connections and outcomes while interacting with
ideas, people and the environment.
Brainstorming and Sketch storming are proven techniques that enhance the generation of
creative ideas.
Brainstorming is a technique of generating many ideas with the hope that a few good ideas
will develop into something workable. Brainstorming is a group activity; it only works when the
members of the group develop synergism (i.e. the recognition that the product of the whole
group is greater than the product of the individual members). An affinity diagram is a tool that
gathers large amount of information and organize them into grouping based on their natural
relationship. In it similar ideas or related items are grouped together.
Sketch storming is the engineer’s response to brainstorming. Sketch storming is the visual
creation and recording of ideas. Since solutions to engineering problems typically come in
visual rather than verbal images, it is important to record these ideas onto paper in sketch
form. Sketches are not detailed drawing of our ideas. They are quick, two-dimensional
representations of what our mind is seeing. Sketching ideas quickly on paper allows us to
store the visual image, modify the idea, and add details to the design later.
4. Analyze and Select a Solution: Once we have conceived alternative solutions to our design
problem, we need to analyze those solutions and then decide which solution is best suited for
implementation. At this step in the design process, we must consider the results of our design
analysis. This is highly subjective step and should be made by a group of experienced
people. This section introduces a systematic methodology we can use to evaluate
alternative designs and assist in making a decision.
 Functional analysis: determines whether the given design solution will function the way it
should. Functional analysis is fundamental to the evaluation and success of all design.
 Ergonomics: Ergonomics is the human factor in engineering. It is the study of how people
interact with machines. Most products have to work with people in some manner. People occupy
a space in or around the design and they may provide a source of power or control or act as a
sensor for the design. The geometric properties of people–their weight, height, reach,
circumference, and so on- are called anthropometric data.
 Production are designed to maintenance safe and clean environment. This is called green
designs.
 Life cycle analysis: It starts with the conception of a need and ends with the retirement and
disposal of the product. One of the key element in shaping the total life cycle is the material
selection.
5. Test and Implement the Solution: The final phase of the design process is implementation,
which refers to the testing, construction, and manufacturing of the solution to the design
problem.

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Prototyping: The first stage of testing and implementation of a new product, called prototyping,
consists of building a prototype of the product – the first fully operational production of the complete
design solution. A prototype is not fully tested and may not work or operate as intended. The purpose
of the prototype is to test the design solution under real conditions.
Concurrent engineering: In traditional design, design practices are primarily serial or sequential.
Each step in the design process is completed in order or sequence only after the previous steps have
been completed. The implementation of the design occurs after a prototype or model is created from
engineering drawings. It is only after creating a prototype of the design that engineers are able to
discover the lack of functionality in design. The product will have to be redesigned and the process
completed until a satisfactory solution was reached. Concurrent engineering is the ability to implement
parallel design, analysis, and manufacturing processes.
The final stage in concurrent engineering may be rapid prototyping.
Documenting the solution and applying for patients: Once a new product, system, or machine,
have been created, the next step during implementing the design is documenting the work, clearly
communicating the solution to the design problem so someone else can understand what have been
created.
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN: (Above discussed five steps are conceptual design metods)
 Engineers use two product development activities to expand and refresh their knowledge of
products of similar type to what they must design which are benchmarking and reverse
engineering.
 Objectives and constraints are closely related, are not interchangeable. Constraints limit the size
of the design space (i.e., the number of potential designs which may be considered), while
objectives permits to explore what remains in a design space.
 Constraints enables the rejection of unacceptable alternatives, while objectives enables the
selection among design alternatives that are at least acceptable, or we can say designs that
satisfied. Designs that satisfied may not be optimal or the best, but at least they satisfy all
constraints.
 Quality Function Deployment: It consist in translating customer desires (for example, the ease
of writing for a pen) into design characteristics or engineering characteristics (pen ink viscosity,
pressure on ball-point) for each stage of the product development. In a few words: The voice of
the customer translated into the voice of the engineer. The product planning phase of QFD
is called the House of Quality, feeds results into the design of individual parts, giving inputs into
the process planning design stage, which become inputs into the production planning phase of
QFD.
 Product Design Specification: In the product development process, the results of the design
planning process that governs the engineering design tasks are compiled in the form of a set of
product design specifications (PDS). PDS includes:
1. Product identification: It includes, basic functions of the product, Special features of the
product, Key performance targets (power output, efficiency, accuracy), Service
environment (use conditions, storage, transportation, use and predictable misuse);
2. Market identification : It includes, description of target market and its size, Anticipated
market demand (units per year), Competing products, Branding strategy (trademark, logo,
brand name);
3. Financial requirements : It includes, pricing policy over life cycle (target manufacturing
cost, price, estimated retail price, discounts), Warranty policy, Expected financial
performance or rate of return on investment, Level of capital investment required;
4. Life cycle target : It includes, useful life and shelf life, Cost of installation and operation
(energy costs, crew size, etc.), Maintenance schedule and location, End-of-life strategy
(% and type of recyclable components, remanufacture of the product, company take
back, upgrade policy).

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CONCEPT GENERATION:
Four of the most common engineering design methods are Functional Decomposition and
Synthesis, Morphological Analysis, The Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ),
Axiomatic Design.
 Creativity: Creativity is laying in between imagination and possibilities, leading to new and
meaningful connections and outcomes by interacting with ideas, people and the environment
 Models of the Brain and Creativity: Freud’s Model of Levels of the Mind: Sigmund Freud
developed a topographical model of the mind consisting of three levels:
 Conscious mind: The part of the mind where our current thinking and objects of attention take
place.
 Preconscious mind: The long-term memory, lasting anywhere from about an hour to several
years.
 Subconscious mind: The content of this mind level is out of reach of the conscious mind. Thus,
the subconscious acts independently of the conscious mind. It may distort the relation of the
conscious and preconscious through its control of symbols and the generation of bias.
Brain Dominance Theory: A second important model of the brain is the brain dominance theory.
Nobel Prize winner Roger Sperry studied the relationships between the brain’s right and left
hemispheres. He found that the left side of the brain tends to function by processing information in an
analytical, rational, logical, sequential way. The right half of the brain tends to function by recognizing
relationships, integrating and synthesizing information, and arriving at intuitive insights. Thinking that
utilizes the left hemisphere of the brain is called critical or convergent thinking. Other terms for left-
brained thinking are analytic or vertical thinking. It is generally associated with persons educated in
the technical disciplines.
Barriers to Creative Thinking:
Perceptual blocks: Perceptual blocks have to do with not properly defining the problem and not
recognizing the information needed to solve it.
Stereotyping: Thinking conventionally or in a formulaic way about an event, person, or way of doing
something. Not thinking “out of the box.”
Information overload: You become so overloaded with minute details that you are unable to sort out
the critical aspects of the problem.
Fixation: People’s thinking can he influenced so greatly by their previous experience or some other
bias that they are not able to sufficiently recognize alternative ideas.
Priming or provision of cues: If the thinking process is started by giving examples or solution cues,
it is possible for thinking to stay within the realm of solutions suggested by those initial starting points.
This is known as the conformity effect.
Emotional blocks: These are obstacles that are concerned with the psychological safety of the
individual. Other factors are as follows:
Fear of risk taking, Unease with chaos, Unable or unwilling to incubate new ideas, Motivation,
Cultural blocks, Intellectual Blocks, Environmental Blocks, Physical environment,
Creative Thinking Methods: These are as follows:
Brainstorming, Idea Generating Technique Beyond Brainstorming,
Six Key Questions: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? Five Whys
 Checklists
 Fantasy or Wishful Thinking
 Random Input Technique: Lateral thinking is the act of cutting across thought patterns. One of
the key tenets of lateral thinking is the concept that an act of provocation is needed to make the
brain switch from one pattern of thought to another. The provocative event interrupts the current
thinking process by introducing a new problem representation, providing a new probe for a
memory search, or leading to a restructureing of the solution plan.
 Synectics: Synectics (meaning joining together of different things into unified connection) is a
methodology for creativity based on reasoning by analogy. Synectics recognizes four types of
analogy: (1) direct analogy, (2) fantasy analogy, (3) personal analogy, and (4) symbolic analogy.

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 1. Direct analogy: The designer searches for the closest physical analogy to the situation at
hand.
2. Fantasy analogy: The designer disregards all problem limitations and laws of nature,
physics, or reason. Instead, the designer imagines or wishes for the perfect solution to a
problem.
3. Personal analogy: The designer imagines that he or she is the device being designed,
associating his body with the device or the process under consideration.
4. Symbolic analogy: This is perhaps the least intuitive of the approaches. Using symbolic
analogy the designer replaces the specifics of the problem with symbols and then uses
manipulation of the symbols to discover solutions to the original problem.
 Concept Map: A very useful tool for the generation of ideas by association, and for organizing
information in preparation for writing a report, is the concept map, and it has close relation with
the mind map. A concept map is good for generating and recording ideas during brainstorming.
Because it is a visual method instead of a verbal one, it encourages left-brained thinking. It also
can be very useful in generating solution concepts.
Creative Methods for Design: These are as follows:
1. Refinement and Evaluation of Ideas through Creativity: The primary purpose of the
refinement and evaluation step in concept generation is the identification of creative, feasible,
yet still practical ideas. (Convergent thinking dominates this process).
2. Systematic Methods for Designing: Systematic design methods help the design team
consider the broadest possible set of feasible conceptual designs for a given task.
Concept Generation Method:
Functional Decomposition and Synthesis: An effective way to solve a complex problem is
to decompose it into smaller parts that are easier to manage and then recombine all the ideas
or designs to arrive at the final solution. There are two main approaches towards conceptual
decomposition. These are Decomposition in Physical Domain, Decomposition in Function
Domain
Morphological Method for Design: The general morphological approach to design is
summarized in the following three steps.
 Divide the overall design problem into simpler subproblems.
 Generate solution concepts for each subproblem.
 Systematically combine subproblem solutions into different complete solutions and
evaluate all combinations.
Morphological Chart: The morphological chart is a method to arrange all the functions and
sub-functions in a logical order. The morphological chart also enlists the possible “hows” for
each sub-functions with an aim to realize the combinations of ideas comprising several design
concepts.
The Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ): The Theory of Inventive Problem Solving, known
by the acronym “TRIZ,” is a problem-solving methodology tailored to provide innovative solutions for
scientific and engineering problems. The basic premise of TRIZ is that the solution principles derived
from studying novel inventions can be codified and applied to related design problems to yield
inventive solutions. TRIZ is based on the notion that inventors recognized technical contradictions in
design problems and overcame them using a principle that represented a new way of thinking about
the situation.
Axiomatic Design: The ultimate goal of the Axiomatic Design is to establish a science base for
design and to improve design activities by providing the designer with: A theoretical foundation based
on logical and rational thought processes, Tools
The Axioms: The functional requirements (FRs) represent the goals of the design or what we want to
achieve. The design parameters (DPs) express how we want to satisfy the functional requirements.
The FRs and DPs can mathematically be described as a vector. The relationship between the FRs
and the DPs can be stated as a matrix. This matrix is called the Design Matrix (DM). Design - as used

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in the axiomatic design- is defined as the mapping process from the functional space to the physical
space to satisfy the designer specified functional requirements.
Evaluation Method For Design:
1. Absolute Comparison of Design Concepts: It consists of comparing the concepts to a
series of absolute filters.
 Evaluation based on judgment of feasibility of the design:
 Evaluation based on assessment of technology readiness:
 Evaluation based on go-no-go screening of the customers’ requirements:
Relative Comparison of Design Concepts:
Pugh’s Concept Selection Method: This is a widely accepted method for comparing concepts that
are not refined enough for direct comparison with the engineering requirements.
Weighted Decision Matrix: A decision matrix is used to evaluate the completing design concepts by
ranking them with weighting factors and scoring the degree to which each design concept meets the
criteria. It is simple tool that can be very useful in making complex decision, especially in cases where
there are many alternatives and many criteria to be considered. Thus it makes as a qualitative tool to
evaluate the alternatives.
Analytical Hierarchy Process: Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is designed to solve multi-criteria
decision problems. Several alternatives are compared in AHP on the basis of the same set of
attributes. The typical steps involved in performing the AHP: (a) make pairwise comparisons, (b)
synthesize judgments and (c) check for consistency.
EMBODIMENT DESIGN: At the end of conceptual design phase the engineering design comes to the
point where design concepts has been generated and evaluated to produce a single concept or small
numbers of concepts for further development. The next phase of the design process is called
mbodiment design. Embodiment design is also called preliminary design or system level design.
Subjects covered include a definitive layout, preliminary form design (component shapes and
materials), preliminary production information (design for manufacture and assembly), materials and
process selection and industrial design. The input to the embodiment stage is an outline sketch, few
selected concepts and associated project controlling documentation such as PDS or design
requirements. The output is a definitive scheme drawing accompanied by documentation, such as
calculations, required dimension and tolerances and suggested materials and manufacturing
processes. It also includes appearance, shape, style and size.
Embodiment design is briefly classified into three sections.
1. Product architecture: It involves arranging physical elements to carry out functions.
2. Configuration design: It provides preliminary selection of materials and manufacturing
process and modeling or sizing of parts.
3. Parametric design: It involves applying the concept and principles of design for
manufacturing to finalize the dimensions and the tolerances.
DETAIL DESIGN: In this phase of the design process all of the details are brought together, decisions
finalized, and a decision is made by management regarding release of the design for production. In
this phase we first of all make the engineering drawings and finalise design specifications. These
drawing and specifications should contain the information to unambiguously manufacture the product.
The detail design phase also involves verification testing of a prototype, the generation of a bill of
materials (BOM) from the assembly drawings, a final cost estimate, and decisions on whether to make
each part in-house or to obtain it from an outside supplier. These activities are greatly facilitated by
the use of CAD tools. Detail design ends when the design is reviewed and accepted by a formal
design review process. The review consists of comparing the design documentation (drawings,
analyses, simulations, test results. QFD, FMEAs, etc.) against a checklist of design requirements.
While detail design is the end of the design process, it is not the end of the product development
process. Some of the tasks that must be completed before product launch are process planning,
design of tooling, negotiating with suppliers, developing a quality assurance plan, marketing plan,
distribution plan, customer service plan, maintenance plan, plan for retirement of the product from
service.

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 PRODUCT LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT (PLM): Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) refers
to a set of computer-based tools that has been developed to assist a company to more effectively
perform the product design and manufacturing functions from conceptual design to product
retirement. There are three subsystems to PLM.
1. Product data management (PDM) software provides a link between product design and
manufacturing.
2. Manufacturing process management (MPM) bridges the gap between product design
and production control.
3. Customer relationship management (CRM) software provides integrated support to
marketing, sales, and the customer service functions.
PROBLEM-SOLVING TOOLS
1. Problem definition: A problem can be defined as the difference between a current state and
a more desirable state. The problem should be based on data, which may reside in the
reports of previous studies, or in surveys or tests that the team undertakes to define the
problem. In working toward an acceptable problem definition, the team uses brainstorming
and the affinity diagram
2. Cause finding - The objective of the cause-finding stage is to identify all of the possible
causes of the problem and to narrow them down to the most probable root causes.. This
phase starts with the gathering of data and analysing the data with simple statistical tools.
The first step in data analysis is the creation of a check sheet in which data is recorded by
classifications. Numeric data may lend itself to the construction of a histogram, while a
Pareto chart or simple bar chart may suffice for other situations. Run charts may show
correlation with time, and scatter diagrams show correlation with critical parameters. Once
the problem is understood with data, the cause-andeffect diagram and the why-why
diagraph are effective tools for identifying possible causes of the problem. The
interrelationship digraph is a useful tool for identifying root causes.
3. Solution finding and implementation - With the root causes identified, the objective of the
solutionfinding phase is to generate as many ideas as possible as to how to eliminate the root
causes.
Brainstorming clearly plays a role, but this is organized with a how-how diagram. A concept
selection method such as the Pugh chart is used to select among the various solutions that
evolve. With the best solutions identified, the pros and cons of a strategy for implementing
them is identified with the help a forcefield analysis. Finally, the specific steps required to
implement the solution are identified and written into an implementation
plan.implementation plan.
Tools in Details:
 Brain writing : An alternative form of brainstorming, called brainwriting, is sometimes used when
the topic is so controversial or emotionally charged that people will not speak out freely in a
group.
 Affinity diagram: The affinity diagram identifies the inherent similarity between items. It is used
to organize ideas, facts, and opinions into natural groupings. This is best done a day or two after
the brainstorming session.
 Pareto Chart: The results of the survey are best displayed by a Pareto chart. This is a bar chart
used to prioritize causes or issues, in which the cause with the highest frequency of occurrence is
placed at the left, followed by the cause with the next frequency of occurrence, and so on. It is
based on the Pareto principle, which states that a few causes account for most of the problems,
while many other causes are relatively unimportant. This is often stated as the 80/20 rule, that
roughly 80 percent of the problem is caused by only 20 percent of the causes, or 80 percent of
the sales come from 20 percent of the customers, or 80 percent of the tax income comes from 20
percent of the taxpayers, etc.
 Flowchart : A flowchart is a map of all of the steps involved in a process or a particular segment
of a process. Flowcharting is an important tool to use in the early steps of cause finding because

15
 the chart quickly allows the team to understand all of the steps that can influence the causes of
the problem. The symbols in the flowchart have particular meaning.
 Cause-and-Effect Diagram: The cause-andeffect diagram, also called the fishbone diagram
(after its appearance), or the Ishikawa diagram (after its originator), is a powerful graphical way of
identifying the factors that cause a problem. It is used after the team has collected data about
possible causes of the problem. It is often used in conjunction with brainstorming to collect and
organize all possible causes and converge on the most probable root causes of the problem.
 Why-Why Diagram: To explore deeper into root causes, we turn to the why-why diagram. This is
a tree diagram, which starts with the basic problem and asks, “Why does this problem exist?”. In
order to develop a tree with a few main branches and several smaller branches, the team
continues to grow the tree by repeatedly asking “why” until patterns begin to show up. Root
causes are identified by causes that begin to repeat themselves on several branches of the why-
why tree.
 Interrelationship Diagraph: This is a tool that explores the cause-and-effect relationships
amongissues and identifies the root causes. The major causes identified by the cause-and-effect
diagram and/ or why-why diagram are laid out in a large circular pattern. The cause and influence
relationships are identified by the team between each cause or factor in turn.
 How-How Diagram: A useful technique for suggesting solutions is the how-how diagram. Like
the why-why diagram, the how-how diagram is a tree diagram, but it starts with a proposed
solution and asks the question, “How do we do that?”. How-How diagram is best used after
solution generated through brainstorming.
 Force Field Analysis: Force field analysis is a technique that identifies those forces that both
help (drive) and hinder the implementation of the solution of a problem. In effect it is the chart of
the pros and cons of a solution, and as such, it helps in developing strategies for implementation
of the solution.
Miscellaneous
 Ashby charts: Ashby has created materials selection charts that are very useful in comparing
 a large number of materials during conceptual design.
 Decision-based design: Decision-Based Design is an advanced way of thinking about design.
The DBD perspective on design differs from past design models that focus on problem solving in
two major ways.
 Value engineering: The Value engineering process runs in parallel with the embodiment
process. Value engineering established the cost and performance of alternative proposals and
provides useful information to the design team.
 Product centered design: The product centered design is the technique designity the product
with incresed efficiency and output and by reducing the manufacturing time and cost, so that the
customer needs are met. It is a product of favorable design.
 User centered Design: User centered design is also termed as human centered design.
 Freezing the design: In industry, freezing the design plays an important role during produt
development. Before manufacturing starts the entire design needs to be frozen.
 Freezes’ Mark the end point of a development stage.
 Scheme drawing: The scheme drawing include all motion, to ensure adequate clearance, and
copious notes indicating decisions made on subjects such as tolerance and materials.
 Replication: Process of recreating something that has already been designed. It may be exact
reproduction or it may involve minor revision which result have already been decided.
 Heuristic modeling: It is also termed as common-sense or minimum cost physical modeling. It is
a general Thumb rule than can be applied in a wide variety of situations. Heuristic means to
discover or to learn and by implication, it encompasses the concept of learning by comprehending
the total problem.

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 Mathematical modeling: It is a process of writing mathematical expressions telling the behaviour
of a physical system under consideration. The physical system to be modelled may range from a
spacecraft in orbit under the mutual gravitation of earth and moon,
 Dimensional analysis: Dimensional analysis is the development of dimensionless parameters
made up of two or more independent variables of the system.
 Similitude and Scale models: In using physical models it is necessary to understand the
conditions under which similitude prevails for both the model and the p-rototype. By similitude we
mean the condition of things being similar; physical models are an important part of the
development and design processes. Usually scale models, which are less than full size, are
employed.
 Simulation: Design models are created to imitate the behavior of a part or system under a
particular set of conditions. When we exercise the model by inputting a series of values to
determine the behavior of the proposed design under a stated set of conditions, we are
performing a simulation.
 Monte Carlo simulation: The Monte Carlo method is a way of generating information for a
simulation when events occur according to a probability distribution. A Monte Carlo simulation
uses unrestricted random sampling (it selects items from a population in such a way that each
item in the population has an equal probability of being selected) in a computer simulation in
which the results are generated repeatedly to develop statically reliable answers.
 Iconic model: It is a physical model that looks like the real thing but is a scaled representation.
 Analog models: These are models that are based on an analogy, or similarity, between different
physical phenomena.
 Symbolic models: These are abstractions of the important quantifiable components of a physical
system that use symbols to represent properties of the real system.
 Stereo lithography: It is a type of rapid prototyping which is based on selective polymerization of
a photosensitive resin using an ultraviolet laser beam.
 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): It is a type of rapid prototyping in which a thin layer of powder
is spread and sintered by the passage of a high energy laser beam.
 Laminated object manufacturing : It is a type of rapid prototyping in which a layers of adhesive
backed materials (like paper) are fused or laminated together and then cut individually into the
desired shape with a computer controlled layer or blade.
 Product-concept prototypes: This prototype illustrates the overall vision with respect to
functionality, design, structure and operational characteristics of the product.
 Proof of concept (principle) prototype: (in electronics, breadboard), This prototype is used to
serve the basic function of showing how the product will work with less concern for visual
appearance, materials or intended manufacturing methods.
 Function–means trees : A function–means tree is a tool that helps to sort out secondary
functions in cases where different means or implementations can lead to different sub functions. It
depicts a design’s basic and secondary functions a graphically. The tree’s top level shows the
basic function(s) to be met.
 Objectives trees: The objectives tree method is an approach to transform vague design
statements solution into more specific customer requirements.
 Storyboarding : It is a variation of brainstorming. Ideas are recorded and written on a card.
 The 6–3–5 method : It is a type of brainstorming which have six team members. Each member
writes down three design ideas. The ideas are circulated among other team members in a
sequence i.e five rotations.
 Combinatorics : It gives the number of potential design in a morph chart.
 Fidelity: It is accuracy with which model of design (prototype) represents the proposed final
design in terms of material and construction.
 Concrete model: These are physical objects. e.g. clay model for cars, model made by
cardboard, paper etc.

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 Motif: It may be defined as a design, pattern, decoration, shape, ornamentation, logo (or) theme.
Motif is the element of an image.
 Deterministic model: have cause-effect behavior that is predictable in principle.
 Agile design approach: Related to concurrent engineering is agile design approach generally
used in software engineering.
 Bill of materials (BOM) : It is a list of individual components in the product. BOM is used for
manufacturing and in determining the product cost.
 Cognition refers to the way in which a user learns about the device and masters its features until
using them becomes a habit.
 Decision tree: It is an another method that can be used to evaluate different alternatives.
Decision tree are generally used in examination of business investment decisions by giving a
structured analysis that considered the outcome of possible future decisions, and the effect of
uncertainty, and allows the benefit of varying levels of present and future profit to be weighed
against the commitments.
 Delphi method: In this method, experts in a particular field are asked for written opinions.
 Wallas model: It is a five step model namely Preparation, Incubation, Intimation, Illumination and
Verification.
 Decomposition (Divide and Conquer) is another important habit of good design thinking. Break
down, subdivide, or decompose larger problems into smaller subproblems. These smaller sub
problems are usually easier to solve and handle.
 Pairwise comparison charts (PCCs) are used to rank order the design objectives. A PCC is a
relatively simple device in which the objectives are listed in both rows and columns in a matrix or
chart and then compare them on a pair-by-pair basis, proceeding in a row-by-row fashion.
 Dissatisfies in product design: These are the needs that are expected in a product (or) service
e.g. a car, safety measures and cushioning seats.
 Satisfiers in product design: These are the needs that customers say what they want. e.g., air-
conditioning and compact disc player in a car are fulfilling these needs creates satisfaction.
 Lateral thinking: Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach,
using reasoning that is not immediately come in mind and involving ideas that may not be
produced by using only traditional step-by step logic. The term was defined by Edward de Bono.
 Perseverance: Many times conscious, devoted search for new ideas is unsuccessful, but it leads
to preparation of the necessary background for a new idea that is born during a period of
relaxation. These breakthroughs are generally followed by extended, intensive, conscious effort.
Mental push-ups: A regular routine of mental exercises keeps the creative thinking in top form
 Design for logistics : Design for logistics is the efficient transfer of goods from the source of
supply, through the place of manufacture to the point of consumption in a cost effective way while
providing an acceptable service to the customer. A patent will not protect us from someone else
copying our solution, but it does give us specific rights to make and sell our design for a specified
period.
 Reliability is a measurement of the ability of a component or system to operate without failure in
the service environment. It is expressed as the probability of the component functioning for a
given time without failure.
 Durability is the amount of use that a person gets out of a product before it deteriorates that is, it
is a measure of the product lifetime.
 In the worst-case tolerance design scenario the assumption is made that the dimension of each
component is at either its maximum or minimum limit of the tolerance.
 Design for Serviceability is concerned with the ease with which maintenance can be performed on
a product
 Life cycle design emphasizes giving attention in embodiment design to those issues that impact a
long, useful service life to the product.

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 Rapid Prototyping (RP) is a technology that produces prototypes directly from computer aided
design (CAD) model.
 DESIGN FOR X (DFX): A successful design must satisfy many requirements other than
functionality, appearance, and cost. Hence, we consider many other performance measure in
design. Design for these performance measures is called design for X. X stands for Assembly,
Environment, Manufacture, Quality, Reliability, Safety, Serviceability, Tolerances, Robust design,
Human factors design, Industrial design etc.
 Optimization: Optimization is the process of determining the values of the variables, subject to
various constraints, that make a desired criterion a maximum or minimum. A common criterion is
cost of weight, such as power to weight ratio. An optimization problem usually involves three
types of function relationships among the specifications and design parameters. These are :
 Criterion function: This is the mathematical expression of the quantity whose maximum or
minimum is to be found as a function of the design parameters.
 Functional constraints: These equations are the physical laws involved in the proposed design.
 Regional constraints: There are no limit to the number of regional constraints and they are
always expressed as inequalities. These function are mathematical statements of the limits
between which design parameters must lie.
 There are many methods of optimization including linear programming, differential calculus, dual
variables and geometric programming.
 Competitor analysis involves lining up competitors side-by-side and highlighting similarity and
differences. It results in strategy document that helps define the general direction for design
without defining the design itself.
 Benchmarking is a process for measuring a company’s operations against the best practices of
companies both inside and outside of their industry. It is a way to learn from other businesses
through an exchange of information. Benchmarking operates most effectively on a quid pro quo
basis - as an exchange of information between companies that are not direct competitors but can
learn from each other’s business operations. Benchmarking measures the concepts of ‘best-in-
class’ organisations, determines how the best in class achieve those concepts and uses that
information as the basis for new idea generation and breakthrough design. Design of Delhi Metro
is bench mark for design of Metro in another cities of India.
 Reverse engineering is the process of decomposing an existing solution to understand how it
has been constructed and where its design limitation lie. It is a process by which an engineer
dissects someone else product to learn how it works. It is done in order of duplicate or enhance
an object. It appears to be an unfair practice.

3. SAFETY IN ENGINEERING

Safety is a discipline which requires identification and control of causal factors in engineering in order
to provide value to organizations.
There are many goals of engineering safety and some of these are as follows: —
Reduce accidents, Control or eliminate hazards, Develop new methods on safety efforts, Maximize
public confidence with respect to product safety.
Important Definition:
Safety: This is conservation of human life and its effectiveness and the prevention of damage to
items as per mission requirements.
Unsafe condition: This is any condition under the right set of conditions that will result in an accident.
Accident: This is an unplanned and undesired event.
Safety Management: This is the accomplishment of safety through the efforts of others.
Hazard: This is the source of energy and the physiological and behavioral factors which when
uncontrolled effectively, result in harmful occurrences.

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Safe: This is protected against any possible hazard.
Safety Management work: This is accomplishing safety by using per suasive approaches and
information in a closed loop system.
Safety assessment: This is qualitative/quantitative detemination of safety.
Safeguard: This is a barrier guard, device, or procedure developed to protect people.
Safety movement: This started during world war II when all of the various practitioners of
occupational health and safety realized the desperate need for cooperative efforts.
Unsafe act: This is an act that is not safe for and individual/employee.
Accidnet report: This is a document that records the findings of an accident investigation the
accident cause/causes and the recommended measures.
Unsafe behavior: This is the manner in which an individual conducts himself/herself that is unsafe to
himself/herself or others.
Hazard control: This is a means of lowering the risk from exposure from a perceived hazard.
Injury: This is a wound or other specific/certain damage.
Safety plan: This is a series of procedures followed to enable all safety related requirements of an
item to be identified ans satisfied.
Software prpcess: This is a series of procedures followed to enable all safety related requirements of
an item to be identified and satisfied.
Software safety: This is the freedom from software related hazard.
Software hazard: This is a software condition prerequisite to an accient.
Hazard and It’s type: A hazard is any practice, behaviour or condition or combination of these that
can cause injury or illness to people or damage to property.
Hazard + Exposure  Accident
 Material Handling Hazards. Manual material handling can involve lifting, carrying, lowering,
pushing, and pulling. All of these activities can lead to muscle strains, tears and pulls ofthe back,
shoulders, arms and abdomen. Handling of hazardous materials, such as corrosives, flammables
and reactives is another key area.
 Machine Hazards. Any machine can be a hazard, especially those with moving parts that can get
tangled in a worker’s clothes or come into contact with a worker’s body.
 Energy Hazards. Workers can be seriously injured by the sudden movement of machine
components, electrical shock or other releases of energy when they are adjusting or maintaining
equipment.
 Work Practice Hazards. Failure to have or to follow safe work practices is a significant cause of
injuries. Performing work safely in accordance with established safe work procedures is a
fundamental element in the control of safety hazards.
 Confined Space Hazards. Confined spaces are workspaces where hazardous gases, vapours,
dusts or fumes may build up or where an oxygen-deficient atmosphere may be created. Examples
include: storage tanks, vaults, pits, vats, silos, pipelines, ducts and tunnels.
 Physical Hazards. Physical hazards are forms of energy that can harm the body if exposed.
 Chemical Hazards: Chemical hazards can take the form of solids, liquids, vapors, gases, dusts,
fumes or mists.
 Biological Hazards: Biological hazards are living things or substances produced by living things
that can cause illness in humans.
 Ergonomic or Work Design Hazards: Ergonomic hazards arise from the design and
organization of work. They can harm the body by placing strain on the musculoskeletal system
and overloading the muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, nerves and blood vessels.

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 Stress or Psychosocial Hazards: Workplace stressors can lead to excess stress or distress and
have been identified as important factors in many types of illness, including heart disease and
high blood pressure.
 Accident Causation theory: The domino theory is operationalized in the statements known as
the axioms of safety and assumes that there are five specific factors in the sequence of events
leading up to an accident (i.e., ancestry/social environment, fault of person, unsafe
act/mechanical or physical hazard, accident, and injury). The human factor theory assumes the
occurrence of accidents to a chain of events ultimately caused by human error and in turn human
error is caused by three broad factors inappropriate response, overload, and inappropriate
activities. The fundamental basis of the epidemiological theory is that the models used for
studying the relationships between environmental factors and disease can also be utilized to
determine causal relationships between accidents and environmental factors. The
accident/incident theory is basically an extension of the human factors theory and it introduces
new elements such as the decision to err, systems failure, and ergonomic traps. The systems
theory assumes any condition in which an accident might occur as a system with three specific
elements: environment, human or person (host), and machine (agency). The combination theory
tells that no one individual model theory can describe all accidents as their actual causes may
combine parts of various different models.
SAFETY MANAGEMNET
Safety policy include the following:
The Health and Safety at Work Act says we need to set our policy out in writing and then bring it into
effect. Most businesses set out their policy in three parts: The statement of intent section sets out our
commitment to managing health, safety and the environment effectively, and what you want to
achieve. The organization section states who is responsible for what. The arrangements sections are
the detail of what we are going to do in practice to achieve the aims set out in your statement of
intent.
Safety Promotion: Although safety can to some extent be engineered into equipment and processes,
it is still necessary to motivate employees to perform their’ work safely. An effective safety program
must be persuasive; it must provide a stimulus to which employees will” respond positively.
Safety Committee : A safety committee is most useful mechanism for facilitating the necessary co-
operative effort that is essential to success in accident prevention. It should consist of representatives
from top management, supervision from the workers. It should act as an advisory body and meet
regularly.
SAFETY FUNCTIONARIES
There are a number of specialized safety functionaries known by different designations such as
safety-officers, safety advisers, safety directors, who are mainly appointed to administer the
organization’s safety policies and programs.
1. Safety Officer: Safety officer advise and assist the factory management in the fulfillment of
its obligations, stationary or otherwise, concerning prevention of personal injuries and
maintaining a safe working environment. The safety officer is to performer the duty of the
psychologist. He can create a much wider and quicker acceptance or industrial psychology as
a practical aid in safe and efficient production. His duties are as follows:
2. Safety Director: Safety director is the head of safety functionaries.
The director of safety performs a number of significant tasks which are as follows:
 Formulation and administration of the safety program.
 Acquisition of the latest and best hazard control information.
 Advising on safety-related issues, to managers at all levels.
 Reporting to top management periodically, on a regular basis, on. the organization’s safety
effort.
3. Safety Adviser: The functions of the safety advisor is advisory, leaving executive decisions.

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 The functions of the safety advisor is advisory, leaving executive decisions for line managers.
The role and function of the safety adviser will normally include:
 Monitoring the implementation of the organization’s health and safety policy.
 Advising line management to assist them in meeting some of their health and safety
responsibilities.
4. Safety Engineer: Safety engineer in many industry and government operations generated an
inherent dichotomy. Since the responsibility of safety engineers may involves making
decisions that can slow production, delay testing, and otherwise impede the organization’s
overall assigned mission. This put the safety engineer in the position of being an outside to
the production organization on which his or her decisions may have the greatest impact. The
safety engineer must be free of coercion in making decisions and, must not be under the
influence of the production group, which might tend to interpret safety considerations by their
effect on production levels or schedule.
The responsibilities of safety engineers may include the preparation of safety procedures and
other safety related documents, safety training, issuance and control of personal safety
equipment, consultation and advice on safety aspects of new or changed processes, and
inspection of ongoing work to ensure that appropriate safety requirements are being followed.
Safety engineers generally work closely with reliability and quality assurance personnel and,
in some organizations, these two functions may be placed in the same group.
5. Safety Department : In an every organization for effective safety and health management a
well organized safety department is constituted.
 To establish the norms and guidelines for the provision of safety of sites, employees,
materials, equipment and structures.
 To prepare checklists, manuals, and other documents for use by the line
management' in carrying out their functions.
 To supervise safety at site and within the organization.
 To give advice on all safety matters in accordance with the safety policy.
 To maintain all safety records, prepare reports and monitor the same to all
concerned.
 To conduct safety training in the organization.
 To carry out safety audit periodically.
 To discharge all statutory obligations of the organization regarding safety, and
maintain liaison with the government safety machinery and other industry association.
 To organize competitions, posters, melas and such other activities that promote
safety consciousness amongst employees.
Safety Planning: Planning is the process of deciding in advance the future course of action. Planning
is must for achieving industrial safety. Planning forms the backbone of any management activity
including industrial safety management. Planning for safety includes considerations like role of
employees/management, participation of workers, experience of workers, age and other factors of
workers, actual working procedures and conditions etc.
Safety Audit: The objective of the audit is to determine the effectiveness of the organization’s safety
and loss prevention measures and this can be broadly stated as under:
(a) To carry out a systematic critical appraisal of all potential hazards involving personnel, plant
and machinery and the work methods.
(b) To ensure the standards set for occupational health and safety fully satisfy the legal
requirements as well as management’s laid down safety promotional programmers.
Safety audit examines and assesses in detail the standards of all facets of a particular
activity.
Hazard analysis & Method:
 Failuare modes and effect analysis (FMEA): FMEA is a powerful design tool to analyses
engineering systems from their reliability aspect. More specifically, the method is used to

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 conduct analysis of each potential failure mode in a system to examine the effects of such
failure modes on the system.
 Failure mode effects and criticality analysis (FMECA): FMECA was developed by the
National Aeronautics and Astronautics administration (NASA) for assuring the specified
reliability of space systems, and in the 1970s the U.S. department of defense developed a
military standard entitled procedures for performing a failure mode, effects, and critically
analysis. Basically FMECA is an extension of FMEA. When FMEA is extended to group each
potential failure effect with respect to its severity (this includes documenting catastrophic and
critical failures) the technique is called FMECA.
 Fault tree analysis (FTA): This method was developed in the early 1960s to perform
reliability analysis of the Minuteman Launch Control System. FTA is widely used in industry to
perform reliability analysis of engineering systems during design and development. There
could be many objectives in conducting FTA, including identifying critical areas and cost-
effective improvement, confirming the ability of the system to meet its imposed safety
requirements, confirming system reliability, and understanding the functional relationship of
system failures. Fault events that can cause the top event are generated and connected by
logic operators such as OR and AND. The OR gate provides a true output (i.e. fault) if one or
more inputs are true (fault). Similarly, the AND gate provides a true output (fault) if all the
inputs are true (fault).
 Markov Method: This method is used in performing reliability analysis of engineering
systems and is named after a Russian mathematician called Anreri A.Markov (1856-1922). It
can also be used to perform various types of safety analysis.
 Technic of Operations Review (TOR): It was developed by D.A. weaver of the American
Society of safety engineers in the early 1970s and seeks to highlight systemic causes rather
than assigning blames with respect to safety. TOR allows management and employees to
work jointly to analyze workplace accidents, incidents, and failures. TOR may simply be
described as a hands on analytical methodology developed to identify the root system causes
of an operation malfunction. The approach makes used of a work sheet containing simple
terms, basically, requiring yes/No decisions.
 Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA): This method is basically used during the conceptual
design phase and is relatively an unstructured approach because of the unavailability of
definitive information such as drawings and functional flow diagram. Nonetheless, PHA has is
useful tool to take early steps to highlight and eliminate hazards when all the desirable data
are unavailable. Its findings are extremely useful to serve as a guide in future detailed
analysis.
 Hazards and Operability Analysis (HAZOP): The hazard and operability (HAZOP)
technique also termed as structured brainstorming. The technique is applied. to precisely
specified equipment, processes, or systems; therefore, the design must be beyond the
concept stage and in a more concrete form before the technique can be used.
 Control Charts: It developed by water A. Shewhart in 1924 fro application in quality control.
Today, are used in various areas including safety analysis. A control chart may simply be
described as a graphical method used to determine whether a process is in a state of
statistical control or out of control.
 Job Safety analysis (JSA): A job safety analysis or (job hazard analysis) is a procedure to
make a job safe by:
(i) Identifying the hazard or potential of accidents associated with each step of the job.
(ii) Developing a solution for each hazard that will either eliminate or control the
exposure. If some job hazards are known, proper solution can be developed. Some
solutions may be physical changes that control the hazard, such as placing a guard
over exposed moving machine parts. Other hazard may be job procedure which can
be eliminated or minimized. Job safety analysis is also helpful in discovering

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 elimination or safe guarding of motions, positions actions and data hazards. It adds
the determination of equipment’s and tools needed for safety.
 Checklists: These are useful when a design has generated from a previous design for which
all hazard sources were carefully listed, so that the consequences of the generation are easy
to identify. Safety and Economics are closely related. The economics occupational safety
suggests little more than how can better working conditions be made profitable for business. It
focuses primarily on the ways in which individuals and communities produce, distribute and
consume goods and services.
 Occupational Safety and Health: Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad
scope involving many specialized fields. It encompasses the social, mental and physical well-
being of workers, that is the “whole person”. Occupational health comprises the identification,
evaluation and control of processes and substances that may harm people, cause their
discomfort or damage their environment. Safety is an organized and conscience effort to
prevent accidents and minimize risks. Common human tendency, one quite often neglects
safety. One looks at it only when an accident takes place. The purpose of the act is to assure
working men and women safe and healthful working conditions. The act is applicable to every
employer engaged in business affecting commerce. It is not for the self-employed or to
workers to the extent they are covered by other federal safety and health laws. It was first
signed at U.S. in December 1970.
In India : The principal health and safety laws are based on British factory Act 1948, and has
been amended in 1954, 1976, 1987. Following the Bhopal gas disaster, a special chapter on
occupational and safety to safeguard workers employed in hazardous industries was added.
Other key legislation dealing with occupational safety and health (OSH) are: Mines act (1952),
Dock workers act, 1986, plantation labor act 1951, petroleum act: 1934, insecticide act 1968,
Indian Boiler act 1923, Indian atomic-energy act 1962, Radiological protection act 1971,
Manufacture, storage and import of hazardous chemicals rules 199, electricity act 2002. The
Constitution of India contains specific provisions on occupational safety and health of workers.
Article 24 states that no child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory
or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.
The Directorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labor Institutes (DGFASLI) and the
Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) the two field institutes of Labor Ministry strive to
achieve the principle~ enshrined in the Constitution of India in the area of occupational safety and
health in factories, mines, and ports.
Directorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labor Institutes (DGFASLI): The Directorate
General of Factory Advice Service and Labor Institutes, Mumbai, which is an attached office of the
Ministry of Labor functions as a technical arm of the Ministry in matters concerned with safety, health
and welfare of workers in factories and docks.. It assists the Central Government in formulation and
review of policy
Directorate General of Mines Safety: The Directorate General of Mines Safety is a ’subordinate
office of the Ministry of Labor. It has its headquarters at Dhanbad with its zonal, regional and sub
regional offices spread all over mining areas. It is entrusted with the responsibility, of enforcing the
provisions of the Mines Act, 1952, and the Rules and Regulations framed thereunder in coal, metal/
ferrous and oil mines.
National Safety Council: The main objective of the Council which is an independent and self
supporting national. level institution, has been to generate, develop and maintain a movement of
safety awareness at the national level To achieve this objective, the Council conducts a variety of
educational, training and promotional activities.
12th Five year Plan Schemes in Respect to Safety: During the 12th five year plan period (2012-
2017), DGFASLI process to operate the following seven plan schemes:
(i) Strengthening of DGFASLI organization and OSH in factories.
(ii) Strengthening of enforcement system in ports and docks.

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 (iii) Development of regional labor institute, Faridabad as Centre of excellence in safety
systems in MSME & Chemical process units.
(iv) Effective implementation of systems at work place in Manufacturing and port sector.
(v) Identification, Elimination and control of Silicosis in India.
(vi) Identification, Elimination and control of Asbestosis in India.
(vii) Strengthening of enforcement systems in factories-establishment of industrial safety,
occupational health and work environment Centre in the state factory directorate.
RISK MANAGEMENT
We must have good understanding to identify the hazards that are present, estimate the probability of
their occurrence, generate alternative action to reduce the probability of occurrence, and, finally, tool
to manage the risk. Therefore, risk management can be a three-step process :
(a) Risk Analysis
Risk analysis, has two parts: identifying hazards or finding their undesirable consequences and
estimating the probabilities of their happening. Hazard identification and probability estimation
needs logic, deduction, and mathematical concepts, so we can say risk analysis is basically
objective and mathematical.
Once the hazards and their occurrence probabilities have been known, the consequent damage
or injury must be evaluated.
(b) Risk Evaluation (assessment)
In the second step, alternative courses of action to reduce hazards are developed, their costs
and benefits are calculated, the risk perceptions of the persons affected are studied in detail,
and value judgments are made.
Therefore, risk evaluation is less objective than risk analysis.
(c) Management Decisions: The final stage of risk management include:
 Selecting the risks that will be managed
 Implementing these decisions
 Allocating the required resources
 And controlling,
 Monitoring, reviewing, and revising these activities.
Risk Analysis Process and Methods:
 HAZOP (already discussed earlier)
 Event tree analysis (ETA): This is “bottom up” method for identifying the possible outcomes
when the initiating event’s occurrence is known. It is used for analyzing facilities having
engineered accident mitigating characteristics to identify the sequence of events that follow
the initiating event and generate given sequences.
 Consequence Analysis: Consequence analysis is related to estimating the undesired event’s
impact on areas such as adjacent people, property, or the environment. Normally, for risk
calculations it comprises of assessing the probability that people at different distance and
environments from the undesired event source will suffer illness/injury.
 Frequency Analysis: This is based on estimation of the occurrence frequency of each
undesired event/accident scenarios highlighted at the hazard identification level. Two
commonly utilized methods for conducting frequency analysis are using past data to
determine the frequency with which the undesired events occurred, thus forecasting their
occurrence frequency in the future and estimating event frequencies using methods such as
ETA and fault tree analysis.
Miscellaneous
Good Practice :In design, the term good practice means design as per established methods for safe
design or construction. Good practice is abide by industry standards and government regulations that
may be mandatory. However, whether mandatory or not, adherence to good practice does not

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guarantee that a product will be safe in the hands of the final user or that a production line can be
designed, built, operated, and decommissioned with an acceptable level of risk.
From liability, point of view adherence to good practice is the minimum acceptable level of care
expected, and more advanced risk-management methods are usually essential.
Some of the basic fault events depend solely on the actions of the user and cannot be avoided by
design changes. However, instructions for the proper use and strategically placed warnings about the
hazards of misuse should decrease the probability of injury and lessen the potential liability of the
engineer. If failure probabilities for the basic fault events are defined, the probability of the top event
occurring can be calculated. The failure probabilities for many standard components are available
from reliability guidelines/handbook and other sources. Tests can be conducted to determine failure
probabilities for components or systems for which data are not available. In a more complicated tree,
Boolean algebra is used to determine the sets of basic events that may occur for the top event to
happen. Computer programs exist for the construction and analysis of fault trees.

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