.,.. ) .

'• ,I , •, ;. : ) : .

Mari a Christi ne N. Halili

1'<11>/w .d & [);ott1b<Aod0~:

~BookStore
IK Nft.a...or ~~ , Sf. Sl.
,.... H04- 735·1,_.. • 73a..os-17
l l71 C.M. Recto Avt" t.lt
T.a. No.a.. 73S.SS.27 • 735-55-34
tAenlle. ~llpplnea
www.rtxl"ltrecdl{•,com
 Philippine Copyright, 2004
by Rex Book Store, Inc.
RBS
Philippine History
Fir&t Edition 2004
ISBN 971-23-3934-3
Cl,.•sification: Text!look (04·SS·0000l)
IU!PliJNTI!D: FESROAJIY 2006

Published, copyrighted 2004, and distributed by ~

Book
Store, Inc. (RRSI) with main office at 856 Nic~tnor Reyes, Sr.
St .• Samp~>loc, Manila; 1'el No. 735·13-64.
Regioaal Offices: 11 SanciangkoSL., Cebu City, Tel. Nos. 251-e773,
254-e774; lS<l-AC.M. Recto St., Davao City, Tel. Nos. 221.02-72.
22G -3 l -67; 2nd St., Ledesco Village, Jaro, Iloil o City,
Tel. No~. 336-46-18, 320-45·85; Zone 6 Pinmaludpod, Urdaneta,
Pnngasinan, Tel. No. 568-3976; cor. J Serina and Vameota
Blvd., Carmon, Cagayan d8 Om City, Tel. No. 858·6775;
Magallane~ cor. Alonzo St., Legaspi City, Tel. No. 820-2270.

www.rexlnteractive.com

~o portion ofthis book may be copied or reprod~d in

books, pamphlets, putlines, or notes. whether printed ,
mimeographe<l. typewritten, phowcopied, or in any
other fonn, for distribution or sale. without the writ·
ten permission of th11 Publisher and Authors.
The infringer shall be PTOSecuted in compliance with
copyright, trademark, patent, and other pertinent
laws.
RBSI's Local Book As8acialion Memberships: Associa tion of
Philippine Bookscllers (APB); Book Development Association
ofthe Phi\jppines(BDAP); Philippine Educational Publish ers
Association ( PEPA}; Book Exporters Associati on of the
Philipp ines; Nationwide Book Network, Inc.
f'EPA'a International Book Association Membe~ships: Asia
Pacific Publishers As~ociation {APPA); A9sociation of South
EH•t A9ian Publishers (ASEAP); International Publishers
Association (IPA)
Printed by I REX \)RMiNG COMpAI'Iy. iocc. 84-86 P. Florentino
St.. Sta. Mesa HeighI-s. Quewn City. Tel. :-<os. 712-41-01, 712-41-06,
712-4 1-08; fo'ax No. 711-54· 12
 Acknowledgment

Above aU, the author wishes to thank the Almighty God for
the blessings and guidance He has given her.
For the realization of this venl'ure, .~he would like to express
her sincere gratitude to the following author.~ whose works were
referred to in the text: Dr. Sonia Zaide, Professor Renata Constantino,
Professor Teodoro Agoncillo, Professor Milagros Guerrero, Dr.
William Henry Scott, Dr. Raymundo Punongbay~~n, and Mr. Hector
Santos, as well ilS to New Day Publishers for allowing her to include
in this book, the topic about the Code of Kalantiaw.
Special thanks to Atty. P~ntaleon Ownlao, MIS. Liberty Santos-
Dumlao, Mr. Daniel Ortega, Mr. Ray Naguit and Ms. Julita Javier
for providing some data materials for the book a~ well as to Dr.
Norma Mora Ia, Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences of Bulacan
State UniveJSity fur her unending support.
Special rnention.isgiven to her relatives and friends particular!}'
Mr. Angel Recto, Ms. Mary Mayoyo, Ms. Josefina Ochoa, Ms. Je!lsica
Chosas, t..b. Marissa Enriquez, and Mr. 'Ricardo Capule for their
invaluable help in various ways. Finally, tp her parents, Mr. Romeo
and Attv. Lolita Halili; her brothers, Antonio and Fre<:lerick; her
sister:>, Annabelle and Merhama for theil: inspiration and prayers.

M.C.N.H

iii
 Preface

Knowing the inipre_,;,;ions left by past generatiom; tdls us that

valuable lessons can be learned from hi.-;tory. The transi tion of the
Filipino society hoin the early phases of tcchnologic;al develop ment
up to its preparation towanls glol>a lb:<~tion d e finitely reflects the
cha ra<"te r of the local inhabitants as wtdl as the culture that hall been
d~vtdoped after a long period of time.
This college text titled Phi/ippill£' Hi,;fory tra~·es th e early
beginnings of the country's nah.tral ~vironment. its people and
cul ture, shaped and changed by socioeconomic and geopolitical
conditions.
Thi.~ book intend s to incorporate the notable events that too k
p l~ce in our country; unfurling the a~pirations of the prople and
unfohling the possibilitie.~ oJ the future.
S<:holars of hi,;tory have alread y written quite a number of
specialized studies about thP. Philippines. The purpose of th.i:> book
is to introduce the pa::;t, based on reC'E'nt re~carches.
Specifically, this mod~t cont:ril>utionlo the study of the nation's
history haq iffi mission of disseminating the ide~ Is prt>Vailing in the
socwty under varied circumstances and promoting the nationalistic
spirit among peop le, to fulfil l the concept o f what a Filipino should
be as defined and lived by our noblE' heme~

M.C.N.H
Guigull\to. Bulacan

v
 Course Outline

I. Objectives
A. General Obj ectives
At the end of the course, the students are expected to:
1. Gather information about Philippine history marked
by important events, places. dates a1•d p ersons
forming the growth of !locictics and distinction of
culture;
2. Understand the internal and external press ures
involved in the tra~ition of societies and culture
found in the coun try at different periods of time;
3. Appreciate the accomplishment:> of fellow countrymen
for the weliare of the nation;
4. Re.ali7.eand av oid thl!'mistakescommitred in the past
to guide the present and prepare the future; and
5. Develop a sense of identity and pride in beir>g a
Filipino.
B. Specific Objectives
At the end of the midtenn period, the students ~re
expected to:
1. Find out the meaning and the task of hi~tory;
2. Be aware of the theories in undeiStanding history and
to relate them to J?aSt events and curTent issues;
3. Detennine the sources of his tory and the historical
errors;
4. Know the brief history of Philippine arthaeology;
5. ~ familiar with·tht: wuntry's geological form3tlon,
gevgraphy, and natural resources;
6. Be able to identify and describe the v11.st majority and
the indigeno us people in the an;h ipelago; and
7. Identify the circ umstances surrou nding the
colonintion of the archipelago and the influences
brought about by foreign interaction.
 At the end of the final tenn. the students are C)(pccted
to:
1. Become aware of the values and beliefs of the people
shaped and changed by socioeconomic and
geopolitical influences brought by west~m coloniz.els;
2. Ana ly7.e the factors that gave bir th to Filipi no
na tionalism;
3. Undenstand the struggle of the people for reforms and
national independence during the Spani.~h colonial
era;
4. Know the historical ba~is for the country's cli!irn on
North Homeo;
5. Look into the circumstances surrumlding the birth of
the Filipino nation;
6. Understand the reasons behind the fo rmation of
militant groups;
7. Discuss the issues and p roblem,.; of the country after
the recognition of the country's sovereignty;
8. Reevaluate the policies of the past adm.inistratio~;
9. Relate the events in other countries with the
Philippines; and
10. Assess the socioeconomic and cultural development
of the country through the years.
II. Course Contents
A. Knowing Philippine History
1. Meaning of History
2. Tiw Task of His tory
3. Theories in Understanding llistory
4. Sour~ of History
5. Brid H~tory of Philippine Archaeology
6. Persisting Problems
7. Unhistorical Data

viii
8. The Natural Setting and lt5 People
l. How tht> Earth was in the Beginning
1.1 Based 01\ Philip pint> I ,pgc.nd!> a nd Myths
1.2 Scientific Expl.ma tion
2. Geological Foundation
2.1 Geology and Prehistory.
2.2 I .,md Formation
3. The Archipelago's ::-.I;Hne
3.1 Pre-Spanish to Prest>nl
·1. Gt>Ography and R e;ourt."t'S
4.1 Loca ti on
4.2 Climate
4.3 Topography
4A flor~t and l'auna
5. The Filipino
5.1 TraiL~ and Values
5.2 Theor k-s on the Origin o( the Hlipinos
C. fi li pino Society and Culture During lhe l"rc-S p.tn ish
Period
1. Early Period$ of C ultural Develuprnt>nt
1.1 Stone Ag~:
12 MdJI Age
1.3 Age of Contact
D. Spani sh Conquest and t he Coloni7.ation of the
Philippi nes
1. fn S.:arch of Nc:-w l.ands
2. Magellan's l\'ew Route to the East
"!. Rediscovery of the l'hilippines
4. Magellan's Voyage to the Archipelago
'5. Post· Magellan expeditions
6. Towards lhe J>acification of the Nahv€'~
7. Early Sp anish Settlemenll>
IX
 8. l.nstmments of Exploitation
9. Political Reorganization
F.. Towards the Jlispanization of the Natives
1. Economy
2. Education
3. Arts and Science
4. Rt'ligion
F. Foreign Affairs
1. Sino-Philippine Relations
2. Dutch Attempts
3. Briti!;h Ckcupation
C. Struggle for Rights ~nd freedom
1. Re volt of Lakandula and Sulayrnan
2. First Pampanga Revolt
3. !\fagat Salama! and the Tondo Conspiracy
4. Maga lat':; Revolt
.S. Revolt of the Irrayas
'
6. Rt'volt of Tamblot
7. Revolt uf Bankaw
8. !Wvolt of Ladia
9. Revolt of Oabm1
10. Maniago'11 Ri'Vult
11. Malong's Rl'V<>lt
12. Revolt of Gum,lpus
l J. Revolt of Pechv Alma~an
14. Sumoroy's RPVoll
15. Tapd r 's Revolt
16. Dagnhor's Revolt
17. Silang's l~evoll
18. Pa laris's Re,•olt
19. Revolt in Defcns~ of the Spanish Constitution

l(
 20. Revolt of the Bayot Brothers
21. RP.ligious Revolt of Hermano Pule
22. Muslim Y..'ars
23. Factors that Gave Rise to Nabona lism
24. Propaganda Movement
25. The Katipunan
26. Revolution of 1896
27. Rivalry in the Pea tipunan
28. The Biak-na-Bato Republic
29. Spanish-American War
30. Filipino-American Collaboration
H. The Birth of a Nation
1. Proclamation of Philippine lndependcnre
2. "Battle" of Manit~
3. The Mdloloo Republk
I. The American Rule
1. War of Philippine independence from the United
St.ltes
2. The Philippin es under the Am erican Civil
Government
3. Our American Heritage
4. Philippine Independent Church
5. Tht> Colonuns
6. l...md Tenure System
7. The First l abor Groups
8. Communist Party of the Philippii•es
9. Sakdalism
10. Philippine l'olitic-5 During the Era
J. Commonwealth Period
1. The Tran~ilion
2. Decades of Unrest
3. Entry of Japanese Imperial Forces
xi
K. Th(' Japanes~ Occupation
l. }apan<.'SC Martial Law
:?..The Second Philippine Republic
J. Resistance and Reslo•·<~tinn
l. The Conditions of the Republk Under Different
Administrations
l. Milnud A. J{ox<ls
2. Elpidio Quirino
3. R..1mon Magsaysay
4 Carlos P. Garcia
5. Diosdddo Mac.1pagal
6. Ferdinand E. Milrcos
7. Corazon C. Aquino
8. fidel V. Ramos
9. Joseph Estrada
10. Gloria Mncapag;~l-/\ rroyo
{j;~~?~J,lG. Philippine History
I. Understanding History ....................................................... 1
2. Source.~ off listory ................................................................ 4
3. Unhistorical Data ................................................................ S
CM!' Ier Test No. ! .................................... .................................. 13

ti'~··(~):;r;,~ .N,atural Setting and its Peuple

1. How th~ Earth Was in the & ginning .......................... 1(,
2. Geological Foundation ...................................................... 19
3. The Archipelago's N~me ................................................... 21
4. Geography and R!!SOU<(;I!$ ................................................ 22
5. Country's Climat~ ............................................................. 30
6. The Filipino People ......................................................... 30
7. 'Iheori~s on th!! Origin of Filipinos .................................. 34
Chapter T<'~t No.2 ....................................................................... 36

~~:~,®rr.~:colonial Philippines
1. Cultural Evolution of the Early rilipinos ....................... 40
2. Traditional Filipino Communitie$ .............................. ... 55
Chapter Test :-Jo. 3 ...................................................................... 65

xiii
'i!~~.!')panisb Era
1. In Search of New Land~ .................................................... 69
2. Mdgellan's New Route to the l:iast ................................... 70
::!. Red iscovery of the Philippines ......................................... 72
4. 'lht> Sjlanish Conquest of the lo;land s .............................. 78
5. ·Inwa rds the Hispanization of the N atives ..................... 86
6. Chinese in the Philippi.n~ ................................................ 97
7. More Europeans in the Islands ....................................... 100
Chapter Test No. ·L ................................................................... 104

•i'~.(~).~t.~t_:~~lc for Rights and Freedom

1. Revol t of Lakandula and Sulayman .............................. 110
2. First Pampanga Revolt .................................................... 110
3. The Tondo Conspiracy ..................................................... 111
4. MagaiM' s Revolt ............................................................... 112
5. Revolt nf the IKorot11 ......................................................... 112
6. Revolt of the lrr.\ya s ......................................................... 112
7. Revolt of Tambl11t ............................................................. 113
8. .Bankaw's Revolt ............................................................... 113
9. The t{evolt of t,l<.ila .......................................................... 114
10. Revo lt of Dabao ................................................................ 114
11. Sl•moroy's Revolt ............................................................. 115
12. .\.laniago's Revolt .............................................................. 115
13. Andrel! :vfalong's Revolt .................................................. 116
H. 1he Revolt of Gumapo!\ ................................................... 117
15. Revolt of PL'<iro Almazan ................................................ 117
16. Tapar '!i Revolt ................................................................... ll8
17. Dagohov's Revolt ............................................................. 118
18. Sil<~ ng's- Revolt ........................ ......................................... 119

)CiV
19. Palaris's Revolt ........................................................... 120
20. Basi Revolt ..................................................................... 121
21. R~!volt in Dl;.>fense of th .. Sp~ni~h Cono;titution ............ 121
22. R~!volt of the Bayot BroH•ers ........................................... 122
23. Religious Revolt of I k•nnant<.> Pule ................................ 122
24. Muslim \Var:s .................................................................... 123
25. The Rise of Filipilw Nationalism ................................... 127
26. Propaganda Movern~nt ................................................... 132
27. The Katipunan ............................................................. 137
28 Remlutivn of 1896 ............................................................ 142
29. Riv.1lry in the K<~lipunan ................................................. 147
30. The Biak-na-B;"~to R.-public ............................................ 151
31. TheSpanish-Americon War ........................................... 153
32. Filipino-American Coll~boration ..........,....................... 155
Chapter T!!st No. 5 ............................................................... 158

1. Proclamation of Philippine Independence ................... 162

2. The Incredulous Battle of Manila .................................. 163
3. The Malulos Republic ...................................................... 165
Chapter Test No.6 .................................................................... 170

1. War of Philippint' Independence from the U.S ............ 174

2. A Government under America ...................................... 179
3. The Amerkan legacy ...................................................... 188
4. Philippine Independent Church .................................... 192
!'5. The Colorums ................................................................... 193
6. Land Tenure System .............................................., .. 195

XV
 7. The First Labor Groups ......... ................................. ... 196
8. Th.e Conullunist Party of the Philippines ..................... 198
9. Sakdalisrn .......................................................................... 199
Chapter Test No.7 ..................................................................... 201

~~®.S:?.J;ttmflnwealth Pcrifld
I. Th~ Transition .................................................................. 208
2. ~ade of Unrest .............................................................. 211
3. Entry of Japane~e Imperial Force~ ................................. 212
Ch.lptt!r Tt>:>t No. 8 .................................................................... 220

(~~;@,~e Japanese Occupatifln

l. fapanese Martia I L.1w ...................................................... 223
2. Life During th e Wartime Yl>ars ....................................... 225
3. Refo rm ing thl! Philippine Government ........................ 229
4. Th<> Second lwpublic of thl· Philippines ....................... 2.30
.5. He.sls tance and Rl'!ltoration ............................................. 235
Chapter Test No.9 ..................................................................... 245

Jiii:< ~0 The
(iit;IIU!a'Wi>
·· . . . w~~~-·~ . .,.:. . ~. Re)Jubllc
1. Roxas Administration ( l '146-48} ..................................... 250
2. Quirino i\dministration (1948·53) .................................. 2.'>4
3. Magsaysay Admini~tration (195..1-57) ............................ 258
4. C .l rcia Administration (1'157-61) .................................... 261
5. Macapagal Administration (1961-65) ............................ 262
6. :vl;trc<>s Administration {1965·1986) ............................... 265
. 7. Aquinoi\dministr,,tion (1986-199::!} .............................. 279
8. Ramos Administration (1992·1998) ............................... 283

wi
 9. Estrada Administration (1998-2001) ............................... 287
'
10. Arroyo Admini.~tration (2001-present) .......................... 298
Chapter Test No. 10 ................................................................... 306
Rderen<:es .................................................................................. 317
Index ........................................................................................... 321

xvii
 ~1.-l!i.;.'h''·""
Knowing Philippine History

1. Understanding History
In its broadc~t meaning. history is th~ :c;tud y of past even.t.~ . It
generally presents the known past. What is unknown is yet to be
retrievt'd. The recording and analysis of t!.><p<!rienct's of a society
comprise the totality of a people's history.
As a historical being. man responds to the situatio n placed
before hi m and thus his acts are based on hi.-; thoughts. The society's
way of facing t he challenges dependi ng IWO" ils capabili ties
uncovers the pattem of the society's history. Th~ thalknge nmj respol•>i! .
J}J!'P.'Y..Of the British his torian Arnold Joseph Toynbee.11889-1975) is
rooted on this presumption.
The 12-volumc series of A St11dy of History (1934·61) is based on
Toynbcc' s thesis that hi.Gtory reflects the p ro grcss of civi Iiza tion.'i and
societies. He viewed the past as a succession of civilizations rather
than political en tities. Bast'd on his h ypothesis, the f~ilure of a
civilil:ation to survive was the result of its inability to respond to
challenges.
Mankind's appxoach in 'coping with challenges determines
history. l:ndcr variou~ circumRtancc:;, a power will wi~h lo extend
its influence at the expense of another power. The threatened power
will then reevaluate the challenge and adopt the cowse of action to
curb the strategy of the opposing power.
· To illustrate. in the s tntggle of dauntless Filipinos to regain lost
rights and freedom during the Spanish era, the propagandists and
revolutionaries responded to colonial oppression by resisting. The
challenge was post-d by the colonial subjugation of the FihpinQS,
generally characterized by injustice and corruption. The response
was defia'n ce to the prevailing ntle.
Man's actions are not just involuntary movements especially
when time allows him to plan his next action. These n:'Spon.'ieS pa;.~
through the process of re.\SOnlng and analysis. Often, he d eal" with
other people to d iscuss on how to answer,, ce rtain situation.

1
 Associa ted with the afort>mentioned premises, the c'Xchangr
lh~ory of..AlY,in
5q.(f. may be clltefully thought about. His ~xchangt>
theory refers to the systematic statemt<nt uf principle~ th at govern
the exchange of goods between individuals, between groups,
bctween organizations and even between nations. This is bast>d on
the idea of reciprocjty.
There arc some motivational forccs l ound in the society J ffccting
the aclions of people involved in the siluation. A ,~a.<e in point is the
early fonn of trading among the native inhabitants called l'arter.
Alliances of people, conununities as wt>ll as nation~ are also rooted
in the idea of intel"(;hange.
One of the most prominent thinkers of the 19'" century was
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Ileggl_ (1770-1831), a Gennar> idealist
philosopher. Hegel conceived the subject matter o£ philosophy to be
TE"alily a 5 a who!~. This reality he reftmed to as the Absolute Spirit.
For him, the task of philosophy is to chart the development of the
Absolute Spirit.
Hegel's role ufhi~toriciJI man follows a princople, whi<h he called
Wr/tgit-.1 or world 5pirit, which embodies id~als l1ke p<~tdotism,
heroism and unHy. Since historical individ uals are ideals and man
follows his id eal, this thought which is guided by a particuliir ideal
becom!!S what H~gcl called as Geisteswis;;•Hchnjtm or the world of
spirit of thought. Thi:< nr~a of thought is the thcfi.i~. Thi-; combines
with a particular !liluation or malter called Natunvis.senchaften, the
antithe~i.s ur the complete opposite of the Geiste..~wissenchaft~•l- By
the combir>ation of thesis and antith~·sis. man achieves the synthe~is,
which is the historical reality.
Applylng this theory in hist(>ry, thl•rc were guerilla fighters ir>
World War 11 who were guidl•d by their sense o f duty and
responsibility to lead the people during the warfare. The situ.1tion
was the Japanese invasion. The combina tion of their thoughts like
parriotism and heroism rerulted to their historica l;~cts, m.tnifesled
through their deeds and exploits in the battles th at Wl!re fought
agains t the Japanese forces during the war era.
In unde rsta nding histo~~,JJ;_Othei..~Jii?!Y,I.Q be co nsi<lered is
_eco>Wn!ic theory of Karl M&'rx, anotifer German p h•l osopher. He
asserts that the prevailing economic ~ystem determ.ines the form of
societal organiT.a\ion and the political and intdlectual hi~tory olthe
epoch, whlch thus attribute actions and ev;,nts in history to economic

2
 motives. Th~ struggl~ to maintain !if(' is the mos t enduring
m otivation for any human activity.
To cite anin.~tance, the intensification of inter-island contacts
and the increasing specialization in craftsmanship by early dwellt>rs
were brou~ht about by economic consideration . Cenrurie:; of trade
and personal relations with Southeast Asian n eigh bors led to the
enrichmen t of Filipino life and culhtrc. A~ more d wcllcrs trild cd with
foreig n m~rchRnts, influences in the field of co mmerce, scienn~. ·
relig i<m, languag~ and the arts becam.... 1\'lOre t>vict.,.!'lt as they were
transmitted to other members of the society.
Another example is thE' Spanish colonial t>ra. [t !oils !Jet'n !>aid
that tht! three primary motives for vast exploration oflands were for
God, gold and glory, but the main incentive w.ls for economic
reasons. C olonies are important sources of raw materials and
opporiUnillt'S fur invt'Stment. Spain was at th~ height of its vower
in the 16"' century since it exercised political and economic control
in i ts several colon ies.
The Conummist Mtulifesto written by Marx which contains the
stM<!mcnt of principles of the Communist League, em bodies the
rna teria li.<.t concept of history or historical rna teria Iism. The Matt if"~ ro
states tha t the history of society is a history o f stru~;glt'S between the
ruling class and the oppressed masses . Th is is based on the tht•ory of
scirn tific socinl roolution of Marx, where in he s tated tha t when sode ty
wa5 s till primitive; there wa~ social equilib rium bl•l wilh the
introduction OfJ.l~'.Y_i_deas .an<J_ .t<?QIS of doing .thiJlgs, man became
greatly c.oncemed with marerfal wealth. This led to a da5s stnaggle
between the workers (proletariat) and the capitalists (bourge<Jisie).
from these p remises, Milrx concluded that the capitalist clils~ would
be overthrown by the working class through revolution and replaced
by a da~!lles.~ society.
Another approach to historical st ud ies is the method of
histo riO)>rap h y d eveloped by Ferna nd Braud11l (1902-1985),
considered the fa ther of rustorical s tructuralism . Acco rd ing to
Braude[, tn achieve a " tot~ ! history," all aspc<l!l of man's p ast are to
be integ ra ted. This new approach involve.~ the ~tudy of history in its
Iota l view made possible by exll mining \he ci rcu mst11nces untlerl ying
s uch political, ~conomic, social, and cultural ~;v~nts.
P/:lllipplne history is a people's history. A!< dE-fined by R~enato
Constantino,. history is "the recorded strugglt> of peop le for ev-ei:.
3
 increa:;ing freedom and for newer and higher rPilli7.ation of the
human person." It is not about the ~tory of man as the indiv,dua!,
but man as the associated man. Man interacts with nature ami with
other men, thtL~ consciously changing his own per:;pective and to
some extent, the sy~tem of environment.
Based on Constantino's supposition that Phi!ippilll.' history is a
stQry uf ~truggle, the study has to be rC.15Se55ed with a n11tion~list
perspective in the interest of objectivity. This is to allow themodl!m
Filipino to fmm a cl~ar picltJre of his ancestors' conditions and
sentim•mts (rom the puint of view of Filipino writers to «>rrect some
h1storie<•l impressions made by colonial historiography.
History is not merely the work of heroes and great men as
elucidated by Constantino in his book, 'rile Philippines: A Past
Rt>uisitt•d. He pointed out lhal lhe masses of individuals as wdl as
the social forcc5 gener11ted by wlle-ctive li"e~ and struggles have to
be- includt"d. Men must struggle togt!ther to sun:ivt? the exigencies
of natural or social forces int~rvening their development. The
associated man, as part of the society, through their collective lives
make history. Without a society, history i,; highly improhahle.
Constantino further menlionPd lhilt history·is not necess~rily
presenting a long, unbroken chain of events. It illustratt!s movement
of J>eople and idea!< twer time and space. They may even be in conflict
with one <~nother. It is now the ta:~k of thl.' histori<m to we11ve
particular events into •l tot ill view w that these experiences can be
. summed up and analyzed.
1hus, the study of hi~<tory c;111 ~<erw ~:<a g\lidt• to present and
succeeding generations In facing the ch.•lk•nge-s of the tim~s. By
projecting the people's aspirations, a people's history will en~bl~ us
to grasp the direction of the country':~ devclopmtont and identity the
factors that impedt? real progress. Truly, tl:w need for a real pcop.lc's
history becomes more urgent as we Filipino$ search for tntly Filipino
solutions to the problems besetting our counhy

l!. Sources of History

Sources of inlorm.Hion provide the evidence from which the
historian obtain.-; facts about the past. Jn writing history. I h~ h istoria.n
not only relies on pa~l thoughts rather reen~cts it in· the context of
analyzing the documents and other records left. Thi~ is illl
indispensable coc1dition in the quest for historical facts.
4
 Source~ of history may be classified as primary and secondary.
Primary SOIH(es are those that have w itnessed the event that took
place or have been part of the incident being studied. The~e include
written records (e.g. nan atiYes, manuscriprn, public documents,
letters, diaries). fos.<;il~. a.rtifac~ and testimony from living witnes.o;es.
On the Other hand, ,;eoondary sources have not been part of the cvPnt
being considered such as n:.agazines, n,ewspapers, pamphlets,
.typescripLo;, and actides written about the prima ry sources .
.1' rehi~tory, a term gi vcn by 19'1' cen fury French ~ho Iars, covers
the pa:;t h uman experiences prior to the existence of written records.
The basic source of p re history is archaeology, which is a s ub-
discipline o f anthropology (i.e., the s tudy of all a~pects ol human
life and c u lture). Archaeology is the study o f past cultures.
Archaeologists study artifacts (maleria l equipment made by people
of the past like tools, pottery. and jewelry) and fos.~ils (preserved
remains of plants, animals, and p~ple of a remote geological past).
Archaeological excavation refers to the system a1ic recovery and
s tudy of these pieces of material evidence.
Ard\aeology gives us an idea how things might have looked
like at a particular time. Cultural artifacts i:nay be looked at as
<x.mcrete expressions of the and~nt ~ttlers' way in dealing w ith the
problem of adapt<Jtion to the environment. Their achievements in
material and social cull\lre show mu~h of their behav ior,. values,
and beliefs a.-, welll'S their in~_llcctual maturity.
Unfortunately, the reconstruction of Philippine prehistory will
always b e incomplete . ~any of the objects recovered have
disintegra1cd over time. Materia ls like wood, ba rks of trees, and
clothing decompose easily p articularly in a tropical clima te such a.~
ou rs. Dcvlces.mad~ s tone. cJ~v soil,.metal and the like,can survive
.most iikeiy i-h~ socij?ty that created II and thtis; be presently known
through the efforts of the archaeologist,;.
Early archaeological undertakings in the PhJlippines began with
the first major expedition inJ~l\}~.!!.~.<;tunan,fi..L~ ~.1:9\e..itl
.the island of MafinsuCJUe and o.ther site~~ in Central Philippine~. Most
of hi~ collections are n ow with the ~usee de 1' homrne.inl'.:uis, and
some in :l:Jdlo<!:!:i~t There were also sporad ic ~ds and pot-hunt.ing
act i vih ~s in various p arts of the. ~rshipelag()_, prior to th i~ m ajor
archaeological excavation. Feodor Jagor, a German tTav~>..ler, reported
having encountered a priest in Naga, Camarincs S~r who collected
artifacts from ancient graveyards.
5
 Dr. Antonio de Morga, in his Suusos de La~ ls/as Filipinas
(Historical Events of the Philippine rslands), deY.ribed the and enl
artifacts that were re<:overed by farmers in Luzon, particularly in
llocos, Pangasi.nan, Pampanga,and Manil~ . These were day vessels
of di>rk br<l"'"n color and some marked with characters. These items
are no longer being manufactured in the i.~lands.
Jose Ri7.al, the country's foremost hero was nott>d to havl' foWld
ground and polished stone tools during his exile in Dapitan,
Zamboanga del Norte.
The second major archaeological exploration was carried out
by Cad Guthe from the University of Michigan (rom 1922 to 1925.
With his team, they conducted several test-digli in Palawan, »ohol,
Korthern \ilindamo and other places in Central Philippiru!s. The
purpose of thi.~ :Michigan archaeological expedition was to collect
Chinese ceramics exported to the Philippines from China, to look
intn the early Filipino-Chinese relationship. The collection, resulting
from !he cxcav ation, consisted of more than 30 cubic tons of
prt>historic artifacts. 'They are now kept at the University of Michigan.
From 1926 to the outbreak of the Second World War, much of
the archaoological discoveries were done by Henry Otley Beyer
(1883-1966) born in Edgewood. Iowa who halt married Lingayu
Ga mbuk, the 15 year-old daughter of a powerfullfugao chief in 1910.
The dls<:overy of a major archaeological site in Novaliches in
192£>, resulting from the cortstructton of a dam for Manila 's water
supply, was Beyer's first archaeological resench in the country. In
1947, Beyer published the Outline Review ofPhi11ppit11' ArdllJrology by
1,</QIIri,; and Prwinces, a pion~ring research activity in Philippine
prehistory.
Larry Wilson, a mining prospector, assisted St-yer in !he
exploration of numt>rous Pleistocene sites in Northern Luzon. It was
»eyer who first disdO!>ed the importance of Palawan in the search
for early man in the Philippines.
All over the archipelago, the fOS&ilized remains of large
mammals that roamed the islands during the Middle 1-'ld~ toccne
Epoch have been discovered in the 1920s. The fossils o( el epha~,
!>tegodons, rhinoceroses, and deer have been discovered in Cagayao,
Pangasinan, Rizal, Panay Island and in Northeastern Mindanao. The
elephos, ~tegodon, and rhinoceros are now extinct in the CO\Ultry.

6
 In Cabarmyan Island in Lingay~n Gulf, fossilized tooth of a
d warf elephant was reported to have been retrieved. This specie of
d war£ ele-phant was subsequently identified and named f.lt>p/11:s beyeri
afler H. OtiP.y lleyer, considered as the Fa the r of Philippine
Arch~wlogy and Pn•history. Von Koonigswald, ~ palfontologist
known for his work on Java Man, gave the name for this specie.
After the Second World War. increased in~i in ltte prehistoric
beginning!'! of ~ Philippines evolved. Archaeology w~ later on
introduced as part of the curriculum at the Univer!;ily of the
Philippines.
Wilhelm G. Solheim n conducted the first post· war excavations
in :vtasbate lsl,md from 1951 to 1953. Alfredo Evangcli~;ta and E.
Ar~enio Manut~l a~"isted him in undertakk•g ehe work.
Behvcen 1950 and 1954, Solheim was the reSt~a rch associate at
the Museum of Archaeology .1nd 13thnology of the University of the
Fhilippines and the librarian and curator of the American Historical
Collection of tht- U.S. embassy in Manila . His earliest works in
Philipp ine archaeology was in 1951, w ith the p ublica tions on
.uch.1cological fieldwork in San 1\'arciso, Tayabas (now Quezon). I lis
activities ino uded extensive field experience in Southea..~t Asia, as
well as the various islands of the Pacific Region.
from 1958 to 1962, Robert B. fox a.nd Allredo Evangelista, both
working for the National :\1uscum ot the Philippines, undertook
series of test-digs in the cave~ ofCagraray, Aihay and Bato, Sotsogon.
Tradt-ware ceramics from China and l1•<1lland were recovered in
Calatagan.
Fox led the Tabon Caves Archaeological Project in Southwestern
l'alawan, res ulting in the unearthing of late Plei!ltocene human f0$ils
and stone tools and implements. Charcoal materia ls ana lyzed by
carbon-1·1 technique revealed the presence of man in the area between
2.2,000 to 24,000 years ago.
Huma n fossil bones of at lea•l three indi viduaL<: were found.
Th~e ind udL '<.i a large frontal bone, witl1 the urows and part of the
nasal bonl'S a5 well as fragments of a mandible and teeth. Classified
as modem man or 1/amo Sapims, these are the earliest known human
ulhabitants of the Philippines.
Ne il Mcintosh of the University of Sydney in Australia
undertook the 11nalysis and X·ritys of the T<tbon skullcap and
mand ibll! in 1975. Clt'titils showed the presenct~ of a thin f~sure on
7
the right side of the skull whlch according to Mclnt~xh, may have
been the cause of death. of th.~ individual. lt was probably d ue to a
fall or a bump on the head. .
Other .m inor digginp;; and explorations followed in the 1960s,
particula rly in the southern regions of the Visayas and ~1indanao,
led by anthropologists of the University of San Carlos !n Cebu and
Silliman University in Dumaguete City. Negros Oriental. In 1963-
64, Marcelino Maceda of San Carlos Univefsity, te<-hnically a~~istcd
by the National Museum, conducted archaeological excavations at
Kula man Pl;>teau in Bukidnon and recovered a number oflitnestone
burial jars. North of this place, Samuel Briones, a graduate sludent
at Silliman University reported the presence of limestone burial jars
in several caves he visited in 1966.
In Cebu, Karl H u ttcrer and Ro sa Tenazas o f San Carlos
Uni"ersity rt"Covered prehi.~toric artifacts in the middle o( Cebu Ci ty.
Tcnazas carried out archaeological cxcavatians in the Laguna area
and recovered valuable m aterials, mo~tly 10'' and 14'" century
artifacts in 1968-69.
ln Lemery, Batangas a group of students from Ateneo de Manila
conducted archaeological diggin.g s from 1968to 1970. The team was
composed of Cecilia Y. Locs in, Maria Isabel Ongpin, and Socorro P.
Pare mo.
ln the 1970s, the Nationa l Museum of the Philippi nes, led by
its chief arch~eologist Robert B. Fox, began systematic archaeologica l
w ork in C agayan Valley. This marked the ardent quest for prehistoric
m an in the area. Comparable to those previously reporte d animals
(such a,; clcphas, stegodons, and rhinoceroses), new fossil
di.'icoveries ~uch as those of crocodiles, giant torloi~e.q, p igs, and
deer w~re found in Cagayilfl.
In 1971, Karl H u tterer rt'turned to the site he p reviously
explored in Basey River in Sou them Samar. The following year,
Wilhehn Solheim II and Avelino Legaspi d ug in the area of Davao
d el Sur. They found tools made from large shells, manufactured
through a flaking technique slmllar to that used in making stone
tools.

3. !,;.nhii!itorical Data
TherE' are some narratives that have been previously accepted
in Philipp ine h istory as fact5 bu t later were found out to be historical

8
errors. It is to the credit of many historians who investigate and take
position of what they have discovered out in their careful research.
These unhistorical accounts include the Maragtas story, th4! Code of
Kalantiaw. and the legend of Princess Urduja. "
¥ara.gtas is the story about the ten Malay datu fron}.!klmeo
who settled into the Philippine islands. According to the Maragtas,
at aromtd 12'>0 A.D., ten Bomean dufu and their famil.lcs left their
kingdom in search of new homes across the ~ea to escape the
merciless rule of Sultan Makatunaw. Led by Datu Puti, ~e Bomeans
landed in the island ofPanay and bought the lowlandli from the Ati
king named Marikuda in exchange lor one gold snduk (native hat)
and a long gold necklace for Queen Maningwantiwan. After the
land ~le and pactof&iendship. theAtiswent to thehiUs. llu! Malay
datus seltled in the lowlands.
Datus Puti, Balensusa, a~td Dumangsil sailed northward to
Lw.on and landed in the region around Lake Bonbon (Ta.tl). There
they built their !!t!ttlements. Dumangsil and Balcn.<>u~a's families
occupied other neighboring regions now known as laguna and the
Bicol Peninsula. Datu Puti left for Borneo after he knew that his
men were leading pcaC4!fullive!;.
The other seven .datu ,stayed in Panay. They d ivided the island
into three districts. Hantik (now A~tiquc) was under patu
~umakwel. Qatu Paiburong ruled Irong·lrong (now Iloilo). Datu
~angkaya governed Aklan (now Aldan and Capiz).
Led by D;~tu Suroakwel, a politicill con.ft.'<icration ofbarangays
(Madya-as) was formed for purposes of protection and dose family
relations. The story as told by Fr. Franci~co Santaren, furlherd~ribes
the expan.<tion of the Malay ~el tlers to other parts of the archipelago.
The legal code written by Datu Sumakwel also known- as the
Maragtas Code was previously known as the uoldcst known written
body of laws" in the Philippines.
/ William Henry Sc:ott made the st\ldy of prehistoric source
rnah!tia Is for the study of Philippine history, the subject of hls doctoral
di~rtation at the University of Santo Tomas. He defended hi..'> paper
before a panel of well-known historians on Jvne 16, 1968. The
pa.rn!l.ists include Teodoro Agonclllo, Gregorio Zaide, Mercede~ Grau
Santamaria, Nicolas Zafra, and Father Horacio de la Costa, SJ.

9
 The research of Scott showed that Maragtas is not a p:rchispank
document but a book written by Pedro Monteclaro, a local historian
of P;mi\y. Montedaro's publisher in 1907, noted that thi.:; .Maragtas
should not be considered as facts, all of which are accurate and true.
The pt1blli>her poin~ out that many of the author's data do not
tally with what we hear from old men. The ;tuthor wrote that two of
hi!; m.a.nuscripts were rotten and hardly legible. I\'one of these written
materials was preserved for future generationli. He made no
explanation abou l the date a~ well a.~ the origin of his sources. Neither
were there claims to clarity. There ill no tradition of recording hL<>tory
nor !~gal decision in Panay during the precolonial times. Thus the
Maragtas could neither support the presence of any pre-Spanish
Confodt.rntinn oflv!Jidiaas (also spelled as Madyaas) nor uphold tM
exil\tcnce of a Sumakwel Code.
Previously regarded a~ the :;econd oldest legal code in the
Philippine:> was the.Code. of'Kblantiaw. Thi~ code was said to be a set
of ancient laws promulgated in 1433 by Datu &ndara Kalantiaw
(Spanil;h spelling, Calanliao) of Aldan, the third Muslim ruler of
Panay.
The code itself was contained in one oJ the c}:lapters of the f ,a~
antiguas leyendas tit' /a isla de Negros (Ancient Legends of Negros
Island) written by Fr. fosc Maria Pavon, a Spa rush secular priest who
became a parish priest of 'Himamaylan, Ncgros Occtdental in 1838·
1839. Jo$1! E. Mai'Co of Negros OccidePtal d~overed the alleged
Pavon manuscripts and presented it to Dr. jam~ Robertson, Dire:tor
of the Philippine Library and M~um in 1914. According to Marco's
confession, he obtained the two manuscript volumes from someone
who had stolen them from tht! H!mamaylan COilWnto during the
Revolution.
Direc.tor Robertson had the Pavon manuscripts published in
its English ltanslation in 1917. The Philippine Slud!e; Program of
the University of Chicago reprinted the translation in 1957.
Eventually, filipino hi~torians and textbook writers acknowledged
the auth~nlicily of the Pavon manuscripts without any doubt.
In tM unprecedented doctoral study of Scott, he concluded that
the Pavon manuscripts were not genuine and that the Code of
Kalantia.w was a hoax. He presented his serious objections to this
fak<: "historical" code. They are as follows:

10
 1. There iB na cvide~ that Fr. Pavon, the aUegcd author of
the manuscript, wa6 ever in the Prulippines in 1838, or
.ea.risl:t P'riest of the town in 1839, the dates of the
!nM'u:;cript. The disrovcrer of the a Ueged manuscript. Jose
E. Ma reo, was also involved in tt>c sale of other fake
historical document~. There is no histotical evidence for
the exisrence of Datu Kalantiaw, or a code of his name other
than the documents presented by Jose Marco.
2. The conbmt:; of the manuscript arc of dubious value. For
example, the ;~uthor prays for the preservation of the King
of Spain in 1838 and dedicate~ a book to him in 1839, but
Spain had no king between 18:33 and 1874.
3. The author also states that the month of :-.Jovember was
called a bad month for it brought air laden with putrified
microbes of evil fevers. It was only in the 1850s that Louis
Pasreur discovered the theory of infectious germs. The
word " microbe" itself w as invented by Dr. Charles
EmmanuelSed.illot.Heproposed the term forthefin>t time
in a ledun:! before the Academy of Sciences in 1878.
ol. The Ka!antiaw Code contains many strange edicts that
contradict the character of the Filipino. For example, the
code prescribed death penalty for the crime of tresspassing
on the datu's house, but imposed only 11 year's slavery for
stealing his "''ife.
Eventually, Scott's doctoral dL<;.<;~r1atinn was publ.ish~d by the
UST Press (Un.itas, Vol. :41, 1968). The following year, Jt wa~ rei.~sued
with the title, Prthistoric Source Mnt~ls for 1/ze Study of Philippine
!:fistory (l)ST Pre~~, 1969). · The same book was published in the
second J:'e\•lo;ed edition by ~ew Day Publisher.~ (Quezon City) i.n
1984. In ltu! last chapter of the book, Lookingfor the PrP.hispnnic Filipino
issued in 1992 by New Day Publishers,·Scott wrote a chapter titled,
Ksllantiaw: The Code that Never Was.Scott's condusion:s hilve not been
cha!!enged by any hlstorim to date.
Another narrative that many Filipinos have learned is about
the legendary warrior princess named Urduja. She has been ;~dopted
as a symbol of a woman of di~tinguishedcou ra~, an inspil'ation for
women in the country.

11
 Unfortunately, this tale is another historical error that has
created false impressions and should be corrected. The story
reportedly came from ~uhammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Batuta also
known as Ibn Batuta (1304-1371!), an Arab travcl~r from Morocco.
His book Rih/alt (Travels) includes de5criplions of lhc 'Bpantine court
of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and the Black Deat n of Baghdad
(1348).
According to his tTavd accounts, while som~<w hert> in Soulheast
A~an waters, he reached the land of Tmvnlisi after a voyage of 71
days. and China was 15daysaw<~ywith a favorable wind.ln Tu1mlisi,
he mentioned a mysterious amazon named Princess Urduja who
WO\Ud only marry the man who could beat her in fistfights. She
presided over a court so fascinating and majestic. She gave Ibn f3atuta
gifts of silk, spices, sheep, buffaloes, and two elephant-loads of rice.
The legend of Princess Urduja is quiie amusing but hi~torian~
could not certify its authcntidty. Modem historians agr~ lhal
Princes:; Urduja was just an illusory ~reation of Ibn Batuta, a
contemporary of Marco Polo (1254-1324), the Venetian tre~velec whose
accounts in the East, particularly China (the English translation of
the original title of the book w~s '/'he Drscripfion of tire World recorded
by Rustkhello, a rormmC(! writer from Pisa), drt>w lhc attention of a
great number of Europeans and stimulated interest m Asian trade.
Efforts to correct historical errors are still ongoing. Many
hi~torians even investigate for th~mselve~ the validity of sources
and data. Th~ concern of historians has been to collect and r~cord
facts about the past and to discover new £.1cts with utmost care and
truthfulness. The damage c,ntsed by deception is surely
immea:mrable but the blunder itself is a challenge th<lt every
individual should face. The determination Lo uncover the past
necessarily involves· the usf! of auxillary disciplines and literary
form-;.

12
 Chapter Test No. 1

Name: _________________________
Date: _________
Cowse, Year, and Section:_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the correct answer.

Write your answers on the blanks provided : (15 pts.)
_____ 1. Based on his theory, actions and events in history
m.1y ~attributed to economic motives.
a. Alvin Scaff c. Karl Marx
b. Arnold Toynbee d. l'emand Braudcl
_ _ _ 2. Hegel's N~furwi~senchaftm, the antithesis refers to
this.
a. historical reality c. particula1 ideal
lie particular situation .~ world of spirit of
or matter thought
_____ 3. According to him, Philippine his tory is a story of
struggle.
a. · Renato Constan tino c. Antonio de Morga
b. Sonia Zaide d . Robert Fox
____ 4 . The item below is a secondary source.
a. diary ·c. juumal
b. fossil t.l. love Jetter
____ S. This is an example uf an artifact.
a. jaw bone c. soil
b. puttery
0 · d. jewelry
_ _ 6. He wrote the SuerS<~!' .te l.n5 /~Ia.~ Jo"ilipiuns.
a. Feodor Jagor c. Alfredo
F.vangeli~ta

b. . Antonio de Morga d. ArRcnio Manuel

13
 7. Aside from those in Madrid, most of the collections
of Alfred ~arche in his 1881 major cxca,•ation are
found in this city.
a. Cehu c. New York
b. Manila · d. P.ui.~
__ __ 8. TI1is is the p~ of the Michigan archaeological
expedition from 1922 to 1925.
a. exploration of numerous Pleistocene sites in
Northern Luzon
· b. collect Chinese ceramics exported to the
Philippines from China
c. gather artifacts from ancient graveyards
d . search for prehistoric m.aJ\ in Cagayan Valley
_ _ 9. The remains of the Tabon M.1n was discovered
under the leadership of this archacolngi~l.
a. Otley Beyer c. Antonio de Morga
b. Wilhelm Soheim II d : Robert Fox
_ _ 10. 1n the l~te 1960s, Ka rl Ilutterer and R= Tcna z.;s
of this university recovered prehis toric artifact'~ in
the middle of Cebu City.
a. Atcneo de Manila
b. Silliman University
c. 53n Carlos University
d. University of Michigan
11. He wrol't! in 1907 that h>.·o of his written sources
for the Surnakwel Codt' were rotten and almost
unreadable.
a. Jose E. Marco c. Jose Maria Pavon
b. Pt'dro Montecla ro d. James Robertson
12. According tu Ibn Batuta, Princess Urduja ruled in
this kingdom which he travelled 13 days away
from China.
a. Tawali:;i c. Pangasinan
b. Thalamasin d. Borneo

14
 n This is the modern day name of Champ.,.
a. java c. South Vietnam
b. IX!meo d. India
14. In this alleged manuscrip t, the author p rays for the
p re:sP.rvation oftheKing of Spain in t838but 5pa in
had no king betv11een 1833 to 1874.
a. Ka\antiaw Code c. Maragtas Code
b. Sumakwel Cod<!
d . Madya-as
_ __ 15. In the :vlaragtas story, the ten Borne<'n datus
bought this island from the A ti king named
M<Jrikudo.
a. Cebu c. Panay
b. 1\'egros d. Sat:l'lir

n. E,<;..~ay: (10 pts. each)

1. How do events take p lare in history as pointed o ut by
Geozg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Alvin Scaff?
2. Wha t made William Henry Scott conclu de that the
K<1lanli~w
Code is a fake historical cod e?

15
 The Natural Setting and its People

t. How the Barth Was in the Beginning

The Holy Bible tell!\ u5 that, "In the beginning God created the
heaven• and the earth" (Genesi.<1: 1). 'The first part of the book relates
I he 5tory of creation. God created man in His own image, male and
fem~le. Adam and Eve, the first man and woman, became the
progenitors of mankind.
Indigenous Filipinos, on the other hand, have a number of
snyth.s and legend:; about the creation of the earth, names of places
and the origin of plants. Some myths expl~in the form,ltion of i~land!'>
and islets 35 well as the creation of varied living creatures.
Some stories say that in. the begiMing, there was only the sea
and the sky. Based on a Visayan legend, there wa~ ,;]~;o a mythical
bird named Mai!IWI searching for a place In rest bul cannot find one.
Then he pleaded the god of the sea, J<apta11 and the god uf the air,
Magauayart to help him.
The god~, asserting their might in anS\vering the bird's request,
~howed their strength. The god of the s~a created tidal waves to
beat the sky. In response, the god of the ~ir threw the waves back by
whirlwinds of rock and soil. Dry land was buill in the process.
The fight continued for thuusands uf years, until Manau/ grew
tired uf it. He <:ollected the rocks from the mountains and dropped
them on both gods. This ended the bailie. 1he ma$ses of ro<"ks
thrown by the mythical bird becamti' the islands of th~ Philippine
archipelago. ·
After getting exhausted, Mmtnul flew to a nearby grove of tall
bamboos to rest. v'lhen he alighted on the stalk, he heard a voice
coming from the bamboo, asking to be freed from within. The bird
pe-cked at the bambuo until it split apart. Out of the stalk came the
first man. S1·Kn/ac and the first woman Si-Kavav. Thev were advi~ed
by the earthquake a~ well as the fish of these~ and the birds of the
air to marry so thai they would multiply on earth. Tlu~y did, so

16
 Si-l<m){ly bore her first-born son Sibo. Sam,lr, their first daughter came
next.
Numerol•S legends explain how plac:es got !hOc'ir names. rn many
mstanct:S, the name of a p lan• is derived from .:1 bnd form of worJ
l.inked to the stury. for example Tagaytay from #taga Jtay;" Mindoro,
from the names of a couple Mina and Doro; and Manila, fr om til<!
word M.1}nilad (there are 11ilnd plants in the place).
Legend~ and myths at times provide a fandful counterpart to
actua I explan~tions or things and ~vents. The l ~ge nd or f!E>mardo
Carpio, called Hari 11g nrga Tagalog (King of the Tagalo~;s} pre.sen~
an imagina ti vt> explanation of how the country wa:; shaken by
earthquakes. Accord ing to the legend, Bernardo Carpio was rebuked
by lhc gods for hi• in.~nlcncc and left endlessly ch.liru!d in Montalban
Gorge in Rizal Province. l-Ie was cursed l'o keep two mountain
waiL! from colliding. Whenever he pausP.s to mgain st rength, the
walls of Montalban Gorge start closing in. Carpio pushes them bad<
so that the mountains would not grind him into pi~ces. As a result,
the Rround ~mtmd him shudders.
The 11na!y!ical study of geology comm~nced with the
publication of James H utton's Tht'Ory oflhr r:nrth (2 volumes, 1795).
!Iutton (ln&-1797), a British geologist, formula t~ the uniformilnnim
theory of geology which maintains that the Jaws of nilhm~ have
remained con.~tant. He further explained tha t the physical and
chemica l pmc:e~ses that have acted throughoutgt>ologic time are the
same processes seen today. laking the hyd rologic cycle for instance,
condensation always precedes predpitation. Processes such as
volcanism and erosion that have cau_<;ed changes in the c<~rth's surfucc
had been operating in the same manner over a very long period of
time. lie rejected the theory ofcufastruphi>m, whi(h was thOc'ptE'vailing
helicf during his time . Catastrophism asserts that only major
catctstrophes could alter the formation of the earth.
Map~ or charts covering the entice world or specific regions are
contained in an atl~ Ptolt>my, an Alexandrian scholar produced
the first collection of maps in about A.D. 150. In Lht> 16"' c.en tury.
Gerard us Mercator used the tenn atlas in the title of his colletiion of
maps. "!he term was derived from the custom of plating the Greek
mythological figure Atlas holding the t>arth on his ~h.oulders un the
title pages of map <:ollections. The first modem atlas titled, Tlle.ntrum
Orl:>is Terrarum (Theater of the Earth). was published in 1570 by
Abraham OrMiu~, a Dutch cartographer.
17
 Ortelius noticed that the Amerkan continents seemed to h<we
been disjoined hom Europe and Africa. He realized that the coasts
of lh!! thr!!e continents could be linked together like a huge jigsaw
puzzle.
Alfred Wegener (1880.1930), a C'.ennan meteorologist, also noted
his inquiry regarding the three continents which, Ortelius had 300
years ago. He began to combine som!! observations, which centered
on the view that the east coast of South America fits within the
contours uf the west <:oast of Africa. This suggests that the~e
continents may have been part of one huge landmass. He postulated
that these continent~ had simply drifted apart over millions of year~.
Wegener's 1):\ooty of continental drift was contained in his book,
The Origin of Continent.< nud Oceans, published in 1915. He named
the supen::on tinent, Pa11gw-a, a Greek word meaning "all land."
Pangaea had begun "t>reaking up approximately 200 million years ago,
earlier into a northern porlion. which he named Laurasia and a
southern portion, termed Gondwanaland by the Au~trian geologist
Eduard Suess.
Wegener supported his theory with fos~il evidence. Plant and
animal fossils from thccoastlincsofSouth Amerka and Africa found
to match. Fos~ils in unlikely climates further defended his claim,
such as the discovery of tropical plant fossils in Antarctica and of
glacial deposit!! in Africa.
During Wegener's lifetinw, his theory did not receive scientific
validation since the technological means to prove it had not yet been
develo~. During those days, most people believed that all earlh's
formations never move.
Arthur Holmes (1890·1965), a Briti~h geologist advocated
support for Wegener's theory. Jn l928, he proposed that the
convection currents within the earth's mantle driven by radioactive
heal might have caused the mechcmism fur continental drift.
In the 1950s, scientists began ocean()graphic rewarch, which
revealed the phenomenon known ~s 5eafloor spreilding. In the 1960s,
the theory of plate tectonics was established. The plates of the earth
move. The theory explains that the lithosphere (the outer layer of
the earth) move sideways above a. less rigid layer called the
~sthenosphere, whicl\ is und~r ~xtremc pressure. Eventually, the
theory of continental drift gained far-reaching acceptance in the field
of science.
18
 The surfacl' of the earth i.o; continually changing because of force::;
either from tht"intemal hea t of the earth or the energy produ<'t'd by
the sun. The fir.;t one results in the motion of tectonic plates while
the latter, involves the movement of water from the earth's s urface
to the atmosphere and then back to earth, which L'> also known as
hyd rolog k cycle which eventually results to the washing out·of soiL

2. Geological Foundation
J>rior to the appearance of modern man in the Philippine
archipelago, hi~tory has to depend on the war~ of ~cologists. The
geologists s~ek to understand how the earth evolved into what it is
today and forecast possible geologic events. In Arthur Holmes' book
1'he Age of the Earth (1913}, he developed a geologic time scale, which
he continued to work on until 19:'i9. 'The d.11cs given for certam
geological formations are Wormed estirnalP.S, in terms of years before
the presen I (B I').
Accon1in& lo present estimates, the p iM el earth is between 4.6
a11d 4.8 billion ye,.rs BP. The first dinosaurs were believed to have
appeared i\round 225 million yci\rs ago, during the Mesozoic Era .
At about 65 millions years ago, the dinosaurs that onceoc.:up led the
valleys, plains, and swamps be-came extinCt. It is bdievetl that these
huge creatures perished with a huge mc-toorit~ that hit the eaTUI or
w ith shattering volcanic e ruptions.
The Philippine soil iscompos~d of numerous rocks, which came
from regions r.,r from the archipelago's present location. It w~
during the T"rliary period of the Cenozoic F.ra (54 million years- 2
million years BP) that the land structure of the Philippines was
defined. In the nor them part, the P.hilippine archipelago wa.~ believed
to be adjoined to Formosa (now Taiwan) during the Eocene {53- 54
million years BP) and Oligocene epochs (37 - 38 million years BP).
However, the Formosan connection was severed during the Miocene
epoch (26 m illion years BP). The comt>ined effect~ of volcanism and
other tectonic movements of the basement complex brought about
the disjunction.
As connections with other areas chang~d, the internal structure
of the archip"lago also underwent changes with.the flattening of
the crustalsurfael! of the existing higher grounds during the Pliocene
epoch (7 ·-13 million years 'BP). The emergence of man on earth was
estimated al 5 million yt"ars BP.
19
 Pleistocene epoch (1 .6million years to 10,000 years BP), the first
division of the Quaternary period is the epoch prior ltJ the Holocene
epoch (10,000 year.~ BP to the present). During the Pleistocene epoch,
the earth underwent <1 series of altffnaling wi\nn and c:old climates.
In Europe. scient ists agrt.>e that there occurred four cold phas<'s
known geological ly as Gtm.Z, Mindel Riss, and Wurm. In the United
States, these cold phi!St!S were known as Jerscriru~, KaMan glacial,
lllinoian-Iowan g lacial, Md WL~consin glacia l. lle tween the cold
phases arc the three interglacial or warm periods. Each interglacial
period lasted for seve ral thousand;; of years.
The J>lei'ltocene marked the beginning of evolutionary processes
in both flora ami fdur.a. The freezing of the n orthern .:md southern
hemisphere~ cau~ed an extensive spread of sea icc in the area and
helped provide a suitable climate for ice-age animals like tilE'
mastodon md saber-toothed tiger. Jn Asia, the Mongolian area and
the Himalaya" were also topped with ice sh~eb. There was a
widespread distribution of glacier:; in the higher regions of the
Afric~n con tinent.

In sum~ reg.ion:; of Africa and Asia, particula rly along the

sou thern coasts . th~re w ere no ice sheets. [nstead , the climatic
condi tion was ch~r~cterized by extensive and continuous rain. This
phenomenon i.~ known as the jluvinl conditio". Such condition gave
rise to the gr(lwth of rainforests and marshes, which favored the
survival of large animals,
Based on rerentstudic~. the earth has undergone twenty cycles
of glaciation over the past two million years. During thl:.' Pleistoc~ne,
the gla<iers accumulated a big quantity of water in the form of ice,
causing water levels in the world's oel!ans to drop . Tho:? t>arth's
climate, which began warming some 18,000 years ,,go, cau5ed the
oceans to regain their present lcvd5. The movements of Lite water
resulting from vast glaciatioM and degl.1ciations in t he tempera~
region cau !>Cd convergence, as well as the separation o ( landmass~.
Ouring th e glad;~l periods, ocean levels were m uch lower
thereupon exposing the Sttnda Shelf and the Sahul Shelf. These are
extensions of contin~nt~ otherv.-i:re known as continental ~helves .
In Asia, the Sund~ Shelf, whic.h is an exte11 sion of the coastal
shelf of Southeas t AsJa, included th~ Malay Peninsul~,S1unatra, J<~va,
and Borneo to 1-'alawan. From &lmeo, th!! Philippines was linked
through a naLTOw proj~ction of island now occupied by Balabac.

20
Pal~wan and Calamian~. The continental shelf known as Sahul Shelf
is an e>-l't'<~sion of the coastal shelf of Australia. It cov~red the islands
of New Guinea and the Aru lslanrls of lndont>Sia.
When the Sunda and Sahul Shelves were exposeJ, tht> land
bridges were believed to have connected m ost of Indonesia, New
Gui nea and A\tstra lia. Dark-skinned people, ances tors to the
Ausl ra loid.~. tTavelcd across the bridges to :-Jew G uinea and other
islands of Mel;mesia. '!he Mongoloid p10ple thtm populil t~d New
Gu inea and gradually journeyed to the southeast by sailing canoes.
Several changes in the land formation in tt>e archipelago took
place toward the end of the Plei~tocPnc d ue to a number of factors
like volcruuc eruptions, erosion, faulting, and foldinR of the geological
base of thP. ifiland~.
Tht> J>lcis toccnc lasted for a long perioc.l of ti•ne. Al the height
of th~ interglacial period, a grea t rive r systemflow~xl from the int~rior
ot As ia n1<1inland and Australin poured into the outlying area~ . The
riverine connections brought about toe drifting of species of fish.
Till$ explains the striking similarities of fish fatm~ in EasiPrn Sumatra
w ith tho:;e in Western Bomcu and species found in the Philippines.
Similarly. then~ is a close (,lllnal and floral re lationship between
Eastern 1\.f uldanao and North Borneo.
The exis tence of the shl\ll<1W China Sea between the Asiao
m..1inland ,1nd the Phil ippi nes, as well as the p resence of a foredeep
at the P.astem margin of the co\l.ntry, indicates that t h~ archipelago
was once the edge of the Asi~n continentlll platform. These ~asons
further s urport the land b rid ~e~ theory that most scientist~ acc12pt.
Some geologists li ke lJr. 13.lilcy' Willis ques tiont.>d the villidJty
of the land bridges theory ~nd mentioned that the Philippinl'S is of
\'olcanic origin. Based on the volcanic theor)~ the emergence of the
isl;~nds "'~~ a result of the eruptions of sea .,.·ukMOe-5 in rP.mo tP.
c~l(><:hs.

3· The Archipelago's Name

During the pre-Span is h era . early Chinese t•·ad<! rs and
geogrclpher~ already knew the Philippines. Sung Dyna~ty sources
in 982 A.D. rcierr~d the islands BS Ma yi. Q\al1 )u-kua. cl C hine5e
:r~dc oificial, gave a detailoo ac\.'O~~> t o f his tr«vel to various parts
•)l iht> i~land~ in 1225. whicli he called Mu-i.

~1
 In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan named the islands, 1~/n,; d( S1111
l.il:m·q (A rchipelago of St. Lazan•s) when he first set foot on our native
soil. Ma.n y other n.1mcs have bet>n giv en to the archipelago.
l he name Philippines came from the word Filipinns giv£'n by
the 5panish na \•igator Ruy Lopez de Vi!Jalobo~ in 1543 in hcmor of
Prince Ph ilip of Asturias, who became King Phi lip II of 5pain,
~uccessor to King Charlc5 I. '!he word F.-Jipina wa~ at first given by
Villalobos'~ mE>n to refer to l.A!yte and Samar. Later, it was given to
the whc>le ar:chipt:!lago.
In 1751, Fr. ]udn J. Delgado, a Jesuit historian ca lled Manila,
Pc'f'lrl of lirc· Oriml since it became a rich outlet of Asian trade even
prior to the coming of th~ Spaniards in the archipt'lCigo. Dr. Jose lllial,
the country's foremost hero, gave the name p,.,,, oftlrt· Orimt Sr•rs to
his nal'iveland on the eve of his execution in 1896.
The name Filipinn~ first appeared in a rare map published in
Venice in 1554 by Giovanni BatHst.1 Ramu.r,io, an Italian geographer.
Th~ Spanish Filil'inas or Ft•lipi>r.1~ was later chiii\h":!U to Philippine
Islands (P.I.) during the Amerlc.a n colonial era. It was n.'llamcd
Rep ub lic of the Philippines (R. P.) after the rec ogn itio n of its
independence in 1946.
There were some Filipin~ who proposed new names for the
Philippines :;ince the name o f ou r country was g•ven by the
coloni.zens. Artemio Ricarte, a Katipunan general, wanted it to be
called the Rizalillt' R~pu/J/ic, after Jose Rizal. former President
Ferd inand Marcos propoeed the name Mahnrlikn (also tht> name of
his guC!'rilla group in World War II), alter hi~ dream of making this
nation (\ rt'at again.

4· Geography and Resources

The Philippines, found in.the Western Pacific Ocean, has an
asti'Onomicallocation of 4° 23'·21"25' N. l.atitudt:! and l16°·127"E.
Longin•de. lt is situated in the SOLL!beastem portion of Asia. Taiwan
bounds the country on the n orth, on the west by South China St:!a
and Vietnam, on th~ east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the
Celebes Se~ and Indonesia and, on the southwt>:>t by :vfalaysia and
Singapore . ~<:a\tse of its centra l location in tht! Fa r Eas t, the
Philipp in es has been dubbed as the " Crossroads o/ the Pacific".

22
 The country is an archipelago uf7,107 islands and islets. Jt has
a total land area of 300,000 square kilom.,tt-rs. Manila is the capital
and largest city of the country. It is also the chief port and main
commercial cente( of the islands.
Luzon, th~ biggest of the three major geographical groups has
an area oLJ41,395 square kilometj!rs. Visayas has an area of..56,606
square kilometers; and Mindartao, with an ~a o~_101,999 :;quare
kilometers. The northenuno.:~t point of t he country is Y' Ami Isle,
which is 78 miles from Taiwan. The southernmost point is Sa\uag
Isle, only 34 miles easl of Borneo.
The Philippines has the longest irreb'lllar coastline in the world.
36.290 kilometer.; in length. This is longer than t,he coastline of Great
Bri tain and twice the coastl ine of the United States. The cotu>try has
61 natural harbors(with20 lilndlocked straits). Manila Bay, th~ finest
natura I ha rbm in the Far East. has on a rea ofl,970 square ki lumet~rs.
Palawan, which forms the country's western boundary, has a
t.ot<\1 of 1,768 i~Jands and islets. It has marvelous subterranean cav~~.
W1explored dive sites, unpolluted beaches..,nd dense tropical jW1gles.
It is also a sanchtary to a variety of faW1a and flora.
The co\tntry h"s 16 regions whkh include the nocos Regiol\,
Cogayan Region, Central Luzon. Southern Tagalog, Bicol Region.
Western Vis~yas, Central Visayas, Eastern Visaya~, Western
Mindanao, ~orthem Mindanao, Sou thern Mind anao, Central
Mindanao, Caraga Administrative Region, Autonomous Region in
Muslim Mindllnclo (ARMM). Cordillera Administrative Region
(CAR), and Metropolitim Manila. These I'l!giOns are comprised of
provinces, which are ~-ubdividcd into districts. The districts consist
of municipalities with a number of barangays.
'!he L~lands in the Ph ilippines are said to b" of volcanic origin;
thus, it has grand moW1tain ranges and sununi ts of submerged
mounti\in mas.~. It has fertile valleys and plains as well as exten~ivc
river systems. Forests on mountain slope.~, where most of the diverse
plants and animals are found, provide m"terials for food, medicin~
and building shelter and natural habitats for wildlife.
Some mountain.~ have be~n regarded as sites for spiritual
r~generation. In the Tagalog region, some people find Mounts
Makilirlg and Banahaw as mystic mountains tor reflection and
recreation. According lo legend, Mount :>.fakiling m Laguna is the
abode of a godd~ named Marlang Makili.ng who protects the forest
23
that covers the mounti\in. Mount Banahaw along the Quezon border
is also considered a powerful energy source for pilgrims, spiritualists,
and cults h,wing a blend of both indigenou.~ and Catholic beliefs
and rituals.
Three major mountain ranges are ~ituated in \lorthem l.uT.On:
the Sierra MadrP. Range, tllP. Cordillera Range, and the Caraballo
Range. The Sierra Madre, which is the largest and l<.>nge:;t range in
the country, faces the Pacific Ocean on the eastem coast of Luzon. It
begins near Aparri and proceeds further through !sabela, Cagayan,
and Aurora provinces. The southern part of Sicrr,1 Madre include!'l
Aurora, Quezon, l3ulacan, Rizal, and Laguna provinc~s.
The Cordillera Mountains in the western p.1rt of Korthem
l.u7.0n are parallel to the Sierra Madre Range. The Cagayan Valley
occupies the region between these two mountain ranges. The
Conhllera extends from !locos Norte down to the 8enguet and l.a
Union areil. In the Cordillera Range, Mount Pulag, is the second
highest peal< in the country.
The most productive gold and copper mines in the country are
located within the CordiUcra region. Ro<~ds along the mountain range
are known for their zig1.ag curve!'.. The famous Banauc Rice Tcrr.1ces,
looking like stairways to heilven, i~ in the Cordilleras. lhcrc arc
places when.• the ric<! fields reach from c~n altitude of 1,500 ieet to
4,500 feet. Thl! lf~1gaos haH· built these terrac~s ont of the mountain
slopes using thl? barest of toob over htmdreds of years. Their
devotion for rice has compelled them to carve these majestic terraces
on which to plant. ln regions inhabited by,, pure lfugao population.
the walls of the terraccs arc of rotU1d hard river stones.
TI1e dty of Baguio amidst the mmmtainow; region of Cordillera
i~ one of the most popular vacation dc.,linations in the country.
Owing to tht> somic attractions as well as cool temperature oi the
place, Bagttio has become the ''summer c"p•tal" of the country.
The Caral.Milo R11nge, near NlJPva Ecija and Nueva Vi:r.<:aya,
crosscuts the Si~rra Madre at its middle section and the southern
end of the Cordilleras. To the south of Caraballo i~ the Central Plain
in Luzon.
On the south western coast uf Lw:on is tht! Zambal~ Mountain
Range. It extends from the shores of Western Pangasinan to parts of
Du!acan and 6ataan. Luzon has a motmtai.nous extension to the
southe,1st called Bicol Pcnins\tla.
24
 In the Visayas, the most prominent mountain ranges are found
a(ross major islands. The islands in the Visaya~: have mountainous
terrains except Samar and Bohol.
In Mindanao, there arc four major mCI\U\tainranges: the Diwata
Range, the Tago·Apo Range, the Kalatungan-Kitanglad Range, and
the Daguma Range. The Diwata Rangehorders the Pacific coast and
west of it lie,:; the valley o f Agusan. Tago- Apo Range fonns a parallel
ridge to D iwala Range. Located in the area a re the Balatukan
Mountains, the volcanic peaks of Camiguin, Kinabalin, Kumakata,
and the :l.ioWlt Apo in Davao del Sur, which ill also the h ighest
mountain in the country (2,954 meters high).
The Kalatungan·Kitanglad MoWltain Range, which includ~
Mounts Butig, Kidong in. and Ragang is situated in the Lanao
provinces. The Daguma Range exrends near Sa rangani Bay in the
south . Volcanoes at the boundaries of Dagurna Range are Mount
Blik, south of Cotabatu City and Mount Parker, west of Ge neral
Santos C:ily.
The country has over 50 volcanoes. The most active among them
are lraya in Batane~:, Pinatubo in Zambales, Taal in Batangas,
Banahaw in Ql.lezon, Mayon in Albay, Bulu.san In Sorsogon, Kanlaon
in Ncgros, I libok·Hil.ook in Carniguin, Makaturing in Lanao, and
Apo in Oav~o del Sur.
Mt. Pinatubo which has been donnant for 611 years ~tarted to
emit ilnnes on April 2, 1991 after a hydrothermal explosion at the
volcano's crater tuok p la~. The most destructive series of eruptions
were on June 12·15, 1991. Its ashfalls reached as fa r as MetTo Manila,
Mindoro, Palawan, and Cambodia to the east, worsening damage
to the 07.0ne IaycL
Se vt!ral places in the provinct!s of Zamba les, Ta rlac, and
Pampanga, including Clark.i\ir Base in Angeles Clly were filled with
pyroclas tic flows and lahar (an Jndon~sian term for volcanic
mudflow). Devastation to public and private properties was greatly
unra,·orahle, placing these areas lll\dcr a state of calamity.
The laha r deposits along Mt. Pinatubo still cascade~ du wn the
lowlands after heavy rains. The~ vokanic mudflows are expect~!
to last for years. They continue to defy the billion-peso dike built to
contain l.1har flows.
Taal Volcano. a regular tourist drawer, is 11 volcano within a
volcano. It L~ rising from a lake, which is the crater of a larger volcano,
25
now extinct. Since 1572, Taal Volcano had 33 recorded eruptions
with violen t ont'S that occulT('(! in 1749, 1754-, 1911, and 1965.
Mount Ma yon, world famous for its near-perfect conical shape,
had its first recorded crup llon in 1616. It had cntplcd at lea.<>t 45
limes from then on. In 181 4. it erupted disastrously. de~troying five
town.~ ~urrounding its base. During the height oi thE' volcano's fury,
1,200 people who took refuge inside the church of the town of
Cagsawa (now Daraga} were killed. lhe ruins of the church tower
solely remilin above ground after the tragedy.
Kanlaon Volcano had cntpled six time~ in 1985 and thrice in
1986. In 1989, it had a minor erup tion. Fortunately, this did not cause
any d e'ltruction.
There arc !lOme '·olea noes whose hot rocks beneath arc being
pent-tratt>d by groundwClter. When the heated underground water
tt.>~(he~ tht.> surface, hot .springs are formed. Thc'.~P. hot springs are
used as baths in the houses and resort~ around Mt. :'vfakiling and
~1t. Bulusan.
Topographic elevations les:'> thnn 600 meters in a ltitude are
considered hills. The mo~t popu l,u of these in the country arc the
Chocolate Hill<;, with more than 1,000 uf them in Bohol. During Ihe
dry months of February tu1til May. these doll\C-!.hap ed limestone
hills tum chocolate-brown as the gr= wither. !n us the name was
~iv~n to it.

Chocolate Hills is one of the geologicCll monum.mts of the

country. The other four nationa l geological monuments are Taal
Volcano in Batangas, MontCJibl!ln Caves in Rizal Province, Sand Dunes
in !loco~ Norte, and Hund red Islands in Pangasinan.
The Department of Environment and Natural Res ources
(D ~R}, Ph ilippine Touri~m Au thori ty (PTA), and the Na tiona I
Comm [llre on Geological Sciences (NCGS) issued the declara tion
n( nationa l geological monuments to highlight the protection of
geological structures and feahtrcs with high scien tific or llt.'sthetic/
environmental value. These gcol(l~ical monuments would serve not
only as travel destinations in lhP. country but also as laboratories for
geologic~! research.
Large ril.'ers traverse the principal islands of the country. The
Cag.1yan River, with a length of 513 kilometer:;, is the longest river
in the country. It t1ows irom the Caraballo Mounta insnt>ar the Nueva

26
Vizcaya-Nucva Ecija provincial boundary and proct:eds down into
the Babuyan Channel in Northern Luzon. Other important river" in
the COUJitry include Chico, Abra, Pampanga, Bicol, Pulangi, and
Agusan.
Between Samar and Le yt~ is the San j u anico Stra it, the
nanuwcststrail in the world. Laguna de Bay is the largest freshwater
lake in Southeast Asia. The deepest among tht.- l~kcs of T...t;una i~
Lake Calibato, whic.h is 176 ~ters deep. This is brought about by
low silt inflow from its small watcu.hed area.
In the middle of the tropkal blue and emerald green waters of
the Sulu Sea and Palawan lies the Tubbat<Jha RP.ef, just one of the
sandbars and reds known for its rich beautiful dive sites and marine
rewun:es. St>~birds, turtle~. giant clams, and o ther marine animals
have been settling in the area. The reef covers an area of 12 miles
within the island rnW1 icipality of Cagayancillo in Palawan. In
August, 1987, the reef was declared a national rn:uine park. It gained
gre,1ter di~tinction and international recognition when the UNESCO
naml'd TubbMaha a World lleritage Site.
Tht: largest p lain in the archipelago is the Comtral Pia in in_Luzon,
known as the "Rice Gr~nary of the Philippines." The ~urroundin!_!
greenery yields vegetables, tendriL~, sprouts, .flowers, and fruits.
Among me f.1mous Philippine fruits acre lan7.0ncs, sweet mango, and
the durian.
There are about 10,000 species uf flowering plants and ferns in
the country. Among the flowers in the islands are the sampii)?Uita,
gardenia, dama de noche, wilter lilies, orchids and il lot more. Of
the 1,000 varieti..s of on:hids that bloom in the count')~ the waling-
walillg (Vm•dQ samleriana) is regardP.d as t hc "Queen of Philippine
Orchids."
Famous of the Philippine woods is narra, proclaimed as the
country's national tree in accordance with an ~xecuhve proclamation
of Governor General .Frank Mwphy dated February 1, 1934.
Rc£errC<i to as the forests of the sea, m angrove swamp for~t;
grow in saltwater or brackish water. The mangroves are among the
significant ecosystems that characterize the coastal areas of the
archipelago. They arc con.;idered minor forest type, compared to
mixed lowland tropical rainfore~t ecosystem.
Economically, the mangroves are beneficial, especially to the
coastal dwellers. They provide poles for ~helter, wood for cooking,
27
chorcoa l ~s domestic l'ner~;;y source and as a source of Income, nipa
sap fo r tuba and vinegar, nipa shingles for roofing, ~nd ground for
Bquacu lture. Mang10ve- dcpcndent fishe ry products include
~hellfish, shrimps. and llk'ltlgrove crabs. These mangroves likewisc
help prevent erosion of riverbanks
The country abounds in animal life. Of the 201 ~pedes of
mammals in thE' co\lntry, 179 are terrestrial and 22 are m~rine. The
l'hillpplne carabao, a swamp type of domesticated water buffalc
has long b~en an important work animal. Other animals include
several species of deer, wild and clomesticat,;d pigs, cattle, rodents,
reptiles, birds, <~nd mollusks. Some unique animals in the world a re
also found in the Philippin es: the tamaraw or /3ubalus miudorrn.~is of
Mindoro, whkh looks hke a dwarf carabao; the tarsier of Bohol, the
smallest monkey in the v.<or ld ; and the Calamian deer or Ceruu$
calnminnm.>i> (pilanrluk) of Pal~ wan, the world's smalh!st deer.
Tht"n! are about 25,000 species of insects in the islands. The
largl:!st insect in the CotU\try i~ the giant moth (Ait<~CII5 at/115}, with a
wings p.m of one foot. The largest ll nd >mallest bats in the world are
found in the comttry. Ihl' lesser /l<lt headed bats or the Jesser bamboo
ba~ weigh around 2 grams. The golden-crowned flying fox weighs
about 1.5 kilograms. It has a wingspan of 1.7 metel's. These two
species o f bats are found in Olonga.po City, :t.ambales a t the Subic
Bay Forest Re~rve (SBFR) .
. The world's second largest after the Harpy e.1gle found in the
Amazon forests is the Philippine eagle (Pithecopagn jefferyi), found
in the jungles of Luzon and .'vlindanao. lt has earned the title of "King
of Philippine Birds". It measurPS five ;md a half feet in height and a
wing SJ>M of !\even feeL It was previou~ly called the monkey-eating
eagle. In th!' 1970s,.i ts nam<.> was changed since it was found out
tha t it on ly ale monkeys occasionally. lis main food consists of flying
lemurs, li:la.r ds,and snakes. In 1996. th., Philippine eagle was offiCially
named the national bird of the country by virtue of a presidential
proclamation.
Other interesting birds in the country are the ki•ltlw, which the
Spanish colonizers dubbed a~ "clock of th., mountains", the klltalt1
(Philippine Cockatoo), which mu mbles and croons like a man, ,md
the tin)• Philipp in~ iakonet, on ly six and a half ccntimctcr5long.
Also f01md in the Phil ippines i~ the world's rarest shell, called
Glory of the Sea (Cotw11,; gloricmmris) and the Trid~cr1a giiln.(. which is
 the world's large~t shell and has a length of one meter and weighs
600 pounds. The sm~llest shell in the world, the- Pi~idum, i.'< also
found in our (Ount:ry. It i.~ less than lme millimeter in length.
ln 1995, R.M. de Ia Paz and E.D. Gomez recordt>ll a totit l of
2,140 species of J>hiJippinc fishes. Among the commercially known
fish found in numerou~ 111lhing grounds arC' the l%mgus (milkfish),
dalas (mudfJSh), dilis (anchovy), kmzdrrl•· (catfish), laprrlaprr (scabass),
galwzggong (ro\md scad), lwzgu irrgi (rnaclcerel), llzmlwz (Indian
,;ardincs), and barites (tuna).
Some of the endemic frcshw a tcr species are con~idered
endi\ngered. TI1ese indude the Han'll.'{ll/;1 towilis, locally known as
t.nvi/zs; Mt"Siichtlzys luwnm,i;, or ;ii111YIIf~1H; and pmrr1akll PY:~miU'tl, the
pygmygoby.
1;2wi/is, a freshwater species oi sardines, are found in Lake Taal.
&t~ng<~s. Si1zm·apun, the smallPst conunercial fish, can only be found
in Lak~ Buhi and L.1k.e Bato, Camarines Sur. lt m~a~ures bctwe~n 1
and 1.4 centimeters. The d warf·pygmy goby or !ora lly known a»
ta/Jin~. lhc world's smallest v~rtebrate which ranges from 7.5 to 11
miJlimet~rs, is said to be dwelling in the 1'\avotas and Malabon
Rivers. It is strongly believP.d that the ttlbios is already extinct due to
wMer pollution.
The world's largest fish is al~o found in the- country. This i~ the
whale ~ hark, which is 50 feet or more in length. It was iirst sight<>d
off th~ coast of Marivele~, Munila Ba~: in 1816 by Filipino fishe rmen,
who called 1t ~~>tiug /Julik (striped .~hark).
The Philippine archipel;,go hl!s rich d~>posits oi gold, copper,
inm, lead, manganese, nickel, chromite, sil,•er and other metal<;. Non·
metallic mineral!\ include coal, salt. a:;phalt, asbestos, clay, ma rble
and hme$!One.
Gold mining is an ilndent indust ry in the coun try. Before the
coming of the Spanish conqueron;, the Filipinm: were alrcad y :mining
gold in t'aracale, Carnarincs Norte. in the mmmtains of Nort hE'rn
I.\17.0n a •1d the 1slands of :VIasbate and Mindanao.
Mount Diwalwallocated at thenorlhPmend ofDavaodell\orte
ha.!; been the site of gold rush since 1963. ., he Bureau of )..1ines
officia lly attributes the d iscovery of gold in the vicinity to the
members of the Mandaya tribe. Gold nuggets wt>Te io,md. and those
who h,wc entered and eng<~g~d in small-scale mininS were able to
g~ in ,, lnt irom this busine!Q venture.

29
 Sin(!:.' pre-colonial time.s, the Igorols have been Jnining copper
in the mountains of Northern Luzon. \1;mkayan, the olde.st and
largest copper mine in the cotmtry still exists. Other copper deposit:;
are found in the island~ of ::-\cgro.~ and Rapu-R.1pu {p.1rt of All:lay}
and the province of ZambaiE's. Iron deposils MP. found in Larap,
Camarin~;.>~ Nortt>; San Migut!l, Buldcan; Marinduque; and Samilr.
The greatest iron-bearing area in the rountry is Smigao. The world's
l<~rgcst deposit of nickel has been discovered in Nonoc Isle, off the
coast of Northern Mindanao. Va~t marble deposits arc found in
Mindoro, Romblon, Palawan, Cebu. and Flicol. Adequ~te deposits
of coal are bt>ing tappl>d in Ct>bu, Sorsogon, Masl>atc, <md Silmguey
Peninsula.

5· Country's Climate
The Philippines has a tropical dimatl' with a nwan ann\tal
rempcrature of about27"C (about 80"F). Mountain slopes and peaks
found in the archipelago are cooiE't: The country has two $easons,
dry and w~;.>t. In most of the islands. rainy season occurs frum May
to November. During this period. the wind blow:. from the
soothwest. Often, the country <.'xpcricnccs typhoons from the months
of June to October. "Jhe dry season occur.~ from Uec~mbcr lo April,
when the wind blows from" the northeast.

6. The Filipino People

Tile Philippine soci~ty is a hannomous rruxture of diversity and
homogenl:.'ity: Despite of diverse ethnic and c:ultural backgrounds,
forces of assimilation have constantly worked to overcome the
differences.
Within the blood veins of the .hlipinos are a blend of its
forefathers from Malay, Chi•)~Se, Negrito, Jndi;~n, Europt'an and
American lineage. The intermarriage of a Filipino and <1 foreigner
did happt!n, owing to the strategic location of the country to
Southeast Asian neighbors and the colonial rule of Spain and
America. The int~rmingling of people resulting to adaptation to
dilferent <"ulture.;; made tht> muntry ~ melting J'OI of peoplt> and
Clllture.
Since the 19'" century, Fihpinos h,ove been rderred to as the
·Christiani:£ed Malays who constitute the bulk of the population. They

30
are the descendants of those whow~re colonized by Western settlers.
Nwncrically greater in nwnber are the Visayai\s (primarily in the
central pMlion of the archipelago) and the Tagalogs.
The Cebuanos, Ilonggos, ancl Waray-Waray comprise a big
number among the Vi~ayans. In the Visaya~, the llonggos live in
Western Negros, in Southern Mindoro and in Panay Island while
the Ccbuanos predominate in Cebu, W~tern Leyte, Buhol, Eastern
1\'egros, and in ~omc coast..'! areas of Mindanao. The Waray-Watays
are in the provinces of Samar and Eastern Leyte.
Mo&t of th" Tagalogs live in Manila, in Central Luzon, and
Southern Luzon. People coming from certain provinces in the
Tagalog region like Batangas, Bulacan, <1nd Qut.>zon have intonations
oi their own.
The Ilocanos are considered the third biggest group. They live
particularly in !locos 1'\orte, llows Sur, anci La Union but ITh"'ny havc
rrtigratcd locally and abroad.
Other members of the populace include the Pangasine~$,
Pampangueiius, Zamhals, lbilnags {Cagayanos), and Bicolanos. The
Pangasinenses live in the Lingayen Gulf region of Pangasinan,
including the province o£ Panga~inan. :Many of them have already
migratP.d in other provinces of Central Luzon. The Pampangueiios
or Kapampanganslivc in Central Luzon, particularly in tht? province
oi P<~mpanga.
The non-Malay groltp~ indude people of Spanish and Chinese
desr.ent. 'lhday, the country' has a growint; number of t'ilipino-
Chinese who are engaged in various conunercialadivities. They are
part of the economically and politic~lly important minority.
1\atur"' and ancestral beliefs have helped ~hapc the lifestyle of
the tribal communities. The indigenous groups in various parts of
the archipelago havl' kept their own cultural tradition distinct
through the generations. Induuet! here are th~ vadous mountain
people of Cordillera, which cofll;ist <Jf the b.ne)9i of Apayao; Kalingas.
of Kali11ga; lfugaos, lgorots, lbalois, Kankanays, and Bontoks of
Benguet and Mountain Province. The culture of the people in this
region is quite different from that of the lowland communities.
Although a numbr..'r of the populace arc Christians, still many of
them arc p.1gans.

31
 The I<alingas tattoo their bodiC!l a!i a sign of bravery. For them,
prestige can be achievt>d through nrillorical ability. The lsnegs, like
the Kalingas, tattoo their bodio:s as a s tatus symbol.
The lfugaos ha\·e a high reg~rd for th" family's honor and
dignity. They are forhidden to induce hostility. cause bloodshed or
practice adultt>ry. HnRabi, a chair sculpted from a large mass of wood,
plays an important part in the livf's of the lfugaos. This indicates
the high position of the owno:r in tht' community.
The Igorots live on rootcrops grown in their yard and on wild
pigs. d eer, and fowl in the fore~t. The lgorots of lht> pR~t· engage in
headhunt ing to avenge the death of a lcin or tnbesman. This custom
is least pra~ticed nowada~.
The Bontoks ba~ically do hunting and agriculture for a living.
They perform rituals like bngb<lto to ensure a bountifu l ha rves t and
the ulog, where the unmarried womnn stays in a place called ulo8 to
I'C(C!vc male visitors and suitors.
The lbalois and the Kankanays of Benguet and Southern
Mountain Province are con..,idered the most sophisticated mountain
region people bccause they are th"' most exposed to low!~nd life.
Although the people of Cord illo:ra dweU in the highlmds, they
no longer live in i5olation. The influences of modern civilization
have ushered in new changes in their communities thro t,gh the year~;.
Modem types of buildings nrc also found elsewhere .i.n tht rt>gion.
The young generations that have g'o nc to schools in the Chr~ti~n
lowlands have almost adopted the way of life of the lowland
communities.
Other indigenous group,c; are the Gaddangs of Isabela, the
N egrito.Qor Aetas of Zambalcs Jnd the hin!erlar)d.Q; the :'vlangya.ns
of Mind oro; the Tagbanuas, Bill~ k. Tau't Bato, Moll>of,s and Jama-
Mapuns of PCllawan; Mam.1nwa (a Nl>grito group) or Suriga o d el
Norte; the Kalibugilns, Subanuns, and Samal5 of Zamboanga del
Sur; the Manobos, lim rays, Ira nuns, ~nd T bolis of Maguindanao,
Cotabato, and Sultan Kuct<>ral; Mandayas of Dav ao Oriental;
Bagobm;.md B'!aansof Davao del Sur; Yakan~ of Basil.m; the Tausugs
of tht>Sulu Archipelago, the B<1djaos of the SuluSca, and the Muslim
groups of \1indamo.
Leader.< of tribal comrnunit!es arc chosen for their skills and
their abil ity to evoke suppor1 irom the communal group. They

32
 believe in the exi.~tcncc of ~vera! uns~en beings besiowmg blessings
when honored and inflicting pain when displeased.
The indigf"nous people have ildapted to various ecological zones
ranging from coastal to rugged mountain highlands. They prefer
permanent settlements, l!xcept for Aetas who are highly nomadic.
Badjaos live in houseboats, while others live in pile dwellings.
Tht! Aetas have already established their intimate relationship
with the woodlands as forest foragers and hunters. On the other
hand, migration by Visayan settlers in Mindanao during the
Americ.'Ul period cvmtually altered thf" population profile in the
region. Increased immigration from the north drove more cultural
communities in the hinterlands. Jlocanos, Tagalog:;, and Vi.sayans
settled in som" provinct!s of Mindanao like Davao Oriental and
Davao del Sur.
ln rt!spu~t> to the call of pre5erving indigenous culture in the
<:ountry, some ethnic tribes specifically the Ifugaos initiated moves
adapting ancient practices with Christian religion, which ~holars
refer toilS incullumtion.
High literacy in the country may be attributed to Filipinos' love
for eduolion. Viewed as d key to progress, educ~tion is believed to
improve one's means of livelihood and stah1s. Filipino (formerly
spell~·d Pilipino) is the national language oi the people although a
gcod number of them are conversant in English. The English
language is· commonly used for governmental, commercial, and
instructional purpose~.
In everyday communic.ltion, the Filipinos combine English and
.l'ilipino resulling to a lingo called Tagli5h (from Tagalog and English).
For instllnce. one could hear one say, "Happy aka for ynu. Sar1a you
wo11't forg~t us" (I'm happy for you. Hope you won't forget us) or
"Ok:ey na ang la.~at, ll11mk yvu .>a iyo!" (Everything'~ okay, thanks to
you!)
Age is highly valued in Philippine culture. The word po, or its
variation ho is employed in conversation to show respect. The do~e
approximation of its English translation is Sir or Madam. Adult
male and female who arc unfamiliar to the speaker arc greeted as
nr,lma and aft.
Siblings in the family arc addresSE-d according to their position
within the f11mily hierarchy likekuya or m.li!OI!g for the oldest hrother
and ate or mmumg for the oldest sister; diko and ditst' for the second
brother .md $isti.'r; and sangko and sause, for the third oldest brother
and sistec.
Traditionally, Fil.ipin~ have dose family ties. Apart from their
blood relatives, Christian Filipinoe; adopt new kins (iC11mpadre and
kumare) through having sponsors (nino•zg and nirumg) during
baptisms and weddings. They also extend help in the :;pirit of
bayanihan (<:ooperiltion).
Filipinos "''~ known for their hospitality. Tiley receive their
visitors with warmth and friendship. They are also thankful to those
~
who have been good to them, manifesting the Filipino Villuc of utang
na Joob or one's debt of gratitude to those who have contributed to
their success.
For centuries, the Filipinos kt>pt faith in the Almighty God.
Throughout the good and bad time~, they can easily assimilate, bend
but never break like the strength ot the narra and the resilience of
the bamboo.

7. Theories on the Origin of Filipinos

Long before the Spanish colonizers came into the Philippines,
people with distinct cultures had already inhabited the islands. The
migr11tion thtory of H. Otley l:leyer, regarding the peopling of the
archipelago became the m~t widely known version in Philippine
prehistory. According to Dr. Bo!yer, the ancestors of th~ rilipino~ came
in wrWt'S of migratio11.
First to reach the archipdago was the caveman "Dawn Man"
type, who was similar to the Java ~ian and other Asian Homo sapit'M
of~,§o,ooo year.; <lgo. Dr. Beyer called the first Filipino the "Dawn
Man", for he emerged on the i!llands at th~ dawn of time.
Next to settle in the islands were the aboriginal pygmy group
or the N"egritos. They w.cre said to have reached the islands before
the land bridges from Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Australia
disappeared. They came between 25,000, and 30)l00ycars ago. They
were described to have black skin, darky kinky hair, ro,md black
eyes, flat noses and with a usual height of 5 ieet.
Third to arrive were the seafaring and tool-using Indonesian
group who came about 5,000 to 6,000 ye<!rs ago. They came in ho<.'o
waves of migration, with type A, arriving about 3,000 to 4,000 B.C.
34
 and type B. about 1,500 to 500 B.C. lndont!liian A was tall, slender
with light complexion, and thin lips. Indonesian B was shorter, with
bulky body, dark complexion, and thick lips. They were able to
displac~ the Negritos to the mountains with their more advanced
(:ulture.
~ last to reach the archipelago were the seaf;~ring Malays who
introduced the Iron Age culture. They moved into the islands from
300 B.C. to the 14"· and 15"' centuries A.D.
Beyer's migration theory became popular and unquestioned
for quite a nwnber of years. Presently, th~ so·tal.led WRves of migratio11
is now hei.ng di~missed bec"use there i.:; no definite evidence, whether
archaeologic;~lor historical, to support it. No evidence of any "Dawn
Man'' type (250,000 years ago) or hominid species have btoen found
in the country. So far, the oldest human relic discovered is only about
22,000 13P.
In reality, Southeast Asian people shared many customs and
tr,1diti<">ns without any ethnic group racially or culturally dontinant.
It WiiS the We~tem colonizers who divided the Asian inhabitants
into ethnic groups.
In place of the waves of migration theory, modem scholal'!l
suggest the so· called core population theqry. According to this theory,
the inhabitants of the Philippines conSist of a core population to
which came accretions of people who moved in from the region.
Th~ movements of people were erratic rather than in sequential
vvaves.
The South~ast Asian people who reached the Philippines du.rillg
prehistoric times became the core population. Each group, the
lt•donesians, Malays, and others,stoodas equal, without any of them
racially ur culturally dominant.
Thi.s core populiilion shared common cultural traits or base
culture. They used similarly fashioned tool-;, pottery; and om aments;
and upheld common beliefs and rituals. lf there were some
differences, these may be due to some facton; like adaptation to the
environment. Furthennore, th!! immigrants did not come into the
archipelago in a fixed period of time nor with a definite destination.

35
 Chapter Test No. 2
Na~: ____________ Date: . _ _ -·- __ _
Course, Year, and Section: _- --------------

I. Multiple Choice. Choooe the letter with the correct an~wer.

Write your aruwer on the blanks provided: (15 p ts .)
_ _ 1. According to Visayan myth.~. the name of the
mythical bird who ple~tded to the gods for help
was
;.. Si·Kalac c. l<atala
b. Manaul d . Si-Kavay
____ 2. The legend of Bernardo Carpio presents an
explanation on how the country was
a . created c. colonized
b. changed d. shaken by earthquakes
____ 3. Ja mt!s Hutton's theory now called \<niformi-
tarianism upholds that
a. the movement of wat~r from the t!arth's
surface to the ahnosphere and then back to
earth i!l known as hydrologic cycle
b. 200 million years ago, there were two land
masses
c. prior to the appearance of modem man em
earth, history has to depend on the works
of the geologists
d . the laws of nature arc unchanging
____ 4. In the t6~~> century, the Dutch cartographer who
noticed that the American continents seemed to
have been separated from Europe and Africa was
a. Abraham Oteliu c. Alfred Wegner
b. Abraham Ortelius d . Alfred Wegener

36
 5. In the l>ook T/11• Or('{in of Contin<'IIIS aud Oco~ilrr~,
Northern Hemi:;phere was called
a. Gondw~naland c:. Pangaea
b. Laurasi~ d. Antarctica
6. Wi<ie acce}>t<tnce or th~ theory of continental drift
c~Tlu! eventually after
a. pieces o f fos..'lil c•·idcnc:r. wNe gathered in
All tarctic.1
h. the theory of pl~tc tPCtonics was established
c. a shattering volcanic cnoption
d . glacial depusi~ wr.n>. found in Africa
7. 'I he l'ormosan connection wa~ db'joined during the
a . Miou:nc epoch c. Oligocene P.poch
b. Pliocene epoch d . 1-'.ocene- epoch
8. The counterpart of Mindel glacial )J"riod in the ·
Unil'ed Sta l~ i.~ ko10wn JS

a. Wi:>consin glacial c. Illino ian-lowan

glacial
1:>. jcr:r.cyian J>lac:iDl d . Kansan glacial
'1. On the Aot~lralian side, the continental shell was
known a:;
a. Sunda c. Pangaea
b. Sahul ·d. :'\lew Guinea
10. The wo rd felq>itw was at first given by Villalobos's
men to refer to
a. Ccbu c. Samar and Lcytc
h. L~yte d. Manila
ll. Sung Dynasty so urces in 982 A.U. referred the
Philippine isl:mds as
a . Ma·yi c. Ma-i
b. :vta-1 d. Luz.oncs
12. The Katipunan g~neral who wanted thP. country
to be named Rizaline Republic was
a. emilio Aguin,, ldo c.. Artemio Ricarte
b. Pio del Pibr d . Antonio Luna
]7
 13. The ~outhcrnmost point of the Philippines i.q
a. PlLo;an Point c. Y' Ami Isle
b. Saluag Isle d. Sulu
14. Based on the migration theory of Otley Beyer, iron
Age culture was introduced into tJ:tc Philipp~
ar:chlpclago by
a. Malay~ c. N«gritos
b. Indonesians d. Chinese
15. The Bagobo:; and B'laans are primarily found in
a . Davao Oriental c. Maguindanao
b. Davao del Sur d. Sulu Archipelago

11. Matching l}rpe. Match Columns A and B. Write th~ l&ters

only: (1 0 pffi.)
ColuumA ColumnB
Set!
1. R.1gang a. Mind<.Jro
_ 2. Hibok-Hibok b. Lanao
_3. Halcon·&co Mt. Range ( . Negros
4. Mt. Diwalwal d. Cc~miguin

5. Kanlaon Volcano e. Davao del Norte

Set2
1. Kalaw a. largest bat
2. Katala b. with a winw;pan of
one foot
3. Golden-crowned c. "dock" of the
flying fox mountains
_4. Pygmygoby d. croons like man
_5. Giant moth e. endemic freshwater
~cie
Ill. Essay: {S pts. each)
1. How does the country's geography affect the Filipino
people?

38
2. Identify and describe the culture of the indigenous people
of the Philippines.
3. Why do modem day scholars oppose Beyer's waves of
migr•.tion theory?

39
 Pre-Colonial Philippines

1. Cultural Evolution of the Early Filipinos

Early h.istorians believed that the first S(>ltlers of tht- isl<tnds Glme
by land bridges from Mainland Asia during Pleistocene epoch. They
Wilndered farther into the inland part~ o f the islands in search of
ne w grazing grounds . They Jived by fuJnting and gathering.
Eventually they exp lored the new land o:vcn more and sojourned in
the islands afttor the land bridges had disappeared with the use of
sea level brought by deglaciation period.
Western his torians assume that the aborigines of the Philippines
were the Australo·Melanesian people who arc distinctively small
with dark skin and curly brown hair. They wt>re the ances tors of the
people known today as Negritos ()r Aet.1s.
In the fidd ol archa~'Ology, the rrugration uf Proto-Austronesian
typ~ is believed to have resultC'd to the peopling of the Philippine
archipelago. The coming of the aborigines to the islands is linked to
the ~ew Stone Age of Southeast Asia.
The Mainlrmd Origin Hypolhfsis by Peter Bellwood of the
Austri'lli.1n ~ational L:niversity and K.C. Chang of HarvMd
Univcrsily maintains thilt the early inhabitants originated fmm South
China and ·raiwan. From there they spread southward and westward
n:achi.!lg Northern Philippines by about 5,000 B.C. to 4.000 B.C. and
t<> Eastern Indonesia 4,500 years ago. 'fhc:y gradually replaced the
hunting and gathering populatmns.
The other hypothe~1s, the Islnnd Or(11in Hypllth,·.,is, hdic:vcs that
the prehi~toric people originat~d and tli!>}•ersed from an island in
Southeast Asia. Wilhelm Solheim II of the Univcm;itv of H awaii has
been the leadin~ pr('pnnent of this idea. lie assu~es that Proto·
Austronesian developt'd p rimarily in Northeastern Indonesia and
Mindanao Isla nd. expanding northwa rd s w ith a dev eloping
maritime population through the Philippine Archipelago and into
'laiwan. 1-'mm thmr. they rcacheci South Chma.

40
 Solheim II believes that it was the Nusnntao (the maritime-
oriented p~historic poople) who developed l'roto-AUlltronesian as
a trade language along the coasts of Northern Luzon, Southern
Taiwan, and South China. between 4,500 and 5,000 B.C.
H istori ans pn.>5uppose that between 300 and 200 B.C.,
inhabitants of Malay-Polynesian desc~t settled in the Philippine
archipelago. They were mainly an agricultural and fishing people,
others wandered from place to place. There were 30 to 100 families
in a soc:iety known as bnrangay.
Tool assemblages, clothing, pottery, jewelry and the like arc
technological artifact~. Thc5e man-made object<~ illu~trale the ability
of man to respond to the conditions of the environment. The
inhabitants of the islands had to adapt to their surroWldings for
subsistence. Such technology that has been developed became a part
of civilization. Skills were handed down from generation to
generation. Whatever has been learned in the process is cultural in
nMu~. Of course, people arenotbom with culture. Through practice,
word of mouth, written text and r ituals, culture is lo.>amed. A
country's past history unveils its cultural tradition.
Culture may be a5Sociated with manuhctured material:;, for
these are prod\ICts of hu man beha vior. Certainly, the structuring of
the early Filipino society has t>ccn achieved in response to the needs
of p rehistoric Philippine communities.
Old Slone Agt'or Pall'olitl1ic Period (50,000-10,000 B.C.) i~; the era
of crude stone tool~ and weapon~. In the Philippine~, it wa~ believed
to have gtarted in C<Jgayan Valley. This can be inferred from the
archaeological materials unearthed in the area, bearing imprints of
human use. The~ traces :;how the !!mergence of people that once
wandered in the valley.
The study of tool assemblages indicates the dominance of flake
tools over large cobble tools. Jlowever. no fossil evidence of human
beings were found in the vicinity. Perhaps, they had migrated to
some olher places, in<~smuch as several wild animals were roving
along lh~ area.
Man had no other tools than sharp edged stones that could be
held by the hand. Many kinds of stones, which naturally produce
sh<:rp edges when broken or chipped (e.g. flint and chert), wert.'
common ly u sed. Such implements are called core tool~ if the
remaining core itself is used as the tool. Pebble tools are those rounded
41
stones like tho:~e found in the riverbeds. They are called cobb!,• tools
if these rounded stones are larger. Flak<' t{)()L< arP ski llfully edged
and shaped.
At the on set, man's principal way vf oddpt~t i c•n lo the
environmt-nt was l:>y hunting. These stone tools could ue us"'d for
smashing the bones of ol.l\i.Jrulls and shellfish that they have gathe!'t'tf.
Tht!:;e implements may al•n be u~d in cutting. splitting. stripping
and piercing wooden branches, palm leave.•, and bamboo. Tree barks
we.r e used for dothing.
Certainly, with~ alnondance of fi.~h in riven; and seas, methods
o{ preparing food were con~ived . Archaeological evidence shows
kitoilaw to bt- the earliest method of p!'t'paring fish for con~umplion
where vinegar or limcjuice enhances thl.' ta~tl.' of th~t fish. In
Mindanao, the juicP. of the ta/xm~tabo11 (Nydrophytum· orbiC'ulutum ), a
green fruit, is added to remove tht- fishy smcU. In Leyte and Cl.'bu.
they use coconut milk.
The selection of the T.;bon C':<'lvc Complex in Upuun Point.
eo
Quezon, Palawan, some 30,000 years a is an example of prehistoric
planning for ad~ptation. Thl.' main <:h<~rnbt-r entrance i~ ahout 41
meters long. Sunlight cnters1nto the intl.'rior area, making it hal.>itahlP
andwann.
Upon it• d iscovery in 1962, the prtsent surfact< uf tt.e TC~I.Ion
Cavt<was noted lo have been a habitat of the Tabon bird (also known
as the Philippine mound builder). The cave must have gvt ten its
name from this wild fowl.
Nl'w types of stone tool~ appeared in various part~ of thl.'
Philippines, more polished and highly spedalizcd, primarily blade
and ax- and adz-like forms for fol'l'St clearing ;md hoatmald.ny,. The
smooth surface of this type of s tone tools was made p ossih!e by
rubbing against another stone. This developmen t re.sulted to the S<r
called New Stone Age or Neolithic Paiod (10,000-500 B.C.) otherw~
known as Agricultural Revolution hy anthropologists. Rootcrops like
taro (gabt) and yam (uln) were among the important crops. This period
al~o indicates that upland rice fanning has been developed, although
1hi~ p ractice d id not appear at tht- same tim{' in P.very area .
By striking the stones, sparks have been prod uced which
resulted to the making of fire at will by the ancient settler~ . Light
<1nd heat became available any time of the clay. The production of
baked day pol~ in the New Stont> Ag~ hnplit's that fire had bl•cn
42
 fully utilized. The man\tfacture of pottery was made possible hy a
pmces.~ called kilning, which makes use of fire. Fire eventually
<'hanged the lifestyle of the people, particularly :in the preparation
of their meals. Thus, tltc inhabitants could already grill or boil their
food . The slash-and-burn ~griculture practiced by the early settlers
also caus"d them to se~rch for new land.
Jars as burial coffin~ for secondary burial were also made.
Bones of the departed were enclosed in these vesseL~ after being
buried und erground for a period of time. Closely related w ith burial
practices was bone washing and bone painting or d ipping with
materials like sappan wood or red dyewood (G>e51llpiTJia SQppall)
and hemati te (iron ore) for p rotection from deca y.
In !,.1 Nido Cave, Palawan, painted bones were placed .in small
nichP-~inside the cave. In some areas of the arch ipelago. co~s
were interred direct!}' into the ground in reclining or bent positions.
In all kinds of burial, funerary offerings or pabaotl were
included such as clothes. food and weapon.~. Yfany indigenous
groups in the interior mountains and roa..~tal areas still practke this
tradition :in the belief that the d"ad will use these material!:> when
he sojourns towards the "1;0ul world." Others cowr the faces of the
dead with thin sheat hs of go let to prevent bad ~pirits from entering
the body.
The Mmn.mggul jar. an examrle of funerc~ry ve!:>sel is now
considered a N.1tional Cultural Treasure of the Philippines. The
upper portion of the jar has curvilinear incised scroll designs,
painted with rect hemMitlte (iron oxide). On the lid cover i~ a form
of a boat with two huma n figures. The figure at the hack is a
boatman steering the "ship of the dead." The figure in front is the
passenger whose hands arc fold ed over his chest. 1his represents
the soul of the person who.o;e bone~ were p laced in the jar.
Philippine pottery shows a variety of shapes and decorative
techniques, such as incision., stippHng, applique, and impression
by rope and rna t. Their designs were usually geometric.
Subsequently, pottery became more furKtional like the palayok for
cooking, the lxmga and tapnytm for storing liquids. In llocos, the
making of bunray pottery Jives on.
The Early M'tal A,~'- (500 B.C.) refers to the time in the
development of human culture where tools and weapons were made

43
of metal which gradually replaced stol'le tool•. The met,,! implements
at this stage were crudely fashioned.
The first metal to be widely used was coppN. Raw copper was
then pounded into ornament!> and to some extent into tools. Bronze,
made or imported tin and other metals likt> coppe r, emerged
simultaneously with copper as a result of :interi~l;~nJ mov~·mcnt5 of
people. Although bronze had entered the Philippine,;;, it did not
con~titute a major technological ph~se in the development of Metul
llge in the country bee., use of trn! prefereru:t' of t'.arly inhabit.1nts to
i:ron ore in tool making (200 B.C.).
J~elryduring the early phase oftheMel<rl Ag( consists mainly
1
of beilds. Ther" wert' beads made of jade. stones. gla~s, shells, seeds,
twigs and sterns, espedaUy reeds of p lants created into necklat-es
and other ornaments. Only the beads made of semiprecious stones
endured decay in the graveyards and hal>it.Jtion >itcs.
)t>wt>lry a s an ancient art began as amulets <tnd <."hdrm.o; to ward
off bad spints or to give !;upematural powe rs tu the wearer. In
particular tribes like the T'boli, they wore body ornaments to plea.~
the gods .1r1d to signify the stahts of the wearer. It was only later
when personal adornments became purely decorative.
Ornaments of different kinds and desi11ns (ranging from
earring~ to necklaces and bracell'ts) were buried with ba~ic met<ll
tools in various ~i tes throughout the archipelago. There were
personal adumments made of materials like nephrite and carnelian
beads, which were available only through trade. This indicates that
the? ccoMmic resources of the community had fairly advanced.
}e1,•elry a! this period indicates the emergence uf some kind of soda)
stratification .
The appearance and utili7.ation of improved i:ron tools as the
miljor technological device for exploiting the ~nvironment constitute
the D~wloped Iron Age. AI!> the use of iron became widespread.
community specialization emerged as shown by the advances in tin-
smithing, jewelry making and in the utitiution of resoul'('es.
Iron lool~ were recovered in Luzon (particul~rly in the Bulacan,
Batangils, and Rizal areM). Tool specimens wt're also dug up in
Pa lawiln and Masbate. TI1e e.arly Filipinos made meta l implements
lil<e knives (from simple to elaborate ones). the sump,zk (blowguns),
the lcttlikot for pounding betel nuts into powder, and gongs to mark
the hour~ of the day and night.
 Scholars contend that during thi~ age import<lnt indtt.~tric~ were
metalworking, pottery making, gl11~smaldng and tie-and-dye
wt-,wing. Cloth wt-aving r~placeu the bark cloth beaters for
fashioning dress and other apparel. It is bt-lieved that the baddoom
similar to that of the Ifugaos, Bontoks. and other Mindanao groups
was utilized. fabrics and blankets were not only used for cvcryday
living but also for important ritual~.
About the tum of the- Mill~nnittm A.D., som€' families from
SUI'YQ\tnding i!;land kingdoms set sail in bo~ts and established the-ir
rommw-~itics along riverbanks or on deltas. filipino contact~ with
other countries became intensified. Thc development of a relatively
efficient rnaritime transportation became the major impetus for inter-
island contacts and commen:eespecially with Asians. This phase of
filipino prehistory is known to the ~nthwpologists as the Ag~.· uf
Contact (500-1400 A.D.), which is the period of trading relations with
neighboring island~, mMtly by A!\i~n traders.
Community life throughout the archipelago was dominantly
founded on trade-11nd by increasing speciali?.ation in craftsmanship.
The common sharing of cultural orientation like religion and writi11g
was facilitated by intensive isltemal trade, principally between
riverine and coastal communities. The people ol Southeast Asia
~a me highly nomadic because of w.1ter tran,;portation.
For the natives to succeed in engaging ma.ritimc tr,,dcwilh their
Asian neighbors, they had to improve their seamanship and boat-
building skill. These early wooden watercrafts in the country were
calledbtrlangay. The 1111/atzgay was basically a plank boat. It was driven
either by a sail or by paddling.
The di.~covcry of balangay boats in 8utuan, Agusan del :'\lorte
in the late 1970s served as piece,; of evidence to further prove the
technical know-how of the early Filipil)os. The firs! boat, now
preservt-d and di;;playt-d in a sit€' museum in Libertad, Butuan City
had a carbon·date of 320. While the second boat, which was dated
1250 A.D., has been tr.msferred to the l'ational Museum in Manila.
Malay was the principal language of Southeast Asian commerce
during those times. It is not surprising that a number of MaL.1y loan
words to Philippine languages pertain lo commerce. These indude
talaro (scales), upa (payment)/ lako (peddle),gusa/i {hall), trmay (real}
m"ans "hard cash," and biynya (gra(:~) means "disbursement." Still
other words illustratf.' the impac:t of commcrcc on culture like 11tonfll

45
 (pickles), patis (brine),puto (native cake), kalnn (stove), pinggn11 (plate),
aral (leaming), and pagsnm!M (adoration).
A t the height of the Sri Vijaya power (which origin;~ted in
Palembang, Sumatra in the 7o>o century} around 1000 A.D., the Sri
Vij~y.m merchants conducted extensive trade with China ~nil India.
In the 12"' century, the Sumatra-based kingdom of Sri Vijaya had
, also expanded its influence in the Philippine archipelago.
According to Sulu tradition. betw~en 900 a nd 1200 A.D.,
immigrants from Champa, an lndianized kingd om in Indochina
established a trading colony with the Buranuns of Sulu. The men of
Champa were caUed Orang Uampuans, who we~ then vassals of
the Sri Vijaya Empire. The Orang Oampuans settled in Taguima (now
Basilan). They became the ancestors of the Ya kans. ·
Years later, immigrants from Bandjarmasin, Borneo (another
Sri Vljaya dependency) settlt!d in Sulu. They were the Orang Bandjar
(Men of Bandjannasin). They engaged actively in the rich pcarlltade.
To establish goodwill with the Buranuns, they brought w ith them a
beautiful princess and offered her as bride to the na tive ruler. This
state marriage resulted to deeper relations between Sulu and Borneo.
Like the Dampuans, the Orang Bandjar in trod uced Indian culture
in Sulu.
Centuries of direct con tact with these lndianized ltaders left
vivid traces on Filipino history and culture. The Indian influences
w ere dearly noticeable in the religious beliefs, language, literature,
and customs of the ancient Filipinos. Bathnla, the name of the chief
god of the pre-Christian Tagalog,", came from a Sanskrit term Bhatt11m,
m eaning "Great Lord."
Also of Ili:ndu origin was the belief of the early natives that the
unlverse is filled with good and bad spirits. They offered religious
sacrifice!> and prayers to these spirits for help and protection.
Many Filipino fables w ere linked to Indian literature. lndudcd
here are the story of the monkey and the turtle, the talc of the race
between the d~er and the snail, and the Visayan anecdote of the
hawk and the hen. Filipino foil< literature wa..~ al~o to some ext~t,
influen ced by Indian literature. Popular epics including Darnngan
of Lanao, Lam-ang of llokandia, lbaloll of Bico\andia, and the Alim
and the Hudhud of the Mountain Province, were inspired by the
:Mahab~rata (Sanskrit, NGreat Story'1 and Ramayana (Sanskrit,

46
 "Story of Rama") which likely begun in the 3"' century B.C. The~!.'
epics were ritually recited.
The early Filipinos had already developed a sy~M:n of ~y!labic
writing, with each syrnhol rcprcscnring a syllable. The Tagalog script
was called baybayin, sometimes erroneou.<Uy called n/i/JIIta. It consisted
of three vowels and iomteen C'01'1::1Qr'lant:;, with a total of 17 letters.
The writing system was horU.ontallrom left to right. The writing
instrument used was a sharp pointed iron locally known as sipal. With
thls iron instrument, the natives engraved words on bamboo shafts,
w ooden boards. leav~ of p lan ts, pottery, and metal. Remaining
~.>vid~nce of pre-<oloni.ll writing are so rare. Only thtcc had b.."CCl
previously found: th~.> 14,.. · 15"' century Butt~an silver strip. the 10''
ccntwy Butuan ivory seal, and the 15"' century Calatagan jar.
The fust artifact of pre·H ispanic origin that had wril ing o n
copper material dates back to 900 A.D. TI\e s.:ript inscrib<.>d on it
was written in Kavi (Old ]a''anese writing system), which does not
look similar to the ancient baybayin.1hc text was in a langt~1ge similar
to fou.r languages, namely: Sanskrit, Old Tagalog, Old Ja vanese >md
Old Malay. The copper object is now caJle<J l..<lgtma Copperplate
Inscription (LCI). It was found near the muuth of the Lumbang River
of L<lguna province in 1990. The thin copper plate measures 20 br
30 centimeters in si:>:e.
Antoon Postma, a Dutch national who has lived with the
Mangyans for a long time and the director of the Mangyan Assistance
and Rese11rch Center in Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro, wa.~ able to
unlock the message un the copper material.
The l.CI i~ an offidal record imp rinted in the Sal< a year 822 in
the month of March-April on the 4'1' day of the dark half of the moon
on a Monday. This doCtJmen t was issu\'d lo Lady Angkatan together
with her relative Bukah (child of His Honor Namwran) dearing
Namwran, his family, and aU their descendants of a debt equivalent
to 1 kati and 8 suwamas of gold from the Chief of Dewata (Diwata,
a town near Butuan). The pardon wa~ issued by the chief of Ttmdun
(Tundo}, represented by the leader of Pailah /ayadewa.
Others who witnes~ed the document include the leader of
Puliran (Pulilan}; Ganasakti, representing lhe leader of l'aila
(Norzagaray); Bisruta, representing the leader of flinwangan
(Obando); and the Chief of Medang.
The D utch exper t who looked into the LCI's authenticity
concluded ihat thl.' spedfic script ~tylc u sed in the copper materia l
4?
 was consistent with its indicated t:l~te anti that the currectne~s of th<~
languages and words used WOI•Itl have heen very hard for forgers
to produce.
Both oral and written litcrat:mc ha,1 <tll't."ildy ilourishl'<i in the
country prior tn the mming of the 5panianls. Th.i; consi~t~ of bltg/OH[;
(riddl.c~). nwit (songs), >a.ltiWikain (proverb~), legends. myths, and
poems. Some of the folk epic~ of the early time.~ indud(:: t'hc Jlocano
Lflm·tmg, the lfugao Alim and Hudltud, the Kalinga Uf,l/im, the Bicol
Hnndiong, the Maranao Banlu~m1, and the Magumdanao lndampMrn
and Sulaymmr. The customs and tradi tions of the early Filipinos bear
Hindu influen ce. Amon~ them We'l't' c1S follows: the placing of ~
lre!<h flowE'r garland around the neck of a visilor; lhP. giving of
ftig,rylr..tytl (dowry) and rend ering of personal serviCt>S in the hom;e
of the b ride's parents by the groom before the wedding, the throwing
of rice grain.~ to the newlyweds a fter the matrimonial cc~mony by
the guP.sts; and the offering of ltuyo (mixture of bctclnul, ikmo IE'af,
and limt") to a gu~t a~ an expression ofho~pilality.
'lherf' Wt"re early supt'rslilil>n$ in the country that en me frorn
Indiani:~..:-d migrants. Until today. many believe that a girl. whus ings
in front of the s tove while cooking will marry a widowt:"r und that a
cat dearring its face indicates the coming ol a visitor. Likewise. eating
twi n bananas would cause o mother to give birth to twins.
ThE' mode of dressing in pre·Spanish Philippin~:; shows Indian
influences. The putong (turban) of the early Filipino mt!n and the
snr()ng (lower garment) of the early Filipino women resemble thl'
Indian p11t1~s and .~ri.
The archaeological relics excavated in the Phil ippine$ further
indicate Indian influence:;. SomP. oi th<'se~re the followi ng: the gold
image of Agusan, which was excava ted on the left bank ofWa•,·a J~ivt"r
ncar the town of Esperan.w, Agusan Province in 1917 (now preserved
at the < ~m Roum of the Chicago Museum of 1\atuml History); th~:
coppt'r imngr u(Gan~lu!, elephant god o/ the Hindus which was also
fow1d in Ma<tan in 1843; ~nd ~he 11od Garuda pmdmrt of Pa/~tmn
found at Brooke's Point in 1961. The ~an1da is a mythical bird that
llindu god Vi~hnu u:oed <JS vehicle.
Certain industries in the counrry are of lndiiln ongin, notably
boat building, weaving of cotton cloth<>s, arotl metal worl<. Decora tive
ar ts were al~o influencE'd as shown m the design of gold necklaces
and bolo handJes. The manufacturing of sorrw musical in~trument.s
like the kudyapi (guitar) and the planting of som<' specie:; of flowers
48
 like sampaguita and champaka; f ruils including mango and wmgku;
.m d vegetables such as rmrpulu!J<l, ~~llf>/11. And malrmggay came from
Jnct iani7.oo sojourners.
According to pa lcographicJI ex per t~, the ancient Fil ipi no
writing originated fruon India. According to Dr. T.I!. Pardo de Tavera,
there are lTIOrt> than 340 Sanskrit w ords found in the Tagalog
l:.nguage . Dr. Jose Villa Panganiban, form<:>r Director of the Institute
of :-.:ation;~l l.anguagc, gives a longer list of 375 Sanskrit loan words
in tht> Filipino n<~tional language which is basicall y Tagalog. 1l1ese
incl ude the Filip ino wo rds a ma {father). nanay {mo ther), ttSU!!Ifl
{spouse), h'<lnga (pric~). killa)XIIi (dove), kut.1 {fort), wtla (silk). sahi
(w itness), Mia (star). rnlta (king), :><mdata (weapon), and tlmhmlika
(nol>le) to namP. a few.
Historically spe~ k.ing. Sino-f'hilippin(' relations began in the
lOth century A.D. The ead ie;;.t known aut·h cntic dare of these rel<ltioru~
was '.1~2 A.D., whm several trad ers h orn i\.1rl-yi (helkvcd to inclu de
~1indoro, Biltanga1;, Manil.-., and Pamp~nga) arrived in Canton hoard
on an Arab ship and $Qid their valuable merchandise. Ma -n~an-Jin,
a C hinese ~hronicl~r. included thi~ d~tail in his Wen Sltiamr Tung Kl1o
(Gcn('rallnvestigation on th~ Chin<:>'*! C ultural Sources).
· China. during those times, h avin g refin<~d many of its
development~ in th~ fickts of rutorical writing, pilint<ng . ...,.ll igr<lph);
and hard-gla;-.ed porcelain, was beginning to e xpand ils ma ritime
activitit>s in !\anyang (Sout heilstA~ ian world) t>specia lly during the
Sou them Sung (1127-1280), Yl•an (1 280- 1~68), and Ming (1368-1 614)
d yn»sties. Chinese merchiln~ on hoard tht>ir junks ldtChua nchow,
Canton and other ports in China and trailed with lhe p r.oplc of
Lingayen, Manila, Mindoro, and Sulu.
In 1225, Chdu Ju- k\la, a Chin~SC Superintendent of Foreign
'JT-,ldc described Ch ina's tr~dt> with Ma·i in his book Ch~<-};111-chi
( Kcports on the Sou th ~a BarbMi ans) . Thi~ n.trrativc pointed out
the hone~;ty of the early rilipinos in tht!ir business transactions with
the C hinE-se traders. This was confirmed by ;mother ChineS<:> writer,
Wa ng Ta-yuan.
Wang Ta-yuan's dl!!;cription oi med ieval Filipino !if~ appears
in his ·tao- i chl1r-li o (Summ.1ry Notices of the B.Jrbarians of the Isles),
which w as wri tten in 1349. Both CJw fn n-chi <lnd tht> Tno-1-clrih-/io
h,we sections about a ba rbarous place called P'l·,he-ytt, which i~
prt!s umably Visayas. W.mg Ta·yuan describes the native5 of l'' i ->1,,·.
)1•1 as being tattooed up to the neck.
49
 During the reign of Zhu Di (Chu 1i), the Yu.ng-Jo Emperor in
1403 to 1423 when China was expanding the boundarie~ of its
domain, he induced t·he countries vi.~ited hy his missions to pay
tributes to the M ing court. Th<" native rulers of tJ1t, Philippine.>,
Borneo, Jav.t, Sumatra, .\·t alay Perunsul,,, Indoch ina and other
Southeast Asian countries se~t regular tri'ttute embassies to the
imperial court of the Ming emperor. According to the Ming Shih
(AnnaL~ of the Ming Dyna.;ty). Record of lu?:On, J{ecord of Cami-
lig, and t he Record of Sollu. the Philippin es $ent eight tribute
em!Jassit'S to Beijing between 1372 to 1424.
Chi na's greatest maritime <"Xplorer, Admiral 7.heng He, also
known as C heng Ho, (1371-1435), led se,•en expeditivns from 1405
to 1433 in the south seas and reached the Philippines, Borneo. :vlalay
Peninsula. Singapor(', Indochina, lndi:~, and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). ll
is said !flil.t Cheng-Ho's first expedition, which ronsi~tcd ni 62ships,
land('d in the l'hillppines in !)e('embP.r 1405.
While in Jolo, one of his men, Pei-Pon-T.1() (alqo known •15 l'un
Tao King) died and was buried in )alii Tunge,<~l. jolo. Antmally, on
Oet:ember 26, the Chinese of Jolu until the:;e da}'S visit the tomb of
Pei-Pon·Tao to pay homage to the forerunnc.r s of Sino-Phil ippinr.
relations.
c~n tmi~s of trade and personal relations wi th the Chinese
inevitably led to theenriclunent of Filipino life and culture. Decorated
enameled ceramics painted in traditional pa Item); wF. re P.xported in
thc Philippines. The blue-and-whilepiect>s of Ch inese porcelain had
their origins In the Ming period.
The manufacture of gunpowder, thE' art oi metallurgy. the u~e
of porcelaln, gongs, lead, .silver, tin, and certain occupations like
!Jla(ksmilhing and gold~mithing in the country were learned from
the Chinese. The Filipinos practiced a form of duck culture around
Pateros and Taguig in Rizal that resembled the Chinese, which
include.~ the method of .1rtificial incubation o f eggs. They also taught
the Hlipinos kih!- flying and other games including various forms of
gambling like juel~g. kuwaho. and ptmggi11ggi .
The Ch inese improvoed the culinary art of the early filipinos.
From them, the natives le.J.med the roasting of pigs, the brewing of
lea for drinking and the cooking of dishes like p.mril,lurnpin, dlOf:>$ttey,
and o~oy. The C hinese al~o taught the filipino.~ the use of St'IISOnings

50
 like I01JO (soy sauce) and ta!ntri, and plant vegetables like batnw, petsay
and upo.
During the early times. the Filipino manner of dressing bore
Otincsc traces. "I"M sl.ccved jackets ('.a~ngan) of the Filipino males,
the loose trousers of the Muslim womenofMindano, and the u.se of
slippers, wooden shoes (!mkya), fan~; and umbrellas were of Chinese
origin.
The social customs of the early Filipinos showed Chint-se
influence. Among then1 were the arrangement· of marriage by the
parents of the boy and the girl, the hiring of a go-between in marital
negotiations, the honoring of depart~d ancestors and the
employment ofprofessional mournt-rsduring the fune.ral.
Certain existing social customs bear indications of Chinese
origin like the blasting of fircxr ackcrs on Ne": Yeat's Eve, the bt!ating
- of gongs to celebrate a feast, and the collcxtion of tong (percentage
fee) by the owner of a gambling joint. Haggling between the
mercha nt and the customer to arrive at a price for a commodity is
another pr actice that the natives have le<Jmed from them.
The linguistic influence of China on the Filipino language is
quite exceptional. About 1,500 Chinese loan words are included in
the present vocabulary of the Filipinos. These woros usually pt>rt3in
to kinship and family re lation,;, clothes, ornaments, food and d rinks,
agricul ture and commerce, tools and occupations, and absttact ideas.
AmOng these are as follows:trte (older sister), san~ (third older sister),
kuya (older brother), diko (second older brvther), sangko (thiro older
brother), s uki (friend), gunti•1g (scissors), lliyu (shame), l'akyaw
(wholesale), and .~u~i (key).
In the 13'" century, Japan was said to haye traded with the
Philippines based from the early historical rerords in Ryukyu.
Japanese Wrlkos (pirate-ITadetli) sailed the Orirnt w aters, and many
of them were able to r.!ach the Philippine ardupelago. The Japanese
made some early contributions to Filipino culture and economy. They
taught our people some industries such as the rrumufacture o f ann<;
and tool~ and the tanning of deerskins.
In the middle of the 14'" century, the Muslim traders fro'!\
Malaysia brought !slam (in Ar~bic means "submission tv the will o(
God") to thl! Philippines. II spread through the southem parts of the
islands. H~torians say Tuan Masha'ika brought the Islamic faith in

.51
Sulu. lie wa~ mentioned to have est<~l>lishro the first :VIuslim (means
"one who sun·enders to (;od") community in the archipelago.
K;ulm ul Mal<hdttm is the next mentioned in the T11r~i/us
(re<:ords). I k w.1-~ a noted jud~e and scholar from Ml't·ca. A iter
converting the sullan and the .Pt'Opl~ of Malacca, he went ttl Sulu
(1380 A.D.) and 1:>'1\an rnissiOJtllry work. He built a house for religious
worship {a mosque) ,,t Tubig·lndagan on the Island ofSimmutl and
won many converts, partictllarly at Bu.1nsa (ancient capital ofSulu).
About 1390, Rajah Ba!;inda, a Muslim prince lrom
Menaogkabau. Sumatra, landed at Buansa. I [e overpow<:'rcd native
resistance because his warriors fought with firearms, the first to he
used in combat on Philippine soil.
The stagE' oi the makh.tumirr, an era of rec~ptivity to·Islam,
r~sulted to conversions to the hlamic faith with the arrival of
~sionaries in Sulu, an event contemporaneous with th(~ work ol
other missionaries in Java, Indonesia.
In 1450 A.D., Sharif ul-Ha:;him (popltlarly known ;~s S;~yid :\bu
Bakr), an Arab authority on Islamic religion and Jaw arrived in
Buansa, Sulu fromJohorc, Mai.:lcca. He married r>rinccss f'ar.1mi~>J li,
the bc,lutiful d.:tughtcr of Raha »aginda (from Sumatr.a).
Al>u Ba kr founded th€ Sulu sultanate in the s,,me year, after his
father-in-law's death. I !c organized the government patlern!'d after
that of the Arabian caliphate and promulgat~d the first Sl!lu code of
law. He later transformed the Muslim Tausugs into a powerful atmy.
Al>u Bakr was said to have unified the coastal and the hill
dwellers (Buranun) ol Sulu. I lc adapted the !oral ll'.:Hiitions loth<:>
Qu'ran (bible). He received the title of Sull<~n Sari f. Aftt-r reigning
for 30 years, he died in 141lfl. All sultans of Sulu until the pre5tont
day trace their ancE>stry from him.
In the first quarter of the 16'" century, more Muslims migratt>d
into the archipelago. The Islamic conquest of \<li<1dan•o was
attrihul<!d to the legendary Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuwan, a
Johore :vfuslim. In 1475, he arrive<..! in the ~1alab<mg ,uea in Cotabato
{Maguintlanao) with an invading force of Tslami:r:ed Samal.s. The
pagan n~tives ferociously oppo:;ed him but his Sa mal warriors
subdued them.

52
 After conquering Lh~ Cotaba to Valley (Magu indanao),
Kabung~uwan married a native princess in the place. He converted
the overpowered inh.1bitants to Islam. Those who refu5cd to .1e«!pt
the new f11ith fled lo the mountains. They became the present· day
Bilaans, Manobo~; Suba nuns ;~nd other pagan Fili pinos.
Kabtmgsuwan founded the sultanate of Maguindanao wmdime in
1515. Yea~ after, several sultanates were also established in the
region.
Other Muslim missionarieR entered the Philippines
subsequently. Shortly before Magellan's arriv.11 in 1521, Muslim
tra ders from l:lomro actively disseminated th e teachings of Islam in
Mindoro, Batangas, Manil.1, and Pampanga. One of them was Siat
Sacn, who introduced Jslam in the town of Batayan, Ba.tanga.s.
'Jhrough their efforts, the spread nf Islam ·was acC't!lerated.
The l;~st ~corded Muslim ini5Sionary to bring the Islamic fai th
into the cOW\ try was Alawc Balpake, an Aral> Sha ri f /rom S,uawak.
tlomeo. During the early years of !he 17"' century, he introduced
l.slam in :-Jorthcm Mindanao and the Lanao Lake region, a iter which,
he moved to the island of Basillln and hec:amc its first Musllll'l sultan.
In 1956, his grave was discovered in Taguima, 8.1s!l;m.
Islam, which profe~ses monotheism, or in th~ b~lief of a s ingle
God, tt'acht!s that Mlthammad wa.~ the last and the most important
ill a ~eritS of prophets. Furth~rmorE>~ it advocates that all Mus lim<;
belo ng to one community. t he um mn, regardless of t'thnic
hackgrotmd .
The five pillars oi Islam an> as follows: first, the profr~.;iol! of
faith (f'.ha!mdtt): ''TI1ere
is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the
:>,{co;.<;Cnger of God'' which is a prerequisite for rncmbetShip in the
:-.-1usl im cornmlll'lity; second, the ritual prayer (54/at) whcreill the ad \lit
:VIuslim ha,; to implore the Almighty five tim~s a day facing Mecca,
i.e., before davbreak. at noon Lime, in mid-afternoon, at sunset, and
anytime after'stm~ct, before sleeping preceded by ritual clean.~ing;
third, the almsgh>in~ (Ulk.•tl which is the obliga tory giving of one
fortieth oi one's income to the needy or religious cause to purify
one's wealth and attain salvation; fourth, the pilgri»lll8C to Mtcca (/Uijj}
which i.~ a mandatory oncc·in·a·lifetiml:' trip to the H(')use of God
(the I<aaba) where th~ titl~ of hndji shall be givl:'n to a Muslim who
ha~ p~rfor.med this p ilgnmagc; and fifth, fu sting (sawm), which i!<

53
done during the ltutar month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the
Arabic calendar).
Ramadan commemora tes the Holy Qur'an '~ revela ti on
(Chapter 11, Verse 185) to Prophet Muhammad Sallal~hu Alaihi
Wassa Ia m. During the period of fasting, all .\.lusli ms must refrain
from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse from daybreak to
sum;et. The sick, travelers, and menstruating women are exempted
from fas ting but they have to make up the d<lys they skipped at a
later d,ttc. !~lam celebrates EiJ ul-Fit:r or the festival of Breaking the
Fas t, after the sighting of the crescent moon at the end of RamadM.
(Republic Act 9177 declared Eid ul-Fitr a national holiday in the
Philippines to be observed no t only by Muslims b u t also by
Christians.) This is a day on which the Muslims are called upon to
visit one another and exchange gr.eetings among themselves.
Considered the sixth pillar of Islam by some Muslims is the
jihad, which in Arabic means "to s truggle" or "to exhaust one's effort"
in order to please God . Within the ~lief of Islam, jihad refers to living
c1 virhtuus lif~, h<>lping other Mus lin\s and prc3ching J~lam. lt has
Jat~ly t"volved to holy war. which focused on the milita nt
interpretation of the jihnd.
Is lam had left her !.1sting imprrs.Gion on the life .tnd culture of
the :\.luslim Fi lipinos, which include the Maranaos of Lanao,
Maguindanaons of Cotabato, Samals of Zamboanga, Yakans of
Dasilan, and '!llUsugs of Sulu. 'Ihe m()l;que is their special place of
worship and point of ~:on vergence for social activity. It was buill as
'link to Mecca.
With Islam, came the sultanate form of governme nt, together
with th<> title of political dib'Ilitaries, such as sultan (supreme ruler)
rajll muJr1 (heir apparent), dayang (princess}, and kali fjudge); the
Arabic alphabet, Islamic holid,ly~, and the Arabic arts.
Slngkil (a Mararu~o word for "getting a leg or fool entangled in
an object"} originated from L~nao del Sur. The d;mcers. with sulerrm
faces and dignificd pose, dre~~ed in elegant Muslim costumes begin
dancing in a slow pace, whi('h soon prugrt!SSes to a faster tempo to
the rhythmic clapping of crisscrossed bamboos. The ladles gracefully
wave big fans wh1l~ th~ men glide with brightly co lored
handkerchief~.

When performed by ladies of the royalty of Lanao, the dance is

u:oually u~hered by a waiting lady. who ho lds all exquisitely
54
embellished \lmbrella over the Princess' head wherever she goes.
Legend has it that singkil originated from the time the diWIJtas
(nymp hs or fairies) played a joke on Princess Gandingan as she was
on a stroll. The diUH!/S/.5 caused t:hc trees to tremble and the rocks to
roll; howev er, the pri ncess skipped nimbly from place to place
unhanned.
In their artworks, the MAran~os used t:he oldr or okkil design, a
curvilinear floral design. The different lJ'Pes of okki/ design appear
as borde r decoration on the cover and in the pages of the Qu'r01n.
They are also replicated in furniture, boats, farm implements,
silverware, brassware, jewelry, and ceramics. Similar okir designs
were also made on ancesiTa I hou.~ called torogan.
The indigenous bird motif, the sarimanok, is also said to have
been developed by the Maranaos. It is decorative in nature, having
th e appearance of a bird or rooster holding a fish in its claws or
beak.
Another artistic expression by the :Muslims is the Tausug kri~.
Tbi.s is 8 :r.ig?.ag type of s'"'ord. These swords were not only used as
weapons but also considered as great works of arts, at time~ inlaid
with silver and gold or pearls. One fearsome weapon was the ian taka
{swit•el gun) pia® on flexible bE'ams that aUowcd the gunner to
pur!rue a moving target.
lhe people in a society colle<:tively ~-reate and preserve culture.
The Filipino people culturallr evolved because they were able to
e><chang11 the1r thoughts with others through communication. The
transmis~ion of ideas and s kills was made poss ib le through
interaction since the early Filipinos no longer lived in complete
isolation .
The ancitmt Filipinos p rlnr to Lhc coming of Spaniards have
a lN!a dy possessed a distinct ive culture CIS proven by the material
remains of p ast societi~. They w4.'re not uncivilized but intiinsicaUy
endowed with abilities to stand as equal tu people elsewhere in the
world.

2. 1'1'aditional Filipino Communities

J::arly filipino settlements varied in population sizes. Some were
inhilbit~ by lhow;ands of people while others werP. small, composed
or.l y of a few sca ttered family members. The unit o ( socia l

55
organization with bro~doer political, economic, and rcJigjous features
th;m thP. family was thebnranga)!', headed by the native chieftain caUE'd
datu or mjah.
Consolidation ol barangays was formed through marriages and
blood compact, locally known as sunllugu. This traditional ceremony
~ignifies that the partakers ot such rite become blood brothers,
presumdbly because the same blood now flowed in lheir ve~m>. They
drew blood from their ann~ and mixed it with wine, which they
shared and drank at the samP. llme .'IS viewed by witnesses.
Chron iders notl'd anu characterized the soci..'ll ~!ratification
sy~tem o)f pre-colonial Filipino community organi7.~tlun based on
we:alth. political int1uenc~.> and social privileges enjoyed. Tht> ranks
Wl!re as follows: (1) the datu class or the rnling class; (2) the rmzhnrliJ:a
or the aristocracy; (3) the lirrw.~un (pronounced timawa} or the
common class; and the (4) oz/ipi11 (also known as uriro11 among the
Visay.ms} or the Jepend•mt dass.
TI1t rlllfu or rajah ruled the l~rrmrgt11;. Since the tenn bara11g.1.1J
c.1me from the word balnngay, which means boat, 1-'r. Juan de
Plasencia, a Spi!nish chronicler in the 16"' century, speculated that
the role oi the dulu arose from the captain of a boat migJating to the
Philippines with his family, relatiws, and servants. Miguel de Loa rca,
in his Rt'lacion de Ia; Isla$ filrrina.< (1582) said that the dntus who Jive
in the same town obey thP. wr:>althiest among them. Furthermore,
AJ•tonio de Morga in his SIICfSOS do· Ia,; /sl,7s Fi!ipinas mentioned that
only the best warriors woerc obeyed.
The Boxer Codo:. an anonymous late 16'" t:entmy manuscript
m.-ntioned that only men wert! qualified fur the title. The datu's power
depends upon the failhfulm'Ss oi hi~ followers.
The dat" exerci~ed adm lni,.;trativP powers. In arriving at
important decisions, the datu also exerd.;ed k:gisla tive powers, m lling
his peo~•le all tog..'ther and securing their consent. I Ie had the du ty
to protect his community.
A lf,lfll al~o was given judicial powers since he could nmder
judgment in any dispute. He s hould ht!ar the testimony of the
duimllnts before handling down the vudicl. His d~ci:;ion could be
~p pe~ led to an arbiter of the cfclimdnts' chtlice from another
ctmlmunity.
Control over dispo~ition of barangay real property WdS ve.st~d
in their native chief. The chieftAin. received the agricu ltu ral produce,
~rsonal services as well as respect from his people. He took his
share of the harvest as tribute except from th~ aristocracy or the
mahar/iial.
Other historiaru:s include the family, relatives, and elder.i of the
datu as members of the aril;tocracy. The malulrlikas were believed to
be the descendants of mixed marriages between a ruling dynasty
and one out of power.
lhe timmwdass enjoyed their rights to a portion of thebarangay
land. Their normal obligation was agricultural labor but they were
al<;a called to catch lis"' to accompany expeditions, or paddle boats.
They were aLo;o called out for i.rn!gular service,; like supporting feasts
;md building hotL~~s .
An 11llpin was a man indebted to another. Hi~ creditor could
have been a dutu, mnharlika, limawa, or another nlipin . His
subordination was obligatory. A person may be born alipin, for that
reason he was called gi11tubo. He inherits the debt of his parents.
The degree of nlipin indebtedness may vary. For example, if alipin
and timawn m<Jrry, their offspring would be lralj.alipin where he
would only work half of his father's obligation.
There were two kinds o f alipin, the aHping nnmnmahay and the
a/iping Stlgigilid. The t<lfpin with hmd rights was called IJ!II!UinUlhay
(householdt::r). lie owned a house. He came at his master's call to
work on the field;, and do other ~ices. A man enters the fllllnamahay
statuseith~ by inhp.rit:ancc from nmnamaltayparents, dropping down
from the timawa sta tus or rL~ ing from the ~agigilid stat1,1s.
The aliping sagigilid (gilid is the part of the h ouse where the stove
is) were members o( the master's houschold who at~; from thP.ir
master's pot. They may be transferred to another cre<litor at any
moment and may be rewarded at th~ir master·~ pleasure. Slav~s
purchased from outside the community and captives in battles or
raids were included in the sagigilid status.
'!he d ependent population whom the Spani:lh chroniclcrn called
slaves were released from dependence by paying back debts, by
marriage, by purchase or by the voluntary act of the master.
The loarangny had both oral and written laws. The oral laws
were their customs (ugali), which had been handed down from
generation to generation . The written Ja ....-s were promu lgated by
dati<.~ with the help of the council of elders. Howe,·er, these laws
may be changed by consen.•u~ among ruling datrts or by any among
57
Lhem powe rful enough to do so. Such written laws were announced
to the pt'Ople by a barangay crier known as urnalohulam.
The unwritte n co d es of conduct w e re s tr ictly obeyed.
Righteousness was cnbanalo111 and an upright person wa~ d~ribed
banal. Any w rongdoing would mean reprehcn~ion from the
community leadffS and more importantly, from the SllpE'matural
beings. When a witness was called to testify ag3inst anybody, it was
customary to say, ":'vlay lightning strike rne if I am telling a lie. M<~y
the heavens or the sun fall upon me if I wiU rell a lie."
They believed that after death, the soul would travel to another
world to re<cive due reward or punishment. The good ~u l would
go tokalwalhatian (stare of bliss) according to the 1agalogs and o/ogon,
to tht> Vis~yans. The bad soul would go to a pl<lre of doom called
kil~umttrm by the Tagalogs and so/od by the Vi.sayans.
Aside from their strong belief for life after death, archaeological
sites show that there was a local form of ancestor worship. Early
Filipino contacts with other Asians brought <~bout changes in the
belief system like theanito concept to honor ancestors. The Visayans
ca ll ed their ancestor spirits umulagnd (from the word nlagnd or
followt-r). The notion of diwatas (spirits} that dwell it1 nature was
also pervasive in the Vi.sayas and Mindanao.
The abstract idea of religion was concretely shown in sculptured
objects known as licltn (pronounced likha) or larawan, reverently
worshipped by thl? natives. The Cordillera peoplt> carved an ito figures
called bulo/, signifying a5 ancestral s~urits and granary gods. Thi.~
stah1c was placed in front oi tht>doorof a rke warehouse to serve as
caretaker.
A~ide from sculptured obj~ct!l, the relationship between ancient
sp irits and men were e xpressed in elaborate pain tings executed on
the bodi~s ot human beings. Ta ttooing, as believed by some people,
was doni! as a thanksgiving offering to the gods, while o thers in
many ins lances, had it done to acquire protective pow~rs from spirits
or were applied after a man had shown remark;!.ble courage in battle.
The supreme god of the Tagalogs was Bathala uc Abba. lie wa.~
said to inhabit a faraway rea lm of eternal space known a~;
kalwalhn tinn . ..-or the Bonto ks and Kankanays of th e Central
Cordillera, l.umawig was th~ creator and preserver of life. Among
the Jfugaos, the highest of all their deities is Kalnmian, who dwells in
the fifth region of the universe.
58
 There were also minor gods and idols. Thtse i.ndude lakambini,
the god of the throat; blbit, who was offered food by the people for
guod health; 1~/ulmhaciWf, guard of the crops; and, Jampati, who was
the god of the fields and had a half-woman and half·man figure.
Rituals and a.>remonies to appca~ the different divinities were
celebrated customarily by the people, ranging from simple to
co mple x perfor mance of rites approp riate for the occas ion.
Temporary shelters or roofs were bu.ilt for religious feMt~ and rites.
The Patipaf. more popularly known as ta~itag was an IfugaQ
ritual performed by the menfolk of the community to drive away
bad spirits which they believe bring poor harvest or ailments to
people. The.wur~hip servic€ called the boki. which starts at the crack
of dawn, was headed by a mumbaki (native priest). Animal sacrifices
were offered to the gods for good omen.
. .
'The participants, with their bodic~ adorned with leaves of the
red li plant or the dong/a, beat their wooden planks called bllngibnng
(painted with chicken blood) ftom the terraces to the river and to
their homes. This wa~ to frighten hidden .rot1enls and prowling
wicked spirits. At the- end of the ritual, the dong/a leav~ were
removed from the participants and s~g togeth Pr.
One of the most popular relir,ious ceremonies during the ancient
time-s wa~ the paniWtlfa, frequently celebrated for thanksgiving .md
for curing i llncss. The religious rituals were performed by mediums
and healers, which the Tagalogs called catalonan while the Visayans
termed as babaylan or bay/an. They belonged to the highest rank of
the early Filipino priestly caste. They wert! highly respected by the
community members . The priestly caste also included the
nrankokolam, which was of a lower rank People feared him beczmsc
he was believed to have the power to inflict diseases.
One feast. the pnndol, was ob!!Crvcd at night ~mder a l>~~!ete tree
or in' the open field wh~in those who came io participate brought
food and ;~n offering, such as a mat, which they tied to a tree. The
celebration wa$ more drink.mg than eati ng.
Another feast. the mognnitv was a month-long celebration.
Usually, they put lights to seveul poles, which ~urrounded a central
light. Leaves sen:ed as decorations. At times when the occasion
demanded a sacriJice, the prettiest g.irl was first asked to :c;tab the
offering (usually a livt> pig). 'The people in the feast followed her,
and the meat of the dead hog wa~ then given to the guests.
59
 Meat was primarily provided during rituals and feasts. The
everyday meal of the e;~rly Filipin05 included rootcrops, fruits, and
fish. The staple food of the early Filipinos was rice. They cooked
food in earthen pots or in bamboo tuhes. They ate with their bare
hands, using hanana plant leaves as plates and coconut ~hells as
drinl<iog cups. TI1ey made fire by rubbing two pie~s of dry wood.
Tht!y stored their drinking water in large earthen jars or in huge
bamboo tubes.
In many provinces, wincmal::ing is an age-<>ld !!ntcrprisc. Their
most popular wine was the tuba, made from lhe sap of coconut or
nipa p<1lms. The other wines manufactured in the islands were /xl$i,
an Ilocano wine from ~ugarcane juice;psmgasi, a Visayan wine made
from rice; luml•unog, a Tagalog wine produced by distillation of tuba;
and the tllpuy. an Igorot wine made from rice.
Thf:! early Filipinos taught their children how to endure life's
challenges. The fathers trained their sons in hw:ting, fishing, timber·
cutting. boatmaking, mi.rring, and agriculture. The mothers, on the
other hand, trained their daught-ers to do household tasks like
conking, gardening, and sewing.
It i.<; said that in ancient J>anay, there was a barangay sehoul
called l>ntltoan, under the charge of an old man, acting as the teacher.
The subjects taught w<>re reading, writing, arithmetic, the handling
of wr.>apons and the acquiring of amulets or kin1111dma11.
Also part of the native tradition were indigenous mu~ic and
dances. The musical instmmcnts were made of bron7.e, wood and
bamboo. In 1'\orthern and Southern Philippint'S, the lip valley notch
flute became popular. Jaw harps were also found all over the
archipelago. The~e wt>rt> mostly made of bamboo, some of them
were made of metaL The bamboo jaw harps of the Kalingas were
called olibmu. The Tagalogs c,,llcd it llarimbaw. In Mindanao, k-ubing
was the conunon term for these bilmboo jaw harpo.
Among the musical instruments being played by the natives
were the k!dy<lpi (Tagalog guitar), kala/eng (Tinggian nose flute),
lmbnl!di! (,\1aguindar.aoan gong), kulintang (Muslim xylophone),
ru/ta8!l!l (Vi~ayan bamboo drum), si/bay (llocano reed flute), the-
;1/rac,lll (Subanun cymbal} and tnmbu/i (trumpet made from <"arabau
hom). Bwrgkaiirl is a bomboo lnt7.7.er pl;~yed by striking the split ends
3gainst on.,·5 palm.

60
 Ancient songs exhibited varied emotions, with themes about
love. w<lr, labor, religion, and death. Among these Wen! as follows:
filgWIIpilY· Tagalog $ong o f v ictory; nyeg·klu, Igorot serenade song;
b.rctal, Tagb<lnoa death song; and tudob, Agu...an harvest song.
Ethnic da nc.es, whi.c.h had been part o f evE>ry tnllc and culture,
reflected the sentiments and artis try of the popu lace. Their dances,
cu~tomarily light-hearted and mimetic, we~ in connection with their
beliefs in spirits, in thanhgiving and healing, in courtship. Some of
the nat ivc dances included the mahinhin, a Tagalog cottrtship dance;
the daudnmoy, a Visayan tuba d.1ncc; the sua-sua dance, a Sulu
courtship dance and the pawrjaln.v. a Mu!llim wedding dance .
Tht!ater origina ted within Ihe early communities through ri ntal
p ractitioners in thl!irdance·dram."lS to appease supernatural powers
that were believed to control nantral forces, to ensure good harvf!St
and success in hu nting and battles.
Knli, lalcr called .1rnis d uring the Spanish ~<ra, w ets popular all
over the islands. It was a method of S('lf-defense with in.stn•ments
made of rattan canes or bett!l'nut tree I ronks. ,\s an art of batttle, the
kali t('quir('s basic skills for parrying, offense, and defense.
In conunl!rce, the early Filipinos had their own weights and
rnt>asures. They u sed the tn/aro, a kind of baiJnce with scales, for
weighing thin~s. Measurement for capacity w~re the ka!xtn (25
gantas), the salop (one g11nta), the knguilnu (one-half ganta), and the
gatang (one chupa). l'or length. measures used were the dipa. the
letlgth of the ot•tstretched a nnq; the tumuro, the length b~tween the
tip ot- thl' thumb and that of the forefinger when extended; the
sand11mak, the width of the hand with the five fingers pressed
together; ,\.1\d the ::arululi. the width o f one finger.
They also knew th~ art of colnage and had gold used as medium
of exchange. Modem num.ismahsts ca ll these ancient gold coins
piloucilrr; (little cones) because of thei r conical shape.
Shells and b ronze gongs were illso used a,; money in exchange
of other goods. However, the usual method of trading during those
times was barter in which they offered their own products in
exchange of other goods. Aside from rattan . pearls, precious she Us,
and othl'r marine and forest prod ucL~. the ea rly Filipinos traded their
nalive merchandise S\ tch as baske l9 and mats. Non textile weaving
industry in the archipelago was a rl!:>ult of the proliferation of organic
material~ !mch as bamboo, rattan, vines, and nmo reeds.

61
 To the mountain people of Cordillera, a basket was,, functional
household or agricultural container. This light bushel was essential
in canyi:ng clothes ;md vegetables especially in a rugged terrain.
The multi-purpose backpack was the best known Cordillera basket.
The Ilocanos had produced baskets for storing v .tluables and their
clothC!s, the tarnpiJ>i. The H11nunuo of MindQro had embellished
baskelo; to hold betel nut chewing ingredi~ts, beads or money.
Mal-making was also popular in the islands. Various palm.~
were sources for thi~; flourishing industry. The natives made
distinctively la1ge mats for sleeping. Mats were al~o fashioned as
home furnishings to sit on and r~ivc disting1.1ished guests. Sulu
mats were the most intricately woven. ThtO'y colorfully dy11d
pandanus mats and occasionally incorporated symbols and
geometric designs.
The early natives also knew mathematics. They could CO\tnt
up to 100,000,000 (bllhulll) and could add, subtract, multiply, and
divide. The tem1S for numericals were as follows: isn (one}, puo (ten),
da.a11 (hundred), Jibo (thousand), yuta (one hundred thousand),an,'?ao
(one million}, kati (ten million), ancl .?aha/a (one hundrt>d million).
They also !cam«! how to calculate time and identify seasons
by reading the signs of nature. The early or late flow~ ring of c~rtain
plant~ could indicatE' a long dry season or early rains.

The [fugaos, on the other hand, devised a calendar, whic;h

contains 13 months in a year, each month having 28 days. Some
members of thi~ ethnic group still utilize this calendar method. They
had a tribal calendar recorder called tumunoh, who kept n strings
repn!senting the 13 months of the year. At the end of each day, the
tumunoh tied a knot per string to show that" a day had passed. A
string with 28 knots represents one month. The lfogao calendar has
a total of 364 days a year.
The early inhabitants also had ~orne knowledge of medicine.
Folk healers applied certain rool~ and leaves, flowers and fmits,
branches and pistils of plants containing substances with curative
po,vers.
Long before the coming of the Spaniard~, the natives of the
islands were already w~aring clothes. :M= wore collarless, short-
sl~v~d coot called kangan and a strip of cloth <:ailed bahag, wrapped
around the waist and between the legs. Usually, they wore putong, a
pie<"e of cloth worn around the head. Though they had no footwear,
62
they wure jewels &uch as gold necklaces, gold armlets called
kn/ombig~>, and gold anklet~ filled with agates, carnelians and other
colored glass.
The women wore a wide-sleeved blouse calJed baro. Their skirt
was called pnladyong. Th eir per.sonal trimmings consisted of
necklaces, bracelets, earrings and rings made of gold at times filled
with pearls, carnelian beads, and other precious gems. N\unerous
typeR of glass and stone beads hCJve been unearthed in Philippine
a rchaeological ~itcs, providing substantial proof of early tradt
relations of the archipelago with foreign lands.
One personal garb in the islands wa~ the ~alakot (native hat),
worn as protection from heat or sudden rain. Generally made of
annhaw (.tforcst palm), the snlakot was widely ustd in Central Luzon
and the Visayas. The nonggots used ~ather (from animals they hunt)
in making shallow hats, while neighboring Bontoks used coiled
rattan. The lfugaos, on the other hand, wore perfectly fittl!d carved
bowl-like hats, while the Maranaos and the l:lagobo~ (Davao) made
wooden hats as shields for combat.
When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16'" century, they were
surprised to see the early Filipinos living in these well-organized
and independent villages, the barangays. The native dweUers lived
in houses made of wood and bamboo. roofed by nipa palmlea,·es
called bahny ktti:to (nipa hut}. Oth~ materials u~ed include yantok
(rattan), cogan grass. !\tone, and clay.
TheS<t houses were elevated three to four meters from the
ground and u:;ually supported by four or more posts made of wootl
or bamboo. The space beneath the hou~ called silong, ~erved as
workspace, storage space, a granary or pen for livestock. A lwgdan
(ladder); which could be drawn up at night or when the owners of
the house went out, was used to enter the nipa hut.
The roof of the bnhay kubo may ~ constructed on the ground,
then completed over the house frame. The wall was built from nipa
shingles or bamboo. The linilad na knwayan (bamboo slats) which
served as the floor of the h ouse, were set slightly apart to induce
ventilation. The doors, as well as the stairs were made nf bamboo.
The windows of the house differ in ~ize, with a t11kod (mas\) to prop
the swinging cover open during the day.
The pri.n<ipal spac~ inside the bahay kubo, called the buiWIIJ(IIU,
about ten square meters in area or l.u ger, could be used for rea:!vlnR
63
guests, dining, and sleeping. Furniture in the balmy ku/J(J is minimal,
commonly with a low table for meals <ailed tlulfmg and a built-in
seal <"alled papag. A small si/id (room) served as a dressing :room and
closet for clothes, pillows, and mal!'i.
There wert> houses with an <'pen porch c.1llcd batalnn. an
unroofed platform, where water jars are placed. Sometimes the
cooking was done in an open hearth or on a day Jar/an (stove) or
ttmgkong knltm (three stones) in a spa<:e in front of the ladder of the
biltal/llt.
The .~tructure and design of the n~ liv~ houses r~~ulted from
various fa<"lors thnt may be dictated by the natural setting, available
.rf;!~ources, customs, beliefs and needs of the occupants. The tea faring
Samal built their huuses over the watt'>r, along the seashore. ThE'ir
domiciles were on stilts, high enough to Jet their boats dock under
them even at high tide. footbridges m~de of planks wert;! conne<:ted
to these dustered dwellings. The Bacljao lived in houseboats. Th~
BagubosofDavao del Sur and the .K.aling;t of the Mountain Province
built hous~ on trees for prote-ction from enemiE's and wild animals
on the ground.
Cats were kept in most houses to g~t rid of rats. TI1ere were
al~odogs Jnd pN monkeys to warn the household members of
approaching strangers.

64
 Chapter Test No. 3
Xame: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Date: _ _ _ __
Course, Year, and5e<.1ion: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

J. Multiple Choice: Choose the Jetter with th!! correct a.n.swer.

Write your a.n.swer~ on th~ blanks provided: (20 pts.)
1. The term Nustmtar:~ has this meaning.
a. maritime-oriented prehistoric r~ople
b. hunting and gathering population
c. Austronesians from South China and Taiwan
d. people speaking l'roto-AostronesianJanguage
2. This theory maint<~ins that the e11rly inhabitants
orib>inated from South China and Taiwiiil, and from
there spread southward and westl..,.ard.
a. Mainland Hypothesis
b. Mainland Origin Hypothesis
c lsland Origin Hypothesis
d. F.volution Theory
3. He undertook the analysis of the Tabon skullcap
and mandible in 1975 and discovered that the
earliest inhabitant of the islands died.due to a fall
or a blow to the head.
a. Neil Mcintosh c. KC. Chang
b. Peter Bellwood d. Wilhelm Solheim II
4. These are large rounded stones found in the
riverbeds used as tooL-; by the native settlers.
a. <:ore tools <:. pebble tools
b. flake tools d. cobble tools
5. This 1s first m~tal to be widely \lsed by the early
Filipinos.
d. brom:e c. 1ron
b coppi!r d. gold
65
 6. In l.eyte and Cebu, they used this Ingredient to
remove the foul smeU of fish.
a. vincgai c. coconut milk
b. tabon-tabon fru it d . hakawan bark
7. Aside from sappan wood, the ancient Filipinos
used this in bone painting.
a. hematite c. he!U\il ti te
b. hP.mmatite d. hermatite
_ _ 8. lt is a kind of jade that was only obtainable by
trading with other Southeast Asian neighbors.
a. carnelian c. oriental
b. nephrite d . glass
_ _ 9. This filipino term is of Malay o rigin.
a. ama c. pa kyaw
b. maharlil<a o;t. upa
10. These were th e men of Champa who l:radcd with
the Buranuns.
a. Orang Band jars c. Malays
b. Orang Dampuan d. Mandayas
_ _ 11. 8/mttnra is a San.~krit term which has thi~ meaning.
~. Divine Reing c. Only Lord
b. Highest God d. G reat Lord
12. A copper image of said clcph<~nt god of the Hindus
was f01.u-~d in Mactan.
a. Ganc~ha c. Siv<l
b. Garuda d . Lokt!Svara
13. He recorded the earliest Sino-Philippine relations
in 972A.D.
a . Cha u ju-kua c. Wang Ta-yuan
t>. \-1a-Tuan-hn d. Yung·lo
14. !.lased on this Chinese record, the Philippines sent
~ir,nt tribute l'mhassies to Beijing.

a. Chu-fan-chi c. Tao-1-<:hih-lio
b. We" Shiann d. Ming Shih
Tung Kao
66
 15. He was the first to be mentioned in the tarsil~ to
have brought Islamic faith to Suht.
a. Karim ul Makhdt>m c. Sayid Abu Bakr
b. Tuan Ma.qho'ika d. Raha Baginda
16. He foW'Ided the Sulu ,;ultanale in 14SO A.D.
a. Karim ul Makhdum c. Sayid Abu Bakr
b. Tuan Masha'ika d . J<aha Baginda
17. Th.e confession ol thc creed among Muslims is
called the
a. z.1kat c. shahadah
b. sawm d. hajj
IS. He was the Spanish chronicler in the 16"' c<'.ntury
who spccttlatc<llhat the role of the datu arose from
the c,lpt:.lin of the boat called bnlauxay.
a. Fr. Juan de l'la.~en<:ia c. Migu el tie Loa rca
b. Antonio d e Morga d . Antonio Pigafetta
19. This was a m onth-long celebration where the
natives would put ligh ts tn several poles. which
sumunrlerl a central light decorated with le~ves.
n. panclot c. paniwatil
b. mog<uuto d. dulang
20. He was a tribal calendar recorder of the Ifugaos .
a. mumbaki <. uripon
b. umalohok,,n d. tumunoh

II. Matching Type: Match Column$ A and B. Write the letters on

the blanks provided: (20 pts.)
ColumnA ColumnB
Setl
1. KabW'Iian a. god of the throat
2. Lumawig b. for the Bontoks and
Kanb nays. the
creator

67
 3. Lakambacod c. for good hea lth
..._ _ 4. Lakambini d. supreme god of t~
Jfugaos
5. Bibit e. guard of the cro~
Set2
.. _ 1. na~i a. Igorot wine made from
rice
2. Lambanog h. from coconu t .:md nipa
palm
3. Pangasi c. Visaydn wine made
from rice
4. Tapuy d. Ilokano wil\e made
from sugarcane
_ _ 5. Tuba e. distiliP.d tuha
Set 3
_ _ 1. BMimb<~w a. Tagalog jaw harp
2. Kulintang b. Jlokano reed flute
_ _ 3. Silbay c. .'vlu!Jim xylophon e
4. Kudyapi d. Maguinctcmaoan gong
s. Babandil e. Tagalog b"Ui tar
Set4
_ _ I. Kinnoton a. Muslim wedding
d<~nCP.

- ._ 2. Paunjalay . b. Jlokano ant's dancP.

_ _ 3. Mah inh in c. Visayan tuba dance
_ _ 4. Dandansoy d. Tagalog courtship
dance
_ _ s. Kwnlntang . e. Tagalog war danoc

III. Essay: (10 pts. each)

I. I low did the teachings of Islam influence the Filipino
society?
2. Discuss the cultur.ll evolution of the early inhabit.lnt~ of
the Philippines.

68
 The Spanish Era

1. In Search of New Lands

In the last two centu rie; uf the Middle AgcR (1300·1500), the
European<>, whil~ rt>gaming the lloly Lmd from the Muslims, were
able to e~labli:>h conunerce with the Orient tlmn•gh trade routes.
Spices lik.: pepper, ginger, nutmeg, onions, and garlic were the m ost
important items of trade from th.: E<~St, owing to the desire of the
Europeans to enhance the taste of food and to prt>serve meat du ring
winter time.
The fall fJf.Constantinople (!453) and the emergence of the
Ottoman Tltrks do:red the former trade routes tu the East, cauBing
the monarch:; ;md navigators of F.urope to find new routes across
the ~as . The Portugu~c w ere a few years a head oJ ~c Se<tnlards in
the discovery of nt>w trade routel'. Inspired by r>rlnce H~r1ry, the
:'-lavigator (139~·1460), Portuguese navigators sailed down the
Afric.m coilst to reach the East. In 1487. led by Bartolome Dias, the
l'orll•gut:!;C! ro\mded the Cape of .Gpo~ .Hope. A lew ;·carr. later, in
1498, Vasco de Gan\il reachl'J Calicu't, lndia, by !\ailing eastward
from the c~p~.
The end oi ih<' wcouq,isftr> (w~~rs against the Moor~) in 1492,
paved ~hc
1 way fm greilt ~oyagel'_ including the discovery of the t:rew
World 'Aml.'n <a) for Sp arn. Chnstophcr Cohunbus, who had faikd
to convince the King of Portugal thl!l h~ could reach the East by
sailing w esn"ard, was ahlelo get the support of the Spanish Crown.
Aftl!l' these remark.1blc voy<lges, Portugal a nd Spain became
keen rh·als in colonizing new lands beca\15e of gold, ~rices, and other
merchandL<re found in the Orient. as well a~ their rt>ligious :z.eal to
prosclyti1.c the natives.
On May 3, 1493, Pope Alexander VI, attetnliling to settle the
rivalry, issued a papal bull known as the lrttu cnt:t..ra. The Pope
dccret'd that tht- Spanish zone ol exploration should be west of the
im~ginary line dra"'t'l north to soulh, 100 l~agues west of the Azom~
ant! Cape Verde lslands. All lands east of the demarcation line shm1ld

69
 belong to Portugal. The demarcation line was drawn to identify
Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration and conquest. The
following year, the two kingdoms agreed in the Treaty of Tordesillas
to move the de>.rnarcation line 370 leagues west of Cape Verdt-lslands
and still be guided by the provision.~ of the papal bull.
ln 1505, Ferdinand Magella n (1480-1521), a member of the
nobility of Portugal saill!d with a fleet carrying the firnt Portuguese
viceroy to the East Indies in 1506and from there, was sent to Malacca
(Melaka) in lhe Malay Peninsula and the spice markets of Ambon
and Banda in Western lndoncsin. He was promoted to the rank of
captain in 1510. He returned to Portugal in 1512.
Through obsenring wind directions and ocean tides, Magc!J.m
later conceived the idea of a pa~sage to the west or a round South
America to reach the Moluccas or Spice Island • (island s of present-
day Indonesia). While finding the chance to prest>nt his plan to King
Manuel of Portugal, he fought against the Moors in Morocco in 1513.
There he received his wounds t hat left him lame for life. After his
return to Portugal, Magellan proposed to the king hi~ plan to travel
a wc.9tward route to the Muluccas. The king refused and even
ranceled h is promotion probably because of charges of fln~ncial
irregularities while he was in Morocco.
Disgusted by the king' s response, he renounced his Portuguese
citizens hip. He went to Spa in in 1517. In his new foUlld home,
Magellan met influential persons who helped him get s upport for
his plan to find a new route to the Spice Islands from Ki ng Charlc.~ I
(later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). One of them was flishop
Juan de Fonsec~. the head of the Royal Council of the Indies (divJ.Sion
in charge of overseas expeditions).
Spurred by the competition to win againstl'ortugal in obtaining
high· priced sp ices, Spain commissioned Magellan to find a route to
Molucca~< by s ailing west. Su<:h passage would ~ ~neficial to Spain
for Portug~l controlled the c.tstward route to the East lnd~ around
Africa's Cc~pe of Good Hope. The contract for the expedition was
signed on March 28, 1518. Magellan was named captain-general of
the expedition.

2. :!W:agellan's New Route to the East

Magellan left lhc port of San Lucar de Barraml!da, Spain, on
Septem~r 20, 1519 with five ships namely Trinidad, Concepcion,

70
 Santiago, San Antonin, and Victoria together with about 250 men. The
expedition intended to circumnavigate the earth in the service of
Spain. Accompanying him were Fr. Pedro de Valderrama (fleet
ch~plain), Antonio Pigafctta (chronicler of the expedition), Duarte
Barbo:;a (Magellan'~ hrothec-in-law), and his Malay slave Enrique
of Malacca (acting as interprett.>r).
The fleet sailed through familiar w aters along the westeoast of
Africa. They reached the Canaries on September 26. Crossing the
Atlantic, they landed on the South American coast, now Pernambuco,
Brazil, on November 29. M01gcllan conlinued the voyage, reaching
Rio d e Janeiro on December 13. H e named it Santa Lucia, because
he landed there on the saint's feast day. There they traded v.-ith the
native Americans lor provisions.
1hc vopge continued at Rio de Plata . By the time they w ere at
the tip of the Sou th American continent, it was already winter. The
snowstorms were in a headsttong. The men became apprehensive
and asked Magellan that they all return to Spain. Magellan declined.
Instead, he asked them to ta ke courage. The ships took shelter from
storms in Port San·Julian (now in Argentina) in Yfarch 1520.
Unknown to Magellan, some officers took into command the
maneuvering of three ships, the San Antonio, the Couccpcion, and the
Victoria. The next day, GAspar de Qu~ada, cCJptain of th~ Concepcion,
wrote to Magellan that he and others would not recognize his
authority unles.<> they retum lmrn~iately to Spain. Still, Magellan
rdu,;cd to heed their p etition.
Juan etc Cartagena, Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian dd Cano,
(called Elcano) and Gaspar de Que~ada were found guilty of treason
but pardoned. But Cartagena continued to plot again, this time with
one of the priests, Pero Sanchez. de Reina. They were probably jealous
because the captain-general of thi.~ Spanish expedition was a
Portuguese. Magellan had the two left olf the coa~t of an WUlamed
island.
With the fin;t signs o( spring, the l'Xploratory voyage continued
in search of a .route to the Southern Sea (now Pacific Ocean). A strong
typhoon had driven ashore and destroyed the sm~llest ship, Santillgo.
In August, the four ships went farther south and eventually, they
came upon a sttait which Magellan called "Strait of All Saints" (now
Strait of Magellan).

71
 Magtollan sent the San Antonio to explore the southeast opt!ning
of the strajt. Trinidad entered the 1;0uthwcst. Sec::etly, San Antonio,
piloted by Esteban Gomez (a POTtug uese), deserted on the n ight of
November 20 and sailed back for Spain.
The fleet reached the Southern Sea, whkh .Magellan named
Ocean Pacific because it was calm. Unfortunalely, Magellan had
u.nderto:stimated the ocean's size. In the next five m onths, the t<hip
wasrunn:ingout of supplies. Instead of biscuits, the menatt'sawdust.
They also started to toat leather rope guards and even rats. Many got
sick with ~rvy (a gum disease). A number of his men died.
But M~gcllan and his men bravely ~.ailed on and by Ma rch 6,
1521 they had reached an ~land in the Western P,lcific. I Ie called it
Islas l.Adrones (or I!\lands of Thieves, later to be named Marianas. in
honor of Maria Ana of Austria, Queen R~gent of Spain) because some
of the native 0\amorms had stolen a boat from the flagship. ·ro s top
them, MageUan ordered his men to fire their guns.

3· Rediscovery nfthe Philippines

from Ladrone~ Islands, Magellan's fleet went on their voyage
we~tward. At the dawn of Saturday. on March 16, 1521, they ~aw
the towering height~ of Sl! mar and named the island Islas M. San
L!u;m, for it was the feast day of St. Lazarus. They stayed overnight
off Suluan !~land. The following day, they landed on the sma ll
u.ninhabired is let of Humwm (Homonhon) found at the mouth of
Lcyte Gulf and built two tents for the ~ick.
On th~ third day Biter their arrival on March 18, they met nine
natives from the neighboring island of Suluan who arrived in .t boal
Seeing them as friendly people, Magellan gavt them red caps,
mirrors, comb5, small bells, h·ory, fine: linen cloth, and other trifles.
In return, the islanders gave them their cargo of bananas, fish,
coconuts, and p11 lm wine (tuba).
· On H oly Thursday, March 28, the fleet landc<l in Masao, Butuan,
Agusan d ell'orte. (Early historians cla im tha t it was Limasawa. an
i5land in Southern Ley1·e ) Rajah Kolambu wa~ rowed to where the
t:uropcans where. At fi rst, he refl!Sed to board Magellan'~ big shlp.
Fit>ally, the rajah w elcomed Magellan and visited him aboard rus
:;hip. He gave Magellan three porcelain jars of rice, whlle Magellan
gavt! a red cap and a red-and-yellow robe.

72
 Subsequently, Magellan's men h<:ld a mock fight. The soldier
in a suit of annor remained unhurt even after he was struck. R.:~jah
Kolambu was filscinated and noted that one man in such attire was
worth 100 fighters. These ne<vcomers could help them win their
battles . Thus, th e rajah decided to seal their new friendship.
Alter..·ards, he performed the kast kosi or bloo<l compact ceremony
with Magellan on ~iarch 29, Good Friday.
On F.asterSunday, Marcl131, 1521, a rna,.;.~ was held on Masao's
s hore with Reverend Father Pedro de Valdem•m11 officia ting. At
s undown, Magellan, in the presence of Spaniluds and Filipinos,
planted a large wooden cross on the summit of a hill overlooking
the sea. He named the country the l>lfls Je Snn I.nwro.
:"Joted historian Dr. Sonia \11. l.~ide J>ru.sented the evidence for
Masao rather than l.irne>~awa as the site of the first recorded mass in
the Philippine~. Pir~t. in all primary sources including the diary of
Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Magellan'~ voyage, the name of
the place was Maz.aua. Lim<l~awa has four syllal>l"s and begins with
another letter. Second, accord ing to primary records, the expedition
traveled 20 to25le-agues from Homonhon, the first landing point. U
they had been to Limasawa Island, the dist.tnce is only 14.6 leagues
or one-haJf of that length. Third, the distance to Cebu from Mazaua
according to Plgafetta was 35lcagucs (140 mil~s}. The distance from
Limasawa to Cebu is only 80 miles. l'ourth, it was m"ntioned that
the king came to their ship in a ha/angl111i. Butuan ill now the site of
at least nine- e-xcava ted ba/angluli relics; by contrast. Limasawa ha~
no significllJll archaeQlogkal relics or balanglrai tradition. fifth, the
W"stem explorers got excited at the abW'ldancc of gold in Ma7.aua,
for that was the main currency at that time. !:loth arch6eological
relics and the gold mines today attested to the abundanc" of gold ill
the Agusan Valley.
On April 7, 1.521, Magellan together with Kml> Kolambu and
the Spanish and native fleets landed on Sugbu {now Cebu). On the
same day. Humabon made a blood compact with Magellan after the
Ia Iter h ad won his.tru5t and friendship.
Asked who would succeed him, Rajah llumabon told Magell an
that he had no sons, only daughters. !lis neph~ who had married
his daughter was therefore the crown prince. Rajah Humabon added
that parents were no longer honored in their old age and instead
theirchildrcncornrriandcd them. Magellan expl~ln~ to theCebuano

73
crudtain the Cllrist·ian teaching about honoring one's pa~nts. This
confounded Ra;a.h Humabon . Soon, he sought to be baptiud as a
Christian.
On Sunday, April 14, 1521, ~ mass on the shore of Ccbu was
held with Rajah I lumi\bon and his pt:Ople attending the ceremony.
After the mass, Magellan planted a hug~ wooden eros..; and gave
J.iSIIbeta (renamed Queen Juana after baptism for the mother of King
Charles I of Sp~in), wife of Rajah Humabon. an image of tnt' Child
Jesus as a gift. The.re were about liDO Filipinos who particip3ted in
the mass and underwent ritual bapti sm. A5 for Humabon (renamed
Carlos), Magellan made him the king's repr~:<Sentative in Ccbu and
promi~ed to unite the local chieftains under hi!; authority. Magellan
likewise tried to impose Chri~tianity and Spanish sovereig:nty on
lo('~l chieftains.

Rajah Humabon a nd Datu Zula of Mactan welcomed the

Sp~niards, but not Lapuliipu another <"hieftain of Mactan. Lapu-
lapu's reai name was Cali Pulacu as written by Carlo~ C:a lao, a
Chinese-Spanish poet in the 17'" century in his poem Qur. Dioo; u
Pfrdc>11e {That God May Forgive I lim). This was " result of the-
re:;l'arch of Prof. Guillermo GomP.:>.-Rivera, a 1975 Zobel Prize
ilwanice.
Lapulapu refused to accept the new political system and pay
trilmte. He decided to break away from Rajah Humabon. To teach
him a lesson, Magellan invaded Mac tan on April27, 1521. He led an
anny of 60 steel-d;~d Spaniards in three vessels and 1,000 Cebuano
warriors in 30 boats . He told Rajah H umabon and IU~ m en to stay
on their boats. watch how the Europeans fight.
Magellan had misjudged the fighting skill of Lapulapu and his
men. The Mactan warriors repulsed the Spanish forre with tht>ir
!ip~Ms and bamhoo ~takes. They aimed their s pears at the unshieldt!d
legs of the Europeans. The- Spaniards were forced to go back to their
boats.
Magellan was wounded in the battle. A P£}~~t his
right leg and then a bamboo spear struck his face.l,aputapu and his
fi~tcrs pounced and killed him. The remalni.ng Europeans retreated
and left the btxly of their mptain behind .
The Battle of ~1actan was a scandalous defeat for the Spaniards
for they were not a ble to prove themselves better in combats . On
May 1, the natives of Cebu carried out the plan to massacre them.
74
 While the Europeans were attending a banquet prepared for them
by Rajah Hlllll<lbon, the warriors attacked them. Duarte Barbosa,
Juan Serrano and twenty-seven other Spar\iard$ w~re killed.
The remaining members of the expedition were forced to flee
the- islands before the Ccbuanos could kill them all. They burned
the ship Concepcior1 for lack of m en to operate the vessel. With fwo
ships left - Trinidad and Victorin, they continued thtir voyage to
Moluccas.
On November 8, 1521, they finally landed in Tid ore, an island
in Moluccas. The-y were able to secure a rich cargo of spiel'!!. 1he
survivors decided that the Trinidad, led by Gomez de Espinosa,
would sail back to Spain by cros.<~ing th e Pacific to Panama, while
the Victoria, \mder Juan Sebastian del Cano's command would sail
via Cape of Good Hope, but on lowe r la titud<?S to avoid the
Portuguese.
The Victoria crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of
Good Hope dnd finally reached Sa.n Lucar, Spll in on September 6,
1522, with only 18 survivors. The voyage around the world lasted 2
years, 11 months, and 16 days.
Pigafetta's story of the expedition ~pread. Shortly thereafter,
the geogrilphcrs adopted new dinumsionsof the earth and the wider
scope of the Sou them ~a (Padfic Ocean). The voyage enhan® their
knowledge about the existence of other islands in the Pacific and
the Philippines. Jt also confirmed. that the earth is round and that it
is really pos~ible to sail around the world since the world's oceans
are connected.
The cargo of cloves sold for such a high price that it was more
than ~ufficient to pay for the expenses of Magellan's expedition. 1\s
a reward, the Spani!;h Crown granted Elcano a proud motto fnr his
shield, Primus Circumdedisti Mt (you circumnavigated me first).
As for the crew of the San Antonio (the ship that had deserted
the expedition), they had been imprisoned until Elcano's l.'t'tum.
They were tried and convicted.
Magellan's expedition paved the way for Spain's exp~ion to
the Orient. Driven by the thrill of adventure and the reward of gold
and ~piritu.d dispensation, the conqu istadores took the risks of the
journey.

75
 The fir~t post·Magellan expedition (1525), led by Captain Garei a
Johe de I.oaysa sailed with seven ships and 450 men. Aft~r crossing
the Str ait of Magellan, the ve~~ds were dispersed by a storm.
Un fortuna tely, Loaysa got Ill. They served him broiled rat the
traditional treatment for constipation. He d id not recover. Eventually
he died. His men f>~iled to re?.ch the Philippines.
Sebastian Cabot, son of Venetian explorer John Cabot, headed
the second expedition in 1526 with four shlp~ and 250 men. They
failed to find the Strait of Magell<m.
In 1527, Alvaro Saavedra Ceron. cousin of Hernando Cortes of
Mexico, together w ith 110 men constituted the first expedition to
the Philippines hom the Viceroyalty in Mexico (New Spain). Three
ships were setout to invt!5figiltewhat had happened to the two earlier
expeditions and rescue any survivors. Only one ship, the Florida,
reached Surigao in Northeastern Mindanao but failed to co lonize.
They were able to rescue ~everal survivors from the first two
expeditions in Tidorc, Moluccas. Loaded with spices, the Florida
attempted to retl!rn to Spain but strong winds drove her b3cl<.
Saavedra Ct!ron tried the second ~nd third time to sail ~gainst strung
winds. l ie fell ill and diecl. Hi.q ;;ue<essor also failed to make a
rerum trip . Finally, th ey dedded to surrender to the Portuguese .
In 1542, King Charles J sent another expedition . This was to
reasse rt the claims of Spa in to the islands, which is part of the Eastern
Hemisphere. Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the Eastern'
Hemisptlere was r<~~crved to Portuguese colorili:ation. He i nslructed
Ruy I uprz de vWa!ohos to command a fleet vf 6 ships and (I round
400 m en. Ht! exhorted Villalohos to avoid any of the Spice Island~ ill
their voyage to the Philippines, then known as /~las del Po11ie>1te (the
Sun;ct l;lands).
Villalobos rea ched Ba ganga Bay in Eastern Mind anao on
FebntMy 2, 1543 alter three months of sailing. He named Mindanao
Cne>snrtn Cm·oii, or the imperial ililand of Charles. Searching for food,
they reached the southern island of Sarang·an;, which Villalobos
rena me<1 A nloni" in honor of Viceroy Antoruo de Mendoza of Mexico.
Some o f his men went as far as Lcyte, whkh they n.named Fdipina,
in honor of the furure king Philip II of Spain. later. the namt! Felipinas
w as given to ali the islands. Vi llalobos aLo;o failed to colonize
Mindanao. He died in the Moluccas, consoled by St. Fr01ncis Xavier,
acclaimed as th(' Apostle of t~ Indies. ·

76
 King Charles I of Spain abdi<:ated his royal crnwn aft<.>r g<.>tting
weary of far ranging duties brought about by nis scatt<.>red dominion.
Hi~; $On Philip Il succcetkd as ruler of the 1\:cthcrlands in 1555 ,,nd
Spain in 1556.
During the reign of King l'hilip II, Spain was at lht• height of its
pow.,r. H" wrote to Mexki!n ViC€ my Velasco ordering him to prepare
an expedition for the conquest of the Phi lippin<:>s. The command of
this expedition was given to :viii:\I"'J Lo~-.e.: de Legi!zp.i (1505-1572).
a ooldicr, lawyer, and administrator. Since the Mexican government
was then in thehrink ofbankruptcy. Lcgazpi spent his own resouret'S
to finance the expedition.
Lega7.pi and his fleet, con~i'lting of four ships with 380 men.
leftl\atividad, Mexico. on Novemher 19, 1564 (some say 1\'ovcmbcr
20, a Monday). Besides royal officials and crew, live Augn51inian
friars joined the expedition. Legazpi was accompanied by Father
Andres de Urdaneta (survivor of the Loaysaexpeditmn}, and Captain
Felipe de Salcedo (Legazpi's grandson), Guido de Lavezari~
(survivor of the Villalobos expedition), and Melchor de L<-gazpi
(Legazpi's son). The fleet slopped in Guam, and there obtained fresh
water and supplies.
On Febmary 13, 1565, l.ega?.pi and hi~ men <tnchorcd n~ar the
island of Cebu. Due to Ct."buano opposition, they ~ailed to the
neighboring island~ and landed in Samar. I .egazpi made a blood
compact with Urrao, a friendly chid, un February 22. They
proceeded to Limasawa and were received by a young chieftain
named Bankaw.
Later, Lega7.pi landed in 13ohol and befriended two native kings.
Sikatuna and Sigala. On Mlll'('h 16,1565, Lcgazpiand Sikatuna made
a blood compact. A few days later, l.ega7.pi and Gala did a similar
pact.
On April27, 1565, Legazpi arrived in Cehu and hit the shore.
Rajah Tupas and his Cebuano warriors ch;,llenged thE' enemy forces
but were overpowered by the Spaniards. Soon, the natives burned
their houses and rctTcated to the uplands.
The next day. April 28, one of Lega.:pi's men, a Gr..ek sailor
named Mermco (others say Ju;m de Camuz) d~covell!d tht! image
of the Sto. Nino in one of the houses. Viewing it as a sign of God's
approval Lega?.pi named the Jirst settlement Ciudad del SantissimCI
NCimbre de fesu~ (City of the Most I Ioly Name of Jesus), in honor (I(
77
the sacred image. The statue can be found in tne present Augustinian
Church of the I Ioly Child.
The earliest Spanish settlement was in the fonn of a ttiangle.
The two sides face the sea and the third fronts the land. The
settl~ment was smrounded by fences. Wells were dug for stable
water supply. A church for the Atlgttstinian Fathers was erected. In
this church, the histork image uf the Child Jesus was kept.
One day, a soldier, Pedro de Arana, went out alone from the
camp. He was speared to death.. In retaliation, a unit was sent to
grab captives, one of them a niece of Rajah Tupas of Ccbu. Upon
le;~ming Uili>, Legazpi sent her nursemaid to inform Rajah Tupas
that the hostages were free to go home, on the condition that he had
to come for a talk.
Tupas did not heed the invitation of Legazpi, but Tamuyan the
girl's father came with six men. Tamuyan offered himself a5 a slave
in place of his daughter butl..egazpi a!\Sured him the freedom of ros
daughter without making him subservient to the Spaniards.
1h~ father was stunned to St>e his daughter dressed as befitted
her r;mk. He knew that captives taken in war were not given noble ·
treatment. \1oved by their kindheartedness, T;~muyan accepted
Legazpi's friendship. He promi<;ed to convince his brother Tupas to
accept Spanish good will.
After a few more days, convinced that l.egv.pi wa!\sinccre with
hi,-; words, Rajah Tupas accepted Legazpi"s friendship. He took th!!
oath of vassalage! to the Spanish crown and promised to pay a yea rty
tribute.

4· The Spanish Conquest of the Jsfand.c;

Legazpi tried to win Rajah Tupa~ and the people of Ccbu
through the policy of attraction, inviting them to return, rebuild their
homes and live in peace with them. With the help of Cid Hamal
(Sidamit), a Muslim Malay, Legazpi succeeded.
The Augustinian missionaries, on the other hand, were
assiduously spreading the Cluistian faith. The rust Ccbuano convert
wa~ Jandulaman, a widowed niece of Tupas, later on named Isabel
in honor of Isabel Ga~~:es, tegazpi's deceased wife. Afler her bapti-;m,
she married \-laster Andres, a Greek member ofLegazpi's expedition.
Fray Diego Herrera officiated the wedding, the !ir~t Christian
marriage on Philippine soil.
78
 Rajah Tupas also accepted baptism. Legazpi stood as the
godfather. He was named Felipe, in honor of Philip 11. His son,
Pinsuncan was likewise baptized al'ld was named Carlos. The natives
followed th~ same.
In 1569, Lcgazpi transferred to Panay due to meager food
provisions in Cehu. Meanwhile, he sent rus grandson back to )..icxico
with his first reports to Ihe Spanish King. On the bank <'lf the Panay
River, the ~econd Spani~h settlement was founded. Due to the
continuing apostolic work of F:r. Juan dt~ Alba and-other Augustinian
missionaries, the people became friendly to Legazpi. Two chit!fs of
Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong became Ouisti;ms.
In 1570, Lcgazpi sent his grandson. Juan de Salcedo who arrived
in Cebu from Mexico in 1567, to lVtindoro to punish the )..ioro pirates
who pluodered upon Panay's villages. With 305paniards md several
hundreds of Visayans, Salcedo destroyed the Moro fmts in Ilin and
Lubang (islets near Mindoro).
On t-.!ay 8, 1570, Marshal Martin de Goiti and hi.~ men left Panay.
With a force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Visayans, they explored the
l'an<;ipit Riv~r in 'Balangas. Nativevoluntee~ who had al.read y made
friends with the Spaniards joined Goiti's men to avenge the harm
done to them hy hostile neighboring villages.
From the bay, Goiti saw on the south bank of the Pasig River a
wall prote<:ring a port. He sent his interpreter ashore to invite the
local chief to a conference, which R3jah Matanda and his nephew
Rajah Sulayman (or Soliman) accepted.
Rajah Sulayman led Goiti to a house and they sPa led their new
alliance with the traditional kasi kJ1si. But the Maynilad chief
remained restive, .knowing that he had more men than the strangers.
Goiti landed rus 80 fighters against Sulayman's fort, (wl1ere Fort
Santiago stands today) and ordered his men to destroy the artillery.
Sulayman defended his kingdom from the Spaniards who took the
offensive. A bloody hand-to-hand battle en.~ued until the Manilans
turned their backs as flames began to engulf their houses. Sulayman
and his warriors retreated across the river. Goiti and !lis men captured
\1aynilad on the 24'~· of )..iay and seized ~orne cannons that Panday
:Pira had m.adcfor Sulayman.
After the battle, Goiti returned to Panay. He told Legazpi about
the rich kingdom of Maynilad. a trading center where Chinese,

79
 Bomeans. Siamese, and other foreign merchants engaged in. From
thereon, Lega?.pi decided to colonize Maynilad. He l~ft Panay and
rea,hed Manila Bay in the middle of April 1571, with a stronger
expedition consisting of 27 vessel<;, 280 Spaniards, and 600 Visayan
allies.
l.akandula. king ofTondoand S\tlayman·s Wide, realized that
it wa~ useless to resist the Spanish forces. I Ic welcomed Lcgazpi
and perst1adt!d his nephew Sulayman to make peace with Legv.pi.
On May 19, 1571, Legazpi took possession of Maynilad mthe name
of King Philip li of Spain.
'E!ambalito, a Pampango warlord from Macabebe, wanted to
resist the Spanish forces in ~aynilad. lie conferred with Lakandula
and Sulayman to support his cause. The two former native ruler~
did not want to join him since lhey had already made peace with
Legar.pi. However, a son and two nephews of Lakandttla and wme
o{ Sulayman's warriors joined his war camp in Navotas.
On June 3, 1571, Bambalito'::; more than 2,000 fighters in 40
mrnccn~ (boats) from Hagonoy, Macabebc, and etther (>ampanga
villages sailed into Bankusay·s creek, off the north shore o( Milnila
Bay. They fought Marshal Goiti's forces in this furious naval battle.
Bambalito perished at the height of this bloody fight. His men were
routed. The rest paddled frantically away. Ten native boats were
captured.
On June 24, 1571, the Fea~t Day of St. John the Baptist, Leg<~:r.pi
proclaimed :\.fanila as the capital of the Philippines (celebrated as
l'vl.anila'sfoundation day). He called the city Nuev11 Cu;til/a, becau~
he had been told that thew had ~nan old fort or castle on the site.
On the same day, the city government was ~stablished with a cabildo
or city COlutcil and a court.
Years later, King Philip II, by hi~ Royal Decree of June 1, 1574,
named :Manila, Insigne y Siempre LP11/ Ciudad (f>istinguished and Evt>r
Loyal City) and by hi~ Royal Decree of Mar<h 20, 1596, conferred a
beautiful mat-of-anns on this city.
On August 20, 1572, Legaz:pi, the first Spanish governor and
adill<lutado (title given to those who personally funded their
expeditions) of the Philippines, died of heart attack. Guido de
Lavezar:is succeeded and .~taycd in post until 1575.
Captain Juan de Salcedo, grandson of Lega:tpi, subdued the
region along Li!guna de Hay; diS£overed the gold mines of Paracale

so
aero~-; the mountains; and paci!ied Ilocandia and Cagayan in 1572.
He founded Villa Fernandina de Vigan in honor of Prince Ferdinand,
sun of Kir>g Philip ll who d ied at the age of four. In re<:uo'nition of
Salcedo's military servic~s. the Spani~ Crown gave him mcomumdt<
in Ilocos.
From Vigan, Salcedo explored the tip of luzon. In 1573, he
conquered Camarines, Albay, and Catanduanes. The Bicolanos
refused to yield to tlu!m. The natives used their arrows against the
Spanish forces, however they hurnedly withdrew for their saf&:?ty
after Salcedo fired his guns.
lhc Philippines was a crown colony considering she was under
Spanish domination. From the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to
1821, the Ph ilippine); wa s a dependency of Mexico. The Mexican
viceroy, in the name of the Spanish King, admini~tered the •ountry.
After the independence ofMcxico from Spain in 1821, tht' Philippil>es
came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1863, the Over~eas
Minis try (MinisteriiJ 1fe U/tramari took over th~ functions of the
Council of the Indies (Consejo de JndiJis).
The colonial code- titled Rr.copilacio11 de let;es d( los r.-ynos de las
ludiiJs (Compilation of laws on Rov3! Land$ in the Indies) popularly
known as Iqes de l11dins {laws of the fitdies) issued in 1680, was
wed by Spain to rule its extensive possessions.
It was on :--.Jovember 16, 1568 when King Philip II issued
instructions to Lcgazpi to establish c1ties and towns a nd create
~ncomie11dns to be distributed to deserving soldiers. In the fir~t three
decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines was divided into
encomimd.1s. With a cross in one hand and a sword in the other, the
Spani~h conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this feud a I
sv~tem of admini;tration. The word cmcomienda comes from the verb
e;zcomm dar meaning ''to commend or to rommit to one's C'are~.
Originall;~ an encomimdn was a feudal institution lllitd in Spain
to reward deserving generals and conquerors during Spanish wars
of recoverv of tenitorv from the Mours. The earliest encomenderos in
the West f~d ie~ were del~gated with the power to collect tribute and
to use the personal ~rviccs of the inhabitants of their enconti~ndas.
This feudal grant was introduced by the Spanish Crown for
the combined purposes of rewarding deser\'ing Spaniards and
attr11cht>g others to settl~ in the colonies. Permanent .o;ettlemcnt of

81
the Spanish soldier~ assured the defense of the colonie~. ThiS also
facilitated the conversion of the natives to the Catholic faith.
Ericornienda in the Philippines was nota l;md grant. It was more
of an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tribute from
th!! natives and to U!ie the person.ll scrvkcs of the King"s vassals in
the ettcomit•udn. The t'ncomelldero undertook ways to look after the
well-being of hi.~ people and to educate them with Spanish norm~ of
conduct. Jn the domain of relations, the ellcomi<'mla had been
considered as a kind of benevolent paternalism. In reality. the
•·ncomienda was looked upon by its beneficiaries a!\ a pretense for
slavery.
Tributes were collected in cash or in kind. from the total
collection, not exceeding one-fourth of this went to the encomendero
and the rest to the fria~ as wdl as the gov·emment. The cnb;•z.x de
barangay (former datu) collected the tribute and gave it to the
encomendero.
The Laws of the Indies provided that the en«>mendero must
nol· own a house in thE' native settlements, within their encomiendas
to IIVOid the commission of abuses. Govewor Gomez Perez
Dasmarifias, as commanded by King Philip II, urged the
encomenderos to reside ncar their ward:; to promote the latter's
welfare. However, this arrangement became an opport\lnity for the
cncomenderos to enrich the.mse[v.,s. The \mlawful exaction of
numerous service~ coupled with greed and cruelty made the li\•cl\
of the natives miserable. The C'arly Spanish friar~ took the side of the
exploited people bccau~c they saw th11t the coloni.Lers had failt!d to
in~truct their people in the Catholic rdigion.

The national economy, founded upon the medieval concept of

master and slave, paved for the introduction of a dal'.s oJ landed
aristocracy. while the broad masse~ lived in di..•tress.
Hacienda:; and encomiendas are not the 5amc though both were
forms of colonial appropriation. 1he demands or exactions of an
cncomcndcro were incidental to his position as repre:;entative of the
King, thus, he o?xacte<i tribute and dr;~fted labor. The hacendcro on
the other hand, under the fiction of partnership (with the tenant as
companion or knsamcl), had the right of inheritance and (ree
disposition of the land.
Because of the abu~c,; perpetrated by lhe em:ometzda-os, the
encomimdas were replaced by a systern of provincial government.
82
There were two types of provincial administr<~tions: thE' alcalditl- m11yor
or the province. where peace had been e.stablished by the Sp<lnish
government plactd under a dvil official called alcalde-mayor; and
the corrl'gimimtos or territoriPs that had not been complt'tdy pacified
tinder the ch~rge oi curregidore,: or politico-military governor~. Tomas
de Comyn, a Spanish soci;~l scientist, n.ewrthele~s dE'SCriW the office
of the alcalde-mayor as a model of graft, com1ption, ond inefficiency
brought about hy inexperienced men being assigned to govern tht.>
provinces. Some of them had little or no background at all to execute
their varied r~pons1bilities.
The province was divided into towns or p11~blo. which were
administered by gobemmiorcillus. The office of the govemadorcillo
was open to Filipinos. This local position was at first occupied by
pre-colonidl chieftains and their descendants and later elect!!d by an
electoral board composed of the outgou\ggobemadorcillo and twelve
members of the principcilia. The principo/i,, (~ocial and political
aristocracy) referred to the prominent land-<>wning and pmp~rticd
citi7.ens who could read, write, and speak Sp.1nish.
Each town had several villages or barangays pl<lL-ed directly
unt1P.r thE> c.1bez11S de barangny. This position remained an appointive
office.
The king appointed the governor general and other <olonial
offidal:; administering the c-mmtry. The governor general was the
chief exec11tive a~ well as the cornmander-in-c.hief of the military
forces in the colony. Aside from this, h~ was also tht> vice--royal p<~tron
wherein he ha~ the power to recommend priests in parishi!S, and
the anthority to intervene in contro•·ersies between religious
authoritie:;. The governor general could also reject or suspend the
implementation of any royal de(re.e or law from Spain with his
cumpla.~' power, if in IUs O~'inion, the conditions in the colony did
not justify its implementation.
The office of the goycmor gener<~l was oftentimes bought or
granted as a favor. Sil,ce it generally involved a short tenure of offire,
averaging two years and ten months. and in the 1'1'1' century even
shorter, the governor general oft~ntim~s became eager in
accumulating wealth befort' his term of office expired.
However, checks to gubernatorial powers were made possible
through the follo·wing: first, the Audimci11 Rml or Royal Audimcin.
established m t5&.1 to act as the Supreme Court of the colony also

83
served as advisory bod y to the governor and audi ted the
expemlitures of the government; s~cond, the r,•.<idt'ucia. which w as a
judicial institu tion headed by thP. inromio>g governor general to
condu ct a trial of an outgoing governor general and other Spanish
official~ for the pUI}'OSe of punishing those guilty of corruption, but
thH<l~ may bE' appealed to the King for clemency; third, th~ r•i<i/:Mor-
g.•nt•ral, who w<ts the investigator sent by the Kine or a .. official
disptttched by the Council of Ind ies in Spain to check the behavior
of the higholficials in the colony; fourth, the Archb ishop and clergy
who were appointed by the Pope upon the recorrunendation of the
King; and fifth, >-uborJ inate public officials and influent in I priva te
c.i t i 7.f>l'lS:
TI\e cutmterbalance efforts of the .1forcmentioneJ nevertheless
proved ineffectual in rcprim.lnd ing mrn1pt adrn.in.islnltors, {or it was
quite easy for them to bribe the olficials conducting the investigation.
They could even seek for the revocation of the decisions given hy
the investigating oft'ici11ls through politic,\! influence in lhe. cotmtry
or in Spa in.
ThP local officials as well a~ the Spanish high nffida ls became
the m;tin instmments of "pacific~ tion." The S\•bjugation of the
native~ became complete .1ftcr they h<tve a1:;n~al to pay the tribt1te.
One tnbutc corrc!.pond...,lo one fa mil}~ con;;isting of husb.1nd, wif~.
an d m inor children. H alf of the tribute has to be paid by an
Lulmar ried m~n or woman. One tribute is equivalent to eight (8)
11.'ales or one peso. It may be paid in money or in kind like rice,
honey, com and the like. In 1851, it was ;,,creased to 12 reille.s or one
peso and a half. In 1884, the ced ula t11x rcpl.1ced the tribute.
Exempted from pa;·ing the tribute. \vere ~s folluws: incu mbent
gobemadorcillos, cabcza~ ,md their familit'S, government employees,
soldiers with distinguished ~rvice, descendants of L..1k.mdulil, a few
other native chieftains, choir members, sacristans, JX'rters of the
churches .md government witnessC>:.
Encomenderos often ha,1 to send soldiers to wllect the tribute
l:>y force. Nonpayment of t ribute meant torture or imprisonment.
Som etimes houses were burned or looted bv these soldiers as
punishment for the niilive~' cleii~nc~. Other na-tives just fled to the
moW\tains to P.s('.<lpt> pun.i~hment. The filipinos haled th<> tril>ute
for. it was a syrnbul oi subjug~tion to Spain. Likcwiso>, it resu lted to
Spanish at>uses e;pecially by tribu te collectors.

84
 Oppmution to colon ial au thority b ecame quite d iEficult.
Al though th~ Spa niard,.; cons titu ted a small number in the cmmtry,
they had conscripted n~ tives from different regions to put down
revolts in other regions IQ remain in power.
Polo or forced l<tbnr instituted in 1580 was another form of
pacifying the ni! tiv es . Ma le l'ilip inos bet>veen 16 to 60 years of age
rendered manual serv ict< for the cnunh'y for the purpose of building
ships, churches, ro,,ds and other forms of infrastructure.
'!he polista or worker ha~ to work 40 days a year in the labor
pool. In IA84, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year. To be
excluded from the polo, ont< has tn pay fa/In (exemption fee), whlch
only a few Filipino.~ could actually pay. The chieftains and their
P.ldest sons were also excused from forced labor.
Polo Jed to the aban donment of the field s, separation from
families or h omes, as well a~ illness and d eath for som~. The nlcnides
often drafted hundreds of men, more than what was necessary for
w oorkutting and then pocketed the money, which must be paid fw
the tJOli<las.
Bmufafu, whi<h w,, ~ insti tuted U\ the first half of th e 1 7"' c~ntury
by Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Com tera was another
way to overpower the Filipinos. This reMs to the a~sigrunent of
annual quota!; to each p rovi,ncP. for the compulsory sale of products
to the gowm ment. Due to lack of funds, the government is.-;ucd
p ro missory note::; in exchange for the goods. Nonpayment on the
part of the government meant seizure of products. The system mea nt
virh.1al confiscation of products for the govemmrmt that was usuaUy
out of money; promissory notes were first given in exchange for the
goods.
ThP- political cond ilion in the Philippines wa!> worsened w 1th
the union of Chttrch and State. The friars, like the government
officials. exercisc>d political , economic, and othe r non-sp ir itual
powe rs. They con trolled the ed ucational s ystem as well O'I S th<'
collection uf tdxes and the co~ription o f natives into the army. They
even control!ell municip~l elections lind censored plays and read ing
materials. So extensive was the so-called friar interference in the
co ton try th at in the 1')"century. filipino propagandists demand ed
their e~pulsion.

85
s. Towards the Hispanization of the NAliv"-S
Th.e Spaniards :integrated into the Filipino :;<.~ciety their relig ion,
language, custo m.~. art~. and ~c.iences. The C hurch and ~ tat~
insepambly ca rried out Spanish policy in the count ry. Wh&~ the
Spaniards came into the couniTy, they destroyed the carved id ols
out of wood and stone becaus~ these a rt works w~re regarded as
abominable tu the faith. Spanish urbani7.ation was centered in the
city of Manila, withi n a walled city called Intra muros .
.Infrastructure showing Spani~ domination in the co~mtry, such
as massive colonial churches, convents, schools, roads, bridges and
the balray na halo nt k4hoy (Antillian stone and wood houses) were
con~t1\lcted.ln.itially. build in~ during the Spanish era w ere of thatch
and bamboo. Aftct accid ental fires that hit ~orne of them,. s tones,
wood, b ricks, and tiles wt>re used for construction.
Struc turally. the bahay 1111 !Jato at kahoy al~o known as balray na
mesli'w (or mixed, bcca~e wood and stone were blomded together),
pt!rpetuated the lea tures of the pre-Hispanic INI/!Ay na kubo. The
ground floor was used for s torage and for pa rking vehicles.
I Iabitation took place upstairs with specific rooms for g uests (uzufe~<
and sa/a), d ining (com.!dor), cooking (rodna), and sleeping (C14arto).
The converging of Lhe islands under a single administration
was facilitated through reduccio11, referring Lo the resettlement of
inhabita nts in Spanish-style pobladones - or a t least-Mjo de las
armpAnllS (within hearing d istance of the church bells).

The Spanish model for a poblaciort (town <:enter) was organi?.ed

around a rectangular plaza, w ith the church (the most important
st1\lcture of the plala complex) and convent on one side, boWld~d
by the ITibunal or mun icipio, ~nd by the houses of Spanish ufficials
and prim:ipt~/es (elilie). The p resenQ? of principalia residen~:es in the
pla?.a complex reflected the exist.,nce of socioeconomic ascendancy.
Spamsh socie ty h ad 3lways stressed upurity~ of blood in
indicating societal rank. At the top of the social pyramid were the
e>pmioles, with both Spanish parents which included the espa~1oles
pomi11sulaTt!s (born in the Spanish JX'Ilinsula) and the espmiolcs in.wlares
or Filipinos (born in the colony).
Below the e.<pat1o/rs were the ml'.~tiza..~ and mestizgs- the children
of ~n ~spmiol and an i11dio or india. The tl!rm mestizo referred to the
mestizos de ~angli.'y or Chinese mes ll7.os, while Spanish m estiw!i were
called nu:.~m.o.: do: rspaiio/.
86
 Constituting the majority of th~ popul<~tion w ere the indio,; or
indios nnt-urale.<, pertaining to the natives of the- Philippines without
Spani.~h or Chinese ancestry. Generally, the Sp an ish colonizers
belieo,•ed that !he indios rould n ot comprehend mo re than the bask
knowledg~.

The ceremonial splendour of the Roman Catholic Church

aroused the admiration oi l he natives. More representa tives of
va rious religious order~ such as the Augustinians, Dominicans,
Frandscan5, and Jesuits came to the Philippines after Lcgaz.pi's
exp;:-dition. Consequently, !he m issionaries leamt"d local dialects and
ilttroduced. the Roman alphabet.
By the 16tt· century, there were J'ilipinos like Tomas l'inpin (the
first Filipino printerj, who became conversant with the Spanish
language. lie wrote the first published Tagalog book titled Libro11g
Pa~ ·rraraltm nang manga Tagrrlog n~ng u.icang Cnstiln (/Jook tlrnt the
Tagalog~ Should Study to U.•nrn $pu11ioJr) for the benefit of unlettered
filipino~ in the Spanish language .
.Bask education was rendered by parochidl schools, established
primarily for religious instructivn. The first one was established in
Ccbu. ~n 1582, Archbish<>p Domingo de Salazar ordemd that every
town w.1s to have one school for boys and one for girb. Attt'Odance
was made compulsory. P:!ren ts paid !he teachers.' sala ries. The
subjects taught were catechi~m, reading and writing in the dialect,
music, the rudiments o/ arithmetic, and tr~des and industries.
Education was still in the early stage o( development during
the Spani~h period. Even by the late 19"' century, lhe Spanis])
language was still unknown loa great majority. Th~y were literat-e
in their own native dialects. The Spanish aristocracy tried to
distinguish themselves from the irtdins with the use of language and.
level of educ.Jlion.
H igher education was established exdu,;ively for the Spaniards
and Filipinos, referring to those bum in the colony to Sp.V\iSh parents.
Colleges and llniversitics were closed to indio~. (The natives were
only allowed in these iMtitu tions after 200 ye<~rs ol colonial rule.)
The Jesuits in :Vtanila founded thdirst college for hoys in 1589.
It was origindlly called College of Manila (for the scllol<~stics), and
later changed to College of San Ignacio. In 1621, 1t was eleva led to
the rank of a university by Pope Gregory XV and was named
Uruversity of San Ignacio. However, this school was closed in 1768
87
whe n the Jesuits wei"E' exptdled from the counlry. In 1601, theColegio
de San Jose al~o und er the Jesuits, was established.
In 1611, Fray Miguel de B~navides, the- third archbishop of
Manila established the Colcgio de Nuestra Senora del San tio;simo
Rosario, later renamed Univcr~idad de Santo Tomas (in l f>45 by Pope
Innocent X}.
The Dominican order that ad ministered Colegio de Sanlo Tomas
also established the Colegio de San Jum de Lctran to take care of
orphaned SpanL~h boys.
The girls were also given special education. Schools were of
two kinds: the coiP.gic, which is a regular schooi for girls; and the
bfaterio, a combined school and nunnery. The first co llege for girls
in the Philippines was the C ollege of San Ia Pohmciana (1594). After
the school ceased its operations, the students transferred to College
of5anta Isabel, now the oldest exi$ling collegl' for girls in the counlry.
The institution was originally built to care for orphaned Spanish
girls. J3vcntually, it became an exclusive school for the daughters of
affluen t Spaniards.
In 1621, the Franciscan mms established the Real !vlonasterio
de Santa C!ar~ (now St C!;Jire Convent of-Manila), th~ first nunnerv
in the Philippines. In 1694 the llcaterio de 1a Cornpania de Jc.~lL~.
which w as directed under the )e-;uits was founded by Mother lgnacia
dl'l Espirih.l Santo, a Filipina nun. This was a school establi~hed to
accommodate Filipino girls, the india.~. Mother lgn<lcla's spirit of
poverty, humility, penance, confidence in God and cha rity became
the distinguishing mark of the !Jeata~ (resident pupil~) . The l¥-,ltas
had ex tended their apostolate to education. Th e beaterio has
developed into the Cong regAtion of the Religious of the Virgin Mary
(R.V.M.) of the 20" century.
Primary education .:onsist~d of courses in reading. writing,
arithmetic, religion; geography, the history of Spain, the Spanish
Ia ngna gc, voca I music; and agriculture for boys and needlework for
girl~. The girls were taught basic education, as w ell as religion,
needlework, painting, and m usic.
Academic reforms were later on implemented, a fter the Spanish
government conc~ded to its grow ing demand . The Educational
Deci"E'e, dated ~cember 20. 1863 introduced a system o f public
e<.lucation that opened opportunities to f ilip inos for higheT learning.
It ordered the establishment of an educational "J'>tem consisting of
88
elomtent~ ry, s..~ondary, and collegiate levels. It also provided for
the t!stablishmcnt of normal schools to train teachers. The Board of
Public lruitructlon was likewise ern ted to supervise the schools. The
decree also provided for the use of Span ish as the language of
in~truction, starting at the elcmmtary level.

The Escuela Normal (Normal School) for the tr,,in.ing of male

teachers for elementary instruction. was delegated to the Jesuits. It
was ir.auguratcd in 1865. In 1893, it became the Normal Superior,
which trained tl'achers of secondary courses.
Schools for the arts well' also built aside from these regular
schools. Archbishop Juan A. Rodriguez founded the Es.:uela de
liplcs in 1743. The institution was to provide elementary education
and offer courses in voral and instnnnental perform.mce. ln the late
19"' century, !Jie school was able to pattern ihs plan of study alter the
Conservalorv of MU5ic in Modrid.
J

Damian Domingo founded the Academy of Fine Arts, the fir:st

school in painting in Manila in 11!20. With thi~, he was call<'d the
"Father(){ Filipino Painting".
The Academia de Dibuju y Pi11tura (Academy of Drawing and
Painting) was fonnded in 1824. Some of itq students well' sent" by
the goverrunent to pursue higher studies in :vtadrid, Rome, and Parls.
In the 19"' century, v.uious tl:.>chnical schools were establi.~hcd
like the School of Mercantile Accounting and Modem Language~,
patterned after the Cornmerdal School in Barcelona. Conunerce was
introduced as a three-year vocational course, with the degree of puito
to be earned by the student after studying.
M11chanic5 and other vocational courses were offered in
secondary instruction leading to the barhillrmto en artes. After
finishing the course, the students could take examinations for the
title of ~rito =mnico (mechanical expert). Surveying was also
introduced as a vocational course. which conferred the degree of
perilo agrimi!'IJSOr to its graduates.
It was in 1860, that a nautical school was opened upon on.lers
of the queen. lt was placed under the conunander of the fleet. After
four years, l1le student wa:; to board a ship. Tht! degree of piloto de
marirrn mermnU was to be given after the training.
The seeds of vocational education were sown by the early
Spanish mis~ionariel'; who taught the natives better methods of

89
farming, the cultivation of foreign plants like indjgo, com, cotton
and wheat, and various « afts li~ p rinting, carpentry, masonry, and
dyeing.
The early missionaries were also the .fi.n;t to establish a printing
press in th~ Philippines. Books Wen! being printed by xylograph.ic
method, using engra>·cd wood blocks. The earlic.~t book printed was
the Dodrina Christiana en lengua espmiola y lll,~ala (1593), w ritten by
Pray Juan de Oliver. TIUs catechetical book sought to explain the
lmporlance of C..Ctrist, chastity, .md devotion to God in the vernacular.
At the beginning of the 19"' century, the pa.>icm was the prevalent
form in print. Written in verse and chanted during Lent, it depicted
the life and passion of Jcsu~ Christ. ~ first Tagalog p~~.<ion wali
written by Gaspar Aquino de l:lelen. It was publi~hed in 1704. The
second written pasion titled Casaysayan ng Pasiong Mnhnl ni
Jesucristong PangiiUJOil Natin 11a Sumt Ipag-alab ng Sinomung Bnbasa
(The Story of lh! Holy Passion ofOur Lord Jesus Chri;;t that Should Inflame
tlte Herrrl oft/ze Render, circa l f\1 4} was prt!ferred over the first on... It
was also known a~ PasytmR Gtmesis.1bisversion was edited by Father
Mariano Pil.1pil (circa 1758-circa 1818) and publi~ed by th" lrnprenta
de Santo Ibmas. It was lat~r translated into several native dialcct5.
During the £irst half of the 19" ccnhtry, Jose de Ia Cmz was the
most prominent poet in the oral tradition. He was said to have written
many literary pi..ces in eleg.a nt Tagalog languag... Among them were:
Oxe Pnrrs de Francitl; Bernnrdo C.arpio: and, Adela 11t Florante. He was
popularly known as Huscng Si>iwbt<cause whenever zealous writers
approached him for guidance in their vcrs~. he requir"d them to
bring sisiw (<:hick) as payment.
Pedro Bu kaneg, the blind poet who wro te the popubr llocano
cpic,l.mlr-Ang was hailed as the " Father ofllocos Literature". Among
the Tagalogs, Francisco Balagtas (later dubbed as the Pr incP. of
TAgalog Poets) became popular w ith his poetical pie<:es particularly,
Flonmle at L.1ura.
MomentO\tS feasts and events li ke the arrival of a new Spanish
oUiciaI aJso mc.m t stage presentations. The firs t rerordcd dra rna was
Sldged in Ccbu in 15'/il, a ccmrrdia written by V(ccntc PuC"he. It was
performed in honor of Msgr. Pedro de Agurto, Cebu's fir~t bishop.
Christian vktorr over the Muslims was depicted with a moro-moro
in 1637.

90
 At the end of the 17"' century, the first theater was eatabllthed
in Intramuros, Manila, known as Teatro Cornico. At the tum of the
19°' centu ry, the ZQrW~la, a Spanish one-act opera with satirical theme
became popular in the country. These stage plays were perfonned
at fi!:stas where townfolks eagerly watch so as not to miss the gala
presentation.
In the field of m usic, the S4mpnguita composed vy
Dolores
P<ttemo became popular. The first musk teacher to win di:stinclio:n
in Philippine history was Geronimo de Agu ilar, a Fran ciscan
missionary.
In 1811, the first n ewspaper in the country appeared in Manila,
which was the Dt!l511p(rior Gcviemo (Oi the Supreme Government)
with Governor General Manuel Gonzalez de A~;;·uilar as editor.
In the field of science, the first scientists in the Philippines were
the Spani~h fria rs. Fr. Manuel Blanco, the ''Prince of Botanis~", wrote
flvra de FilipiruM, which was published in 1837. 1n.is book id en tified
1,200 kind~ of plant!> in the country. The first sund ials in the co untry
were built in 1871 at Tagudin, Ooco~ Sur by Fr. Juan Sorolla, a Spanish
Augustinian.
Father Marcial Funcia Ramos introduced the f..rr;t il'on prin ting
press in the Philippines in 1847. I Ie also initiated the use of better
paper su ch as pape/ Jt. hilo (linen paper), insread of ri('.E! paper and
Chinese p aper. George Oppe~ a German, introd uced lithography
in the tOlmtry in 1858.
The Spaniard~ also introduced to us varied pLants as well al;
animals~ horses, CO\¥, shoep,and goats. From Mcxirovia galleons,
we got the following p lants: com, cassava, sweet p otato, cotton,
m agucy, indi go, achuete, tobacco, cacao, peanut, cashew nu t,
p ineapple, avocado, p epper, squash, tomato, lima bean, turnip, and
eggplant.
The g~lleon ships were used to ferry the cargoes acroR-9 the
Pacific Ocean These p ruducts being shipped to Acapulco, Mexico ·
were brought into the Philippines by Asian traders irom China,
Japan, India, Siam (now Thailand), Moluccas, and other n earby
p laces. On its return, the ga.Ueon would be carrying silver coins or
silver bullion thatthe Asian traders wanted as wt'll as other products
o f Mexico. At the beginning, thi<; was very profitab le but agriculture
and ol'her industries were neglected. In 1815, the galleon trad e was
finally aboUshed because of reported anomalies.
91
 11'e financing of the g~Ik-on t rad~ w~~ rr~<~dc possiol€ primari ly
through the Obras Pias, the cnrli~t hank\ng institution in the country.
Th(' ivnds '"eTc. don<~ led hy ric:h ~l('Ople for charitJblc pnrpost>S.
L.·\ tcr, the friars had th(' funJs giv en as Irons to hltsin~mcn at
various rates of inte~t. The fri;u.,; wert> also able to borrow from
tho:- government. Unfortun~tcly, th~y wert• not nble to pay back the
government resulting in the bankruf>tcy of the national trc.1sury.
In 1717, Governor Genera I Fem;mdo M;~m1cl de !lu5ta mante
com~'ellcd the friars to relt• m the money they borrowf>J Jrom the
government. Thi!< however. only resulted to his d~ath in 1719 in the
hand~ oi an angry mob, agit,t t~J by his sl rinr,<:>n t m lcs against the
members o f the church.
The Sp anish govenunent al~o atlPmpted to mtroduce economic
reforms in the country, thro11p,h the effort" of some cnlighltmti'd
officials like GovcmorG<:>no:-ral josl! Basco y Vargas. Govnmor Basco
implemented series of rl'forms not only t·o promutt.· economic
dev~lopment but abo make the country independent uf 10ubsidy from
Mex ico. He envisioned lMgc-scaiP. pro..i oction of silk, cotton, tobacco,
spic~s, and sugarc;me; the npplic~ tiun uf scientific kn()wlr.dgc to
Philippine agriculture and indtostry and thl! growth of for.~ip,n tr.t<.l e
on the b.1sis of l'hilipp ine rld turalrtsourcL~
Governo r Gcner(ll flc1~co (1 778-B?) founded th~ Snrirdrul
t:;cor1omirn do·lo.< Ami~os cirl Pui:; tGconomic Society o f the Fnends of
the Cotmtry) in M~nila on April26, 171!1. The society helped much
in the agricultural developmcnt.of the country. In 1824, importation
of martillt'S (birds) from Chin;~ wem made to fight thP. locu~ts that
were des troying Philippine aops. The socict}' also offered prizes
for bc~ l agricultural prnject~> Jnd lechniqtws devdoped. In 1853,
Cand id o Lopez Diaz, a filipino was awuded for his invention of a
onal.'hine cleaning hemp fi be rs .
In 1861, the society c;tahlishPd the fir.;t agr icultural school in
Manila. It introduced the rtot tivatiun of tea, cotton, poppy and
mulberry lrP.es. Large tracts of land in Camarinc.• w~re planted to
mulberry t~s to fl'ed silkworms.
l:pon Gov.,rnor Basco'~ roi!commcndation, King C harles III
issueci a CO)'al decree in 1780 es tablishing a government monopoly
in th~ Philippines that too k dfloc t in 1782. Thus, the govern m<:>rot
e$tablis ht>d monopolies on tobacco, w ine. )\ttnpowder. a nd pla y111g
cards among others.

92
 The tobacco monopoly raised much money for the colonial
government but resulted to tht: abuses of some crooked Spanish
officials. They often cheated the farmers in the payment of their
produce. The farmers on the other hand cultivated more than what
was required and hid their exress tobacco to be sold in the black
market. In 1882, Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera
abolished the monopoly. Priva te finns took control of the tobacCQ
business.
On March 10. 17SS, King Charles Jll of Spain is.qucd a royal
decree establishing the Rtal Campania de Filipinas (Royal Company
of the Phi Iippincs} to promote d i.rect trade with Spain and encourage
local agriculture and industry. 'The company was required ro allot
4% of it~ profit for agriculture in the colony. l lowever, the Royal
Crown abolished the company in 1834 because of big monetary losses
it incurred.
The galleon trad~m> preferred to trade with \iexico. LikewV;e,
there were a growing numb~r of foreign merch.1nts in Manila.
Although the Royal Company did not succeed, it helped in the
furth~r development of agriculture in the Philippines, particularly
indigo, sugar, and spices.
Gov~rnor General Felix Berenguer de MMquina succeeded
Govemor Basco. H is first official act was the demolition of nipa
houses in the city of Manila, which to him was an ugly sight and can
even cause fire. He abo ordered the abolition of indulto de comercio
(license to trade), which gave th~illralde 11111yor (provincial govemor}
the privi leg~ to control the price~ of goods in hi~ province.
Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine were also
abolished. He established !he minting of money in the country \o
prevent the outflow of gold.
IJ\ 1842, Don Sirubaldo de Mas. an economist, was sent by Spain
to the Philippines to make an economic survey of the cOWl try. In his
repo rt, he made the following recommendations: first, the opening
of more Philippine ports to world tJade; second, the encouragement
of Chinese immigration in the country to stimulate agricultural
development; and third, the abolition of the tobacco monopoly.
The opening of Lhe Philippines to world trade resulted to a great
demand for its produ<l<; in the world market. ThV; brought about
the need of machinery for rna!<.qh·c production. The first steam
machine lor hulling rice was intmd uccd in 1836 by Eulogio de

93
 Otaduy. 'fhen a few years later, NkhoL.s Loney, a British merchant
introduced the first steam machine for hulling sugar in Ncgros.
The end of the galleon trade in 1815, together with 5p~in's
ir;wolvemmt in the N apoleonic Wars (1799·185H), re..1 t•ced the large· .
:;cale importa tion of fabrics. Thi~ hP.Came l>euefid,.J to the local
weaving industry.
The most important materials used in weaving were cotton,
abaca, s ilk. and piiL.T. Finest of tht: fabrics were usually woven in
combina tion. Nipis (sheer) is from pure silk in combination with
cotton ;mel abaca (frum the trunk of wild banJna) . A partkul<~r type
of •tipi; produced in Iloilo came to be callrrl ju.<i (from the raw silk
fibers brought in by Chinese traders). Since weaving of the 11ipis
requires a great amount of skill, patience and time, the doth wa~
priced highly. Also popular during the Spanish em WJ.q the pbia fabric
(from the- leaves of the wild pineapple}.
8atangas was known for its kula moo (gauze mosquito ne-t). The
Northern Luzon provinccs produ\Pd a typt' of doth known as o1!>e.l
£loco. Sinnmny, the finest aba,·a fdbric was extensively woven in
C3m~rincs, Albay, Panay, Rohol and Samar.
In the early 19'" ce-ntury, the Augustin ia n missiona r ies
irttroduccd spinn ing w heels and more sophistic.1tcd looms in Panay
Island which g~atly developed the loc.11 weaving industry of the
place.
In time, needlework developed in Ermit,,, Malate, andSta. Ana,
M;~nila. finished articles were expe-nsive, primarily be<:ausC? of
embroidery. Elaborate works of embmidery were sewn on hemlines,
sleeves, scarves, handkerchiefs, and on children's clothes. With
skilled labor, this cottage industry gained popularity.
'I he C:hristi~ni~.ation of the Filipinos was the most lasting legacy
of the $pan ish missionaries. The use of Philippine dialects by the
early missionaries fOlcili'tated ~ teaching of the Gos~l. 1llt' striking
~mblances betwern the pre-colonial religion .md Ca tholicism ha"c
made the 1.1ttcr acceptable to the local inhabitants.
During the Spanish period, no b uilding stn1ctme was allowed
to ri<;c higher than the church'~ b€11 tower. The h ighest part inside
the church wa!j the n•l<~blo. At the center and above the alt<tr table
was the tubl'macle for storing the sacred hostt>.

94
 Many holy images and their Com:!sponding devotions have
originated from 1'\ew Spain (now Mexico). Some of the popular
images are the following; statue of Our Lady of Peace and Good
Voyage (also known as Our Lady of Antipolo); the Black NazarcM
venerated at lhe Quiapo Church, and Our Lady of Guadalupe.
Jesus Christ has been represented in various forms. A<; a chHd
he is depit'ted as the Stmto Niiio, either pla<"ed on a manger or standing
as the Sovereign King with il globe and a sceptre. On His way to
Catv ary, he is presented as the Nazamro. While pl;u;ed inside a
sepulchre, the image is called Sa111o £ntierro. The image of the
resurrected Christ is knmvn as Cristo Resucita,to.
Christ on the cross known as the Sa11to Cristo is regarded as the
mo$1 important symbol of the Church. rt Lo; to be placed at the center
of every altar. During the Spanish era, it occupied the central pinnacle
of the church's retab/o (decorated medieval altar).
Family life during the Spanish period focused on the Christian
way of life. The father although acknowledged a~ the h~ad of thl!
family, considered the sentiments of his wife on family matters. The
·mother was regarded as the custodian of the family. She usually
acted as the first teacher of the children.
families became mor~ tonsiderately clo3e since parenl:l\ and
children did pray together, particularly during the Angelus, in saying
the rosary and before each meal. They went to church together to
hear the Sunday ma~~ a~ well as other masses, marking important
reli!,rious events like Christmas, Holy Week and the feast day of the
patron saint of the town.
Owing to the influence of Christianity. social welfare was also
promoted in the country. 'lhe sick and the needy were given care
through medical services. Juan Cle-mentP. founded the first hospital
in Manila in 1578. Out of this hospit<~l originated thP. pr€SP.nt San
Juan de Dio~ Hospital and the San Lazaro Hospita I.
·In 1594, the S11nta Hmnandad y Cofrndin d~ Ia Mi.~ericordia (Holy
Brotherhood and Confraternity of :VIercy} was org<~ni7.ed for
charitable works and services for the needy. The first n:gular
orphanage, Real Hospicio de San Jose was establbhed in 1810.
The religious calendar .~tcmmed from celebration~ in reverem:e
of Jesus Christ and Mother Mary and in the feasts of saints. Every
December 8, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, which

95
 solemni.7.es the dogma of Mary being ~-onceived without original
sin is celebrated through ~ucharistic rites and a gr.u~d procession.
The whole Christendom celebrates the birth of Jesus Chri.~t on
December 25. The joyous celebration begin~ on December 16 with
the start of Misll de Agui111Jldo (¥a.Ss of the gift), pop ularly known as
simbang gobi, a novena dawn mass to prepare for the midnight ma:.-s
on Christmas Eve called Misn de Gallo (Mass of the Rooster). A
religious play called pamm11luylln, which reenacts the search by
Joseph and Mary for an inn has also been observed in some parL'Ihe.~
prior to \he midnight mass. After the rna&~, families gl'ther for the
traditional noclre buena, a fca~t u~ually of ham. cheese, and other
native delicacies.
The passion and death of Our Lord is solemnly remembered
during Lenten season, particularly during H oly Week from Palm
Sunday to Eallter Sunday. People chant the pa~ion or attend the
ce>l/lculo (religious play depicting the life, sufferings, and crucifixion
of Jes u s Christ). In Easter Sunday, the trad itio ndl salubong
commemorates Christ's first meeting with H is m other.
In Ma.r induquc, the Moriones Festival is held during the Holy
Week. This glit tering pagean try ~ai ls the story of Long.inus, the
Roman centurion who was converted to Christianity. In this colorful
parade, the participants wear masks and costumes portraying the
Roman era. A typical Motioncs mask bcarn a bearded Caucasian
face with large arrogant eyes and an open mouth.
The tradition of self-flagellation during the l,enten season was
introduced in the Philippines from Mexko. During those times,
public pe n<lnce was practiced m Spain and the rest of Europe. But
in Mexico and in the Philippines self-flagellation was primarily done
to carry out a promise (p<!n11ta in Tagalog) to the Lord.
Every town established during the Spanish period has a patron
saint, whos e fiesta is celebrat~d annually with masses, procession,
fireworks, feasting.. music. and often. theatrical p~tations, Towns
or h<lrrios named after San ]ooe (St Jo~h) hold their fiesta on March
19. Those named Sta. Monica celebrate every May 4. Those named
after Sta. Rita de Casia cotJUnemorate her feast day un May 22. Those
named San Juan (St. John the Bapm;t) observe his feas t on Tune 24.
Every Ma y 15, the Pahiyas Festival in Lucban, Quezon is held
in honor of San Isidro Labrador, the patTon saint of farmers. The
word "pahiyas" comes from the root word hiyas, whlchg:ivesanolion
96
of a joyous shower of b lessings or treasures. Elaborate decoration~
tike rice w afer. fruits, and vegetables are plact'd on houses, as an
outpouring of creativity and thanlcsgiving for good harvl!st.
In Pulilan, Bulacan, the Car abao Festival i5 abo held in honor
of San Isidro every May 15. Work animals mostly colorfully groomed
and shaved (arabaos are led on parade on the streets of I\tlilan to
genuflect or kn~el in front of the church.
Als<.1 in Bulacan, the Obando festival is in honor of the town's
patron saints - \lue~lra Senora d e Salambao, San Pascual Bayion,
and San ta Clara. which begins on the J7ol> of May. lt is a three-day
celebration. Pilgrims attending the festival usually wear straw h ats
adorned w ith quills, flowers, ribbons or paper an d join tht> d i'n ce to
appeal for hl'aYenly interccMion for a future spouse in the case of
singles or a child in the case of childless couples. fanners also attend
to thank the Virgin of S~ latnbao for bounteous hatvests.
Sicol's grandest celeb rillion is the annual Pei'la francia festival
w here a fluvial proce~sion Is made in honor of Our Lady of
Peftafmncia every 17.. of September in Naga, C amarines S\tr.
Cu lminat-ing the final novena pr~yers is a G regorian Mass, in
thanksgivillg to God and in honor of Our Lady.
Owing the entire m onth of May, parishes annually hold th~
Flores de Muyo (Flowers of May), where devo\ ttees offer flowers every
day at the church altar to honor lhe Blessed Mother. Before the mon th.
end~. the S1mta Cruz de Mayo or the Snntncruzan procession i!; held to
com memorate the- finding of the Holy Cross by Empress I !elena and
Emperor Constantine. The participants called saga/as play various
character;; found in Christian history, which include the Reyna Elena.
nus festive celebration end~ inside the church.
6. Chinese in the 1'hilippine8
During the Spani~h times, the Chinese were called Sa•1gleys,
derived from the terms xiang and ley meaning " traveling merchant" .
Since Lcgazpiand tho~ewhosuccccdcd h.im favored Sino-Philippine
trade, more tr,,ding junks from China came to the Philippines
annually, hringing their merchandi_<;e like silk, textiles, and porcelain
w aru. ·
Prior to the corniJ\g of ~he Spaniards, the Chinese had already
eStablished their settlements in the country. The Chinese. who w ere

97
ablt> to learn the style:; and techniques from native craftsmen,
predomin;mtly occupied the manufacturing of carriages, stone
masonry, printing, shoemal<ing, and tailoring.
In Manila, they were forced to live outside the city walls. The
place wa~ called Parian, ere.: ted in 1581 by Governor General Gonzalo
Ronquillo de l'efialosa. Outside Manila, many Chinese engaged in
retail trade, while others invested in land.
During the Spanish period, the Chinese mesti?.os were al:>le lo
acquire land from peasants through the paao de rtlrouenta. This was
also known as pacte> de relru, which wa~ a conttacttmder which the
borrower who conveyed his land to the lender could repurchase it
for the same amOlmt of money that he had n.><:civcd. Generally. the
borrower could no longer pay the sum of money; thm;, the tr.:msfcr
of land ownership tu the lender has been completed.
Th~ Chinese in the Philippines had given valuable servic~5 to
the community but still they were not given fair treatment by lht>
Spanish authorities, owing to their constructiv~ role in th~ economk
dcvclopm~nt of the country. To discourage Chinese inunigration to
the country, the Spani~h authorities Mxed them heavily. They were
also taxt>d twice lhe an1ount required of Filipinos because they earned
more. Tht! Spanish government encouraged the immigrant~ to
become agrkultmallabore~. Soon, the Chinese gained position in
the cash·crop economy on th~ provinciall~vel.
The Chinese m~stizo could legally c.:hang~ his classification
through thedispmsa de ley, which involved the tra..ru:;fer of his family
to the tax register of i11dios. The Chinese compound name was
combined into a single surname, e.g., Tan l !wang Co to Tanju.mgco.
He wore the camisa dP chino and the top hat, a statu;<; ~ymbol of the
native princip<llia.
The first Chint>se threat to Spanish rule in tht> Philippines was
the invasion of lim·Ah·Hong. He appeared in Manila !lay on
November 29, 1574 with 62 waqunks and shiploads o( farminr, and
household goods. I Ie was in sear<h of a kmgdom.
In Paranaque beach, Lim-Ah-Hong landed a force of 600 men
under Sioco, his Japanese lieutenant. On November 30, 1574, Sioco
attacked Bagumbayan, killed :vlarshal Martin de Goiti, and assaulted
the city of Manila. But the Spanish forces aided by Filipinos, drove
lhe invaders back to the!ir 5hips.

98
 Lim-Ah-Hong himself led the 5ccond attack in Manila. This
time, Juan Salcedo ha5 already arrived from Vigan upon knowing
the previous attack in Manila. He succeeded Goiti as marshal.
Siocodied in action whlle l.im-Ah-Hong retreated with hi:; ships
and men northwdrd, to Pangasinan. Ht' t'l!tablished a colony at the
mouth of Agnu Rivt'r. Huwevt'r, Lim-Ah-Hong's colony in the
Philippines did not last long. Marshal Salcedo with a fleet of 1,500
Filipinos and 250 Spaniards sailed from Manila to Panga.<tinan and
destroyed Lim-Ah-Hong'5 strongl'lold in Lingayen Gulf.
Lim-Ah-Hong evaded captun!. He managed to CSC3pt' through
a man -made 01nal and fled to the h ills and mingled with the Igo rols
and Tingguians. Then he retv med to China and reorg-dni.:ted Iris
forct$ but ht' was dt'ft'att'd b y tht' Chlnt'lil' viceroy in Foomn in a
naval batt le of Palahoan. He fled to lhailand but was not permitted
to stay there. I Je went to other kingdoms, bu t for fear of China,
these kingdom~did not welcome him. He wandered from one pl..1cc
to another, till his wherellbouts cou ld no longer be traced.
The firsl Chineo;e revolt was brought about by the deep-seated
suspicion uf the Spcmiards. On May 23, 1603, three Chinese
manduins ;~rrived in Manil<~ . They wanted to see Chin-San
(Mountain of Gold) which was believed to bt' in Cavite. The
Spaniards looked at it as a plausible scheme. After tht' mandari:ru;
had left, the Spaniards strengthened the city defenses, wltichalanned
the Chinese resident~\.
In Parian, a ~ecret plot to overthrow the Spaniards was planned
under the leadership of Eng-l<ang, a rich Chinese merchant. They
attackt'd Tondo and Qulapo on October 3, 1603 by setting the
building.'l on fire and hy killing the inhabitants. Don Lui.'l Dasmarifuls
(fonner governor general) and Captain Tomas Bravo de Acuna
(nephew of Governor General Acu.fia) led the ret;~liatory attacks but
Lhey were ambushed. ·
However, the Chinese fa iled to capture the city wall$ bt'cause
of the Spani~h. Filipino and Japanese joint forces. including friars as
well as resident~ of the area. The Chinc.sc rebels retreated to the hiUs
of San Pablo, I .<~guna, but they were defeated by the fol'C'Cs led by
Cristobal dl! Axquft-il M<>nchaca.
In 1639, the Chinese revolted for the second time. This was
caused by Gov('tnorGenerCJI Sebastian Hurtado d e Corcuera's order
forcing the Chinese to work in Calamba, Lagunl! . The Chinese
99
 denounced tlw abu~s committed by Spani:;h tribute collectors. On
N ovember 19, 1639, hostilities began in Calamba and it spread to
other towns killing several Spanish friars, including ~he ak alde
mayor of Laguna, Marcos Zap ata .
In the early par i of1662, Koxinga (real name was Cheng Cheng-
kung) was able to take Taiwan from the Dutch. I !e sent fr. Vktorio
Ricci 10 Manila, to extend his di rective for tribute from the SpaniM
authorities. This inf\• ria ted Governo r (;enera l M~nriql•P de Lara
and thu;, he prepared to drive out all ChineS<! n:~itlent~ in the country.
The Chinese re taliated hy burning the di~ lrict of Santa Cru7..
Many Filipinos and Spani~rds were kill ed. An a rmy of 4,000
Pampanguefivs 1mdec Frandsco Laks<~mana came tu the ~cue and
defeated the rebels who had fled to the moun tains of Taytay and
Antipolo.
The fourth Chinese revolt (1686) was p lanned by Tingco, a
Chinese ex-convict. lie was dt>sperate to raise money to return to
China. He tried ~o bum the city of Manila and to loot the churches.
Hi.-; group of rebels attacked in August. stMting at th<> Parian, in the
houSE' oiDon Diego Vivim, the alcdld e mayor. Tht' gov~mUT~ent fu~
arrived and routed them. Tmgco was caught and executed.
To p t•t an e-nd to possible Chinese insurrection in th~ country,
the governor m 1729 ortlerl!d tha t all unbap t i~d Chinese in Manila
were to resid~ in the Parian. The baptized ones had to reside in
Binondo and Sta. C ruz.
However, when the British came and occupied :-.1anila in 1762,
the Chinese collaborated with them to figh t the Spaniards. The
Chinese in Manil.:~ as well as the Chinc~;e in Gu.:~gua, P.:~mpanga
secretly plotted lo massacre the Spaniards on C hristmas I've,
December 24, 1762.. One ot the plotters happcru.-d to reveal the plot
to hi,; Filipina sweetheart. The latter relayed the news to fr. jose
Salas, the pari.~h pr iest of Mexico, Pampanga.
Gm·cmor (;eneral Simon de And~ who "-'dS informed of thi:i
plot leJ h is forws to Guagua on Decemlx!r 20 and cn 1shed the
C l:-. mese rl!beb. Thi~ bloody confro nt ation l"iiS considered in
Philirpine history as the "Red Ch ris1mas.'"

7· More Europeans in the Islands

Toward~ the end of the lfl• century, ,-;orne europea n niltiOns
bcg.m attempt~ to establish !"oetlkmcnts in lhP. l'hilippines. In 1579,

100
 English mariners including Sir rrancis Drake :;tarted to harass
Spanish shipping. The Dutch also began to raid some islands in the
Philippines. They likewise assaulted Chinese, Portuguese, and
Japanese tr.1ding vc~sels.
In 1602, the Dutch trading companies sent fleets capable of
seizing control of the spice trade from the Porntguese. As Portugal's
ally, Spain committed il~ forces in the Philippines to help avert Dutch
assaults. Thus, the Dutch we~ drawn to the Philippinet; to weaken
the Spanish fleet stationed in the colony. Their base of operations
was forcnosa (Taiwan). Dutch naval squadron attacked various
places in the Philippines from 16()()-1747 which discouraged Chinese
and JapanCl;c traders from entering the colony.
fn February of 1646, a Dutch fleet arrived in the Philippine Sea.
As the Sp.1nish officers and crew prepared for b<tttle, the Dominkan
friars advised the people lodopE.>nance dlld pray for the intercession
of N11cslra S•·11ora dPI Santissimo Ros11rio (0\u Lady of the Most Holy
Rosary).
After five naval skinni!\hcs between March 15 and October 4,
1646, thE? Filipinos ,md Spaniards won the eight-month naval battlt~
of Manila against the Dutch. This naval victory, until now is being
celebrated as Festiwll.a ,'1/Qva! de Mn11ila in honor of Our Lady, the
patroness of the Spanish fleet. This is truly a manifestation of divine
intervention for people to reflect on fbc social and moral pressures
that threaten the Filipino ~>ocicty.
The first succ~ful foreign invasion of the Philippines after the
Spanish conquest was the one staged by the British. It happened
when Spain became involved in the Seven Years War ( 1756-1763}
on the side of france i:lfld Austria against Britain and Prussia for the
control oi Germany and for supremacy in North America and India.
ln counlerstrikP., Britain laid claim lo most of the Spanish colonies
in thE.' Americas and the Orient, including the Philippines.
On the evening of September 12, 1762 (Manila time), tht- Brimh
fleet con.<\isting of B ships (with around 2,000 men) entered Manila
Bay. The commaodE.'r of the fleet was Rear Admiral Samuel Cornish,
whil~ 'Brigadier General WiUiam Draper w.,s in command of the
troops. The following morning, September 23, two Briti5h officers
Sell! ashore under a white flag, a truce carrying an ultimatum to the
Spanish officials, demanding the surrender of Manila. Cpon the
advice of th~ council of war, Al'('hbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, the
interim governor general rejectE.'d the ultimatum.
101
 Thousands of Filipino warriors from Pampanga, Bulacan, and
Laguna reinfor<:ed the military army in Manila, tren with only 556
regular ll'Wps. Their leader was Manalastas, a Pampanguei\o. Still.
they were outnumbered and outarmed. Knives and spears were no
match against British rifles. Draper's cannons to re down the
southwest comer of the city waUs. Fi.nally, thq were for<:ed to retreat.
Although unsucce!>~ful, this battle was signifkant fur the Filipino~.
for it prQ\Ied their loyalty to Spain and to Catholicism.
Manila fell into British hands on OctoberS, 1762 a ftt'l i'l white
flag was hoisted at Fort Santiago. This was to stop the humble
slaughter of city defenders and residents. Tenns of surrender w cne
dio;cusscd.
Simon de Anda, the youngest oidor of the Audencia Real ha~
eS<:aped in a boat on the eve of the (<Jllol Manila. He w;:~s dispatched
by ArchbL<iliop Rojo to Bulacan to ensure the loyalty of the rest of
the provinces to Spo:~in. He established his headquarters in Bacolor,
Pampanga. He continued the government with himself as the
governor general.
Archbishop Rojo had also sent messengers to Palapag. Samar
where the galleon Filipino docked. The ship had brought rack from
Mexico the sitlllldo (subsidy) of over a million silver pe$0li. The
government wanted to k~ tttisfund fmm the British. Under Rojo'~
instructions, the ship was burned afte r the silver coin.~ were taken
out safely. Learning about it, Cornish s~nt his frigates to Samar but
the m oney had already been place d under Anda'.s care.
During the brief occupation of the Briti~h in \1anila, the country
had three governors: Ar<:hbishop Rojo, Oidor Simon de Anda, and
Honorable Dawsonne Drake, who established a civil government
in Manila . He was appointed by the Ea.~t India Company to govern
the Philippines. '
The brief occupation of Manila by the British resul ted to
different reactions. When the B:r:itish took l'asig, Alimud Din sought
refuge and was later restored to his sultanate in the south. In reh1m,
he signed a treaty permitting the Bdti:lh to establish a trading center
inJolo.
The peoplt> of Paraflaque stood loyal to the Spaniard~.
Pampanga and Bulacan rallied behind Anda. I lowever, in Korth
and Central Luzon. :;orne people roused in action against the Spanish

102
government. In Pangasinan, a revolt was insligat~d by juan de Ia
Cru7. Palaris. In the Uocos region, LJiego Silang accepted the Briti<m
bid of Stlpport for his cause in figh ling against the Spani;~rd~.
The Seven Years War in Europe came to an end '"ilh the Treaty
of Paris signed on February tO, 1763. Among the termq sculed was
the acquisition of almost entire French Empire in North Amt-rica by
Britain. The British also aC(juired !'lorida from Sp,.in. England has
to re~tore the Philippines to Spain. The news re<~ched Manila in a
much later date. On May 31, 1764, Anda and his troops went back to
Manila amidst the jubilation of lhe popul«ce in conformity with the
treaty, which formally ended the war.

103
 Chapter Test No. 4
O~te:. _ _ _ __
Name:------------
Course, Year, and Section: _ __

I. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter with the correct arnwer.

Erasures are not allowed: (30 pts.)
1. P6pe All'xandec VJ issued a bull known as lllter-caeteril
decreeing that this shottld be the Spani~h zone of
('Xplor,,tion.
a. east of the imaginary line drawn north to south, tOO
leagues west of Cape Verde Islands
b. we~t of the imaginary lin(' drawn north to south, !00
leagues Wl':it of Cape of Good Hope
<:. wc~t of the imaginary line drawn north to south, 100
leagues west of Cape Verde Islands
d. east of the imaginary line drawn north to south, 100
leagues east of Cape of Good Hope
2. :\iagcllan real~ed that one could arrivP at the Eastern Spice
Islands more quickly using this route.
a. Columbuf.'s westward rottte
b. wesh¥ard route around South America
c. around Cape of Good Hope
d. across the South African tip
3. He was the chronicler of MageUan's expedition.
a. Morga c. Enrique
b. Pigafetta d. Loarca
4. This ship secretly deserted on the night of November 20,
1520 and saill'd for Spain.
a. Trin:idad c. San Anlonio
b. Concepcion d. Victoria
5. The islander~'> of Islas Ladrones were called by this name.
a. Chammoros c. Chamaros
b. Chamoros d. Chamorros

104
 6. Tht! first island in the Philippines sighted by Magellan
andhismcn.
a. Samar c. Ccbu
b. Homonhon d. Leyte
7. They made the first recorded blood compact in the annals
of Philippine hi~tory.
a. l~ajah Humabon and :viagellan
b. Rajah Siagu and Magellan
c.· Rajah Kolambu and Magellan
d. Sikatuna 11nd Legazpi
8. From Homonhon, Magellan and his men traveled thi~
distance to Maza11n.
a. 14.6lcaguc~ <:. 35leagues
b. 20 to 25 leagues d. SO miles
9. HI! was th€' first Filipino chieftain to be baptized ,,s
Catholic.
a. Rajah llumabon c. Datu Zula
b. Rajah Kolambu d. Rajah Tupas
tO. The Spanish Crown granted him the motto Prim11s
Circumdedisti Me.
a. Ferdinand Magellan
b. Juan Sebast11in del Cano
c. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
d. Juan de Salcedo
11. This post-Magcllan expedition reached :Mindanao but
failed to colonize yet it was able to rescue survivors of the
Loaysa expedition in Tidore, Moluccas.
a. Sebastian Cabvt
b. Migttel Lopez de Legazpi
c. Alvaro Saavedra Ccron
d. Ruy LGpe7. de ViUalobos
12. Sikllotuna was a native kmg of~ i:;land.
a. C11bu c. Samar
b. Leyte ~. Bohol

105
13. He promised lo convince his brother Rajah Tupas to accept
Spanish friendship.
a. Sigala c. Tamuyan
b. Urrao d. l:lan kaw
14. The second Spanish settlement was establish~d in this
place.
a. Manila c. !'anay
b . Cebu d . Mindoro
15. The Maynilad chief who defended his kingdom from the
Spaniards.
a. Barnbalito c. Riljah Sulayman
b. lakandula d . Rajah Matanda
16. This valian t warlord headed Ihe first Battle of Bankusay.
a. Barnbali lo c. Rajah Sulayman
b. l.akandula d . Rajah Matanda
17. lie gave Manila lhe name, II!Sigtlt y Siempre Letzl Ci~dud.
a. .King Charles I c. King Ph1lip II
b. Legazpi d. Lavczar.is
18. He coiiE>cled the tribute and gave it to the encornendero.
.1. tO\-\'n mayor
b. politico-military governor
c. head of the family
d. former datu
19. lhe highest local position opened to Filipinos.
a. alcalde mayor c. gobcmadorcillo
b. corregidor d . cabeza de barangay
20. This judidal body put:; into trial, an oulgoing governor
general and other Spanish officials who were obliged to
give an accounting of their acts during their term of office.
a. Royal Audienda c. Vi.~itador-gcneral
b. Residcncia d . Oidor
21. One o{ the following was nol exempted from paying the
tribute.
a. Sacristan c. Choir membl.'r
b. Government employee d . Stage actor

1(!6
22. Before 181i4, this was tht· number of days to be rende. re.cl
for polo.
a. 15 days c. GO days
b. 40 d~ys ·d! 100 days
23. Upon the king·~ order. the Mexic~n viceroy sent this roy~ I
~uhsidy to M3nil" annually.
A. visitadur c. piloncilo
h. L!'al>elin" d. real situado
24. This was the pol icy uf re~e ttlement in the Sp..-.ni~h period
consolidating population in larger villagE>$.
a . akaldia c. puebl<1s .
b. reducciun d . visilas
25. This was the first university in the Philippines, which was
originally founded i\S college in 151!9 and elevdted to the
rank of nnivcrsity in I1>21 .
•a. University of San 11,1nacio
b . University of San to 'lomas
c. 'Cniversity of San t'P.Iipe
d. Es<: ucla Pia
26. During the Spanish period, this was the only college open
for rilipina girls.
a. BE-atcrio de Ia Coonp.tnia de Jesus
b. Bcatcrio de S<lnta Catdlina
c. College of Santa l~"b£>1
·d. College of Santa l'o lP.ncian a
27. This was cstabli~hcd in 17/lS to p romote din-ct trad e .w ith
Spain.
a. Galleon Trade
b. Monopoly
c. Socicdad Economka de los Amigu.s del Pais
•d . Real Compania de t'ilipinas

107
 28. They attacked various pi <lees in the J>hilipp inc6 from 1600-
1747.
a. Portuguese c. Germans
· b. Dutch f'. 1o1 d. British
29. Spain became involved wi th the Seven Years War aftt.>r it
sided with this country for the control of Germany and
10upremacy in North AmerkCl and lndi,l.
a. Britain c. Italy
b . France d . Prussia
30. The first Chinese rebellion in the Philippines took p lace in
1603 under his lead ership .
•a. F.ng-Kang p. 99 c. Koxing~
b. Lim- Ah·Hong d. , Tin gco

II. Matching Type. Match Column A with Column B. Write the

letters on the blanks provided: (10 pts.i
Column A Column B
- " - 1. Candido l opez Diao: ·a. Father of Filipino
painting
....1._ 2. Mariano Mildril\an b. Contract to repurchase
land
...L 3. Damian Domingo · c. Inventor (m<JC'hinc
cleaning ht>mp fibe rs)
_r_ 4. Tomas Pinpin d. Decorated Medieval
altar
. .-I- 5. Dolores PMemo . ~- Black :"-Jaz.arenl!
-lL 6. Del Superior Goviemu f. First Filipino printer
...L 7. 1-iisa de Gallo . g. :"-Jovena mass (Dec. 16-2.4)
....L. 8 . Quiapo Church h. Christmas F.ve Mass
_.Q... 9. Rctablo · · i. Sculptor (1883
Am~terdam
Exposition)
_D_ I 0. Pacto de Retroventa • j. Composer (Snmpug<tita)
• k. First newspaper in the
cotmtrv
'

108
m. Essay: (to pts. each)
1. 'What prompted the Europt'an.s to s~an:h new lands in the
14"· century to the 16"' century?
2. Did the Spaniards succeed in promoting Hispanic <:t~lture
among the early Filipinos?

109
~(2\
\P'~...~ ... :-: .. •.

Struggle for Rights and Freedom

1. Revolt ofLakandula and Sulayman (1574)

Cause: Lavezaris's .Rcv~rnal of Lega:.:pi's Policy
After the dea th of legazpi on August 20, 1572,Govemor Guido
de lavezaris n o longer exempted the native rulcrA and their
descendants from paying tribute. He ordered the confiscation 9f
~eirpahimonial land properties. ·- ·
jlg.i!.\\~C of the new policr.,J:aki!!:IQ..\\!!;1 ~!1.9 Sulay!]M.n.decided
J.Q_riscinarm.s. 'laking adv;mtage of lim-Ah-Hong'satlack on Manila
In 1574, the two chieftains proclaimed their revolt and gathered their
warriors in Navotas.
fu= de Salcedo and Fr. Geronimo Marin were sent by Lavearis
to persuade them not to carry out their pla n. They were given an
a:;;surancc that all their grievances would he remedied and' thoSe
who took arms would be p ardoncd._Govemor lavezaris did thi.~
'gesture to ask help from Filipino naflves m driving aw~Lim-Ah-
Hong from the COWltry. ·

2. First Pampanga Revolt (1585)

Cause: Abuses of 'l:ncocnendeiU;
Disgruntled by the way the t!ncomn~deros administered, some
brave Pampangueno leaders connived with the people of Manila
and the Dom eans to rise in revolt.
According to their plan, they would secretly enter the city .of
Mani!.l one dark night and masso1crc the Sp<Jnianis. A native woman
who was ma rried to a Spani~h .~oldier happe.n ed to learn of it and
warned the Spanish authoritie~ about it. The leaders were arrested
and ex~cuted without any lair trial.

110
3· The Tondo Conspiracy (1587-88)
Cause: Regain Lost Pree~om
~ttempting to restore freedom and local leadership being
enjoyed during the pn?-colo.nial years, Agustin de legazpj (nephew
of Lakandula), together with other leaders like Martin Pangan
(gobcmadorciUo ofTond o), MagatSalamat (son of l.akandula), juan
Banal (another Tendo chief), Esteban Taes (chief of Bulacan), Pedro
Balinguit (chief of Pandacan), Pitonggatan. (chid of Tondo), Felipe
Salonga (chief of Polo) and Geronimo llasi (brother of Agustin de
Legazpi) planned to overthrow the Spanish rulers in~ country.
Through a Japanese Chrislia11, Dionisio Fernandez, Agustin de
Lcgazpi, and his fellow conspirator contacted a Japanese sea cap tain,
Juan Gayo, to get ann.~ and Japanese warriors to fight the Sp ;mlards.
In exchange, he and his Japanese warriors would be giv en one-half
of the tribute collected in the Philippines. Aside from this, help would
also be secured frorn Bo r neo, Laguna, and Batangas. The
conspirators with their warriors would then assault the city of MMila
and start killing the Spaniards.
M aga t Salamat innocently revealed the plan to Antonio Surabao,
a Cuyo n ative who was pretending to be a supporter. Surabao later
recounted this to h is mast er, Pedro Sarmie n to (the Spanish
encomendero of Calamianes). Immedia tely, Captain Sanrriento
rushed to Manila and informed Governor GI!I1.Cl:al Smtiago de Vera
on October 26, 1588, the existence ofa conspiracy agmnst the Spanish
goverrunent.
Eventually, the governor ordered the arrest o f aU persons
implicated in the ~olutionary plot, including Dionjsio Fernandez,
a Japanese interpreter. All these suspects were izwestigated and tried
in court. They were given harsh penalties. Agustin de Legazpi and
Martin Pangan were brutally h anged. Their heads were cut off and
placed in iron cages. The govemmt"llt seized their properties. The
sites of their homes were plowed ar~d sown with sa lt lo remain
barren.
Dionisio Fernandez was hanged and his property, confiscated.
Also executed were Magat Salamat, Geronimo Basi and Esteban Taes.
The re~t were given lighter pu.nishmcnts - heavy fines and some
years of exile from their town. Five of the leading members of the
conspiracy were exiled to Mexico - Pedro Balingult, Pitonggatan,
Felipe Salonga, Calao, and Agustin Manuguit.
111
4. Magal&~t's Revolt, C&~gayan (1596)
CauS<!: Tribute
During the nue of Governor Francisco Tello, two broth ers
instigated the peopleofCa gayan In ri~ in afll15 against the colonial
government because of the latter's arbitrary levy collection. One of
the brothers was called Magalat. The uprising was suppres.~ed by
the authorities. He and his men were kept in Manila as exiles.
The Dominican mi~sionaries of C;~gayan persuaded Governor
Tello to pardon them, aftE'r knowing the plight of th e two brothers.
The favor was subsequently gran ted. After Mag<~ l~ t w~.s released,
he went back to Cilgayan and incited the people to continue the fight.
Many Spaniards and loyal natives were killed by the rebels. Governor
Tello sent Captain Pedro d e C.haves to quell the re~·olt. Magalat,
however, remained undefeated in open battle . Later the Spania rd"
decided to hire native assassins. Magalat was murdered In his own
house.

5· Revolt of the Igorots ( 1601)

Cause: Refusal to Accept New Religion
The Spa nia rds were d!!te rmiried to conv ert the lgorots to
Chr!sti.lnity. They launched a crusade to pm~lytize the highland
native~ of Luzon and to place them under Spanish authorities. A
strong expedition was sent to the Igo rolland to stop th e natives from
resisting colonial subjugation. However, the Spaniards were only
able to gain nominal political and military control over them.

6. Revolt of the IITIIY11.S, Northern IsabeJa in the

Cagayan VaUey (1621)
C~use: Oppression of Spanish Offidab
Fray Pedro de Santo Tomas, a Dominican missionary, tried to
con vince the rebels to avoid an uprising against the abusive Spanish
officials. The rebels Je-d by Gabriel Dayag and Felix Cu tahay re fused
to heed the priest's words of peace. However, they treated Fr. Santo
Tomas and his missio•;ary companions with respect. They allowed
the friars to leave unmole:;ted, w ith aU their ornaments and jewels
of the churches.

112
 After the missionaries had left, the lrrayas began their fight by
killir>g the oppressive cncom.cnderos and burning their hou<~es. After
this b loody incident. the rebels went up to the Basili RJver and built
their forti.flca tion on a rocky hill.
Fr. Santo Tomas retume<i and exhorted the leaders to lay dovm
their .1rms and promised th<!m th~t the government would pardon
them and remedy their grievan Ct!S. The re>'Oit ended without,, fight.

7. The Revolt of1'ambl<>t, Bohol (16:l1•22}

Cause: Return to 1\'ative Religion
In 1621. Tamblot, a lmlhlylrm (native p rie st ), rep orted the
dppea ranee of a dilv.1ta w ho p romi:;ed the people a life of .1bundanc.:!.
without the burden of paying trib ute to the government or dues to
the church. He persu~d ed the na tivcs to abandon the Ca tholic
religion and rise against the Spaniards. AroLU\d 2,000 Boholano~
responded to Tamblot's call.
They began the uprising ill the time when m ost of the ]!?suit
fathers, the spiritual administrators of the isl~nd, were in Ccbu
celebrating the feast oi the beatification of St. Francis Xavier. They
l:>umed the villages being supervised by the jesuits, as well as their
churchi?S. They threw away all rosa ries and crosses they cou kl fiJ'lcL
:<Jews of the revolt reached Cebu. Don Juan de Alcarazo, the
a leal de rna yor, sent immed ia td y an expedition to Boho l, consisting
of 50 Spaniards and more tha n 1,000 natives from C ehu and
Pam panga. In the midst oi a h eavy downpour, Tamblot and his
followers were crushed.

8. Bankaw's Revult, Leyte (162.2)

C.l use: Return to !\"alive Reli&ion
The lead er of this rebellion was the aged chieftain oflimasawa,
Bankaw, who was one of the first local leaders who received Miguel
Lopez de l..ega7.pi in 1565. lie had been previously converted to
Christianity and became loyal to Spain. But in hi• old age Bankaw
together with his :;ons and a native priest named Pagali, led the
people of Carigara, Leyte to r ise in arm.<; in defense of their old
religion. Soon they had the who I~ island into armed re.Gistance. The

113
rebels destroyed church property and erected a temple to their
Jiwata.
Fr. ~lelchor de Vera, <> Jesuit, went to Ccbu and warned lhe
Spanish <Jutho:rities of the uprising. Alcalde Mayor Alcara7.0 sent a
fleet of 40 vessels, manned by hundreds of Cebuanos and some
Spanish arquebusiers to Leyte. The rebels were o.ffured peace but
they turned it down.
The Spanish-Filipino forces pltrsued them in the hills and
defeated them. Banl.aw, together with his son and Pagali perished
in the battle. Soon his second son was beheaded as a traitor. His
daughter was taken as captive. Bankaw's head wa~ placed on a
s!ake as a public warning, to generate fear among the natives.

9· The Revolt of Ladia (1643)

Cause: Spanish Oppression
Pedro Ladia, a native of Borneo, who claimed to be a dcscrnd.mt
oJ Rajalt Matanda, instigated the people of:Malolos, Bulacan to ri~e
in ann.<; against the Spani.<;h govemrnenl. He was able to recruit a
nuu,ber of followers but before he could carry out his plan.. Fr.
Cristvbal Enrique:. had al.readyentreated the people to remain loyal
to Spain. Lidia was later on arrested and sent to Manila to be
executed.

10. The Revolt ofDabao (1650s)

Cause: Controversial Decree to Send Carpenters to theCa vite
Shipyard
To move freely among fellow Christians. Dabao, a Manobo-,
chieftain in Northern Mindanao allowed himself to be baptized to
the Catholic faith. He convinced some new converts to join him in
his plan to kill the religious and all the Spanisn soldiers in the fort.
Dabao's opportunity to carry out his plot came as natives who
stole a quantity of maize and rice were being hunted down. He
offered himself to catch them. He took his men to act a:; prisoners.
just when the men were going to be set in the stocks for their
punishment, Dabao attacked the captain and the supposed prisoners
joix>ed him by taking out their concealed weapon.~. All Spaniards in
the garrison were killetl. Governor Diego Fajardo offered amnesty

114
to ttl~ rebels to end 1\'orthemM:itldanao unrest. However, the rebels
who surrendered were either hanged or enslaved or taken to Manila,
where they were sold to Spanish household.

11. Sumoroy's Revolt, Samar (1649-50)

Cause: Forced Labor
Under Juan Sumoroy's leader.>hip, the peopleofPalapag, Samar
r(lJie :in anns against the government. They resrnted Governor Diego
Fajardo'~ order, whi<:h involved the sending of men to Cavite
shipyards. Hostilities began on ]Wle 1, 11>49, with the killing of the
curate of the town.
The revoh spread to Albay and Camarines, Cebu, Masbate,
Camiguin and as far a.~ !\'orthem Mindanao. Sumoroy won severa l
victories over the Spanish-f ilipino forces. At one time, the SpClnish
commander offered a large sum of money in exchange ofSumoroy's
heacl. lhe :rebels sent him the head of a pig instead.
In July 1650, under cover of darkness and rainfall, th"'
government forces staged an assault on the natives' fort. The rebels
were caught by surprise. Sumoroy's mother peri~hcd in the battle.
The revolt ended with ind ivid1.1al surrenders. The rebels themselves
kiUcd Sumoroy and brought his head to the Spanish commander.

12. Maniago's Revolt, Pampanga (166o)

Causes: Frequent Rc<:ruihnent of Men to Cu 1 Timber in th€!
Mountains and Bandll/11
Pampanga's rice production suffered exce~dingly from the
di~ruptivc effects of polo. One thousand Pampangueii~ had been
w ork ing for eight months as timber cutters. To show their sentiments
against the govellUI\Cnt, the workers mutinied and set their camps ite
on fire. They chose Don Francisco Maniago, a ch.id hom the village
of Mexico to bto their leader.
The armed rebels gathered in Lubao under M~niago and
another group made preparations in Bacolor. They d..,;eci the mouths
of rivers with stakes. J.ettl'!rs to other chi<:c'fs in Pangasinan, Docos,
and Cagayan were sent, asking them to join the uprising against the
Sp~niards and later elect a king of their own.

115
 By thl< ti.me the prov ince of rampanga revolted, the gO\' em ment
owed th e local inhabitants more thiln 2<Xl,OOO pe ws du e to unpaid
rice purchases from the bandnlo syslt'm.
The Spaniards triL"<< to end the reb~:Ilion immediately because
they knew that the Pamrangue1ius had been trained in military art.
Governor Ivl.ilnriqu~ de l.~r3 b<!gan his maneuver with il show of
iorce, by bringing with him 300 men in Ma<".abebe. Seeing the well·
armed Spaniards. the Pampanguenos showed wrdiality. This caused
other rebels to waver and d istrust one a.n other.
Governor Lara <"ailed for Juan Macapagal, chief of Arayat, to a
di.~cu;;.~ion. De J.ara treated him well and assured him rewards if he
WO(Jld .side with the government. Macaragal <'onS"'<Jt•ently accepted
the offer. He went b,H:k to Arayat and organized a force to rep re~s
the rebels. Hi,; deiection diS(:Oor~ged other chiefs. Parish priests as
well as ~rce.nary sol<l\ers were also employed to demora lize the
rclw.L"- The gonmor gener al moreover proposed a p artial paymt>nt
oi 14.,000 pesos on the total amount of 2!10,000 pesos that the
government owed to the Pampangucno,;.
The Spani.m;l~ concluded an agreement with Mani.tgo w hich
brought about peace in Pampanga. l'or leitr that the Pangasincnscs
would strike back, th~ l'ampangueiios themselves dcn1.1ndcd two
Sp.1nish garrisons in th~ province, one in Lubao ahd another in
A rayat. From then on, they never rc\·oltcd a~ainst the colonial
govl!mment.

13. Andres Malong's Revolt, Panga.<~inan (1660-61)

CausL'S: Spanish Oppres5ion and the Desire to Replilce the
Spaniard~ as Personal Rlllers of th e People
Spurred by the Pampangueiio rebellion, the natives of
Pangasinan also rose in arms against the Spanish government in
Lingayen on Oetcember 15, 1660. Scwral Spaniard!< Wf'l"e killed,
induding an alca lde mayor. ln.~pired by the growing number of
their followers and their early suc.cesse5, Malong proclaimed himself
king and directed his military leaden; to p lace the province under
rebel control with hi~ cit> lenses a t the capital to"'!fl of Binalatnngan.
lie appointed J>edro Gumapos as count. Franci<:co Pacadua as judge,
and jacinto Mc}<:o.Sidg, and :vlekhor de VcrJ a!'. army gent,>r~ls.

116
 Letters were ~nt to the poop!~ of
flocos, 7.ambakos, Pamp<~ng.•
;tnd Cagayan, inviting them to rise ~gainst the Spaniards. Th~
Pan>pangu~os tmder ~ani~ go did not join ~au~ th~y had already
ma de their peace with the Spani~rrls.
1o extend his sovereitnty, ~along sen t 6,000 men to P~mpanga
and 3,000 men to Jlocos .111c..l Cagay~n.. leaving 2,000 men with him
i.n Pangasinan . But this depleted 1\i:o; forces. The guv.,mmcnt troops
kd by Dun Felipe de Ug a lde and Don l'ra ncis~:o Esteban
outmaneuvered his army in Pangasu>an. He was purr:;ucd inlt) the
mountains and was c~ught ~live. He was executed together with
Ver<i, Pac.adua and Macasiag in 1661 in Bin..latongan. ·

14. Tite Revolt of GumapO!!; (1 661)

(au~: Continue Andres Ma long's Revolt
Pedro Gu rnapo!; and his army of Za mbals ki llf'd m ,l ny
Spaniard<; in llocos. The Ilocanos did not join them for th~tr loyalty
was to thei r property. During the Zambal invasion, they hiJ their
valuables in the Bishop's house and burietl other proper tie:;.
The bishop assembled the Zambals and threatenell them with
excommunication the moment they~~ an ything from the churrhe!;
or from his house. But tht: bishop's words fell on deaf e«rs.
Cumapos's ~:ampaign ended after an encount~r with the
Spanish forces. Four hundred rebels werP. slain and Gumapos
himself was taken prisoner and was later hanged in Viga n.

15. The Revolt of Almazan (t66os)

Cause: Personal Ambitions
The flames o f rebellion soon spread in llucos w ith P~dco
Alm<mm as the defiant leader. Almazan, a rich chief of San Nicolas,
crownE-d himself Ku1g of !locos du ring the weddi.ng ceremony of
hi:; son to the daughter of another chief. He wore the crown of the
Queen of Angels ta ken from the church, which the rebels sacked.·
The rebels were ga ini.ngsome head way at th~ start but the Sparuards
eventually suppressed then>.

117
16. Tapar's Revolt, Panay (1663)
Cause: Found a ':'-JI!W R~ligion Under Native Supervision
The prevalent mi~demeanor o f Spani.~h friars aliena ted
countless natives from the Catholic faith. Tapar, a nativ~ of Panay,
wanted to establish a religious cult in Oton. He attracted many
followers with his stories about his frequent conversations with a
demon.
Tapar and his men were killed in a bloody fight again~t the
Spaniards, along with native volunteer soldiers. ~ir cmpses were
impaled on s~kes.

17. Dagohoy's Revolt, Bohol h744-1829)

Ca use: Rt!fusal to Give His Brother a Christian Burial
Father Gaspar Morales denied Francisco Dagohoy's brother a
Chri.~tian t:mrial because the latter died in a duel. Dagohoy argued
thclt h:i1S brother's burial wa.~ the responsibility of the Jesui t priest
because he had died carrying out the missionary's order, to arrest
an apostate. The priest refused to bury Dagohoy's brother unless
the proper limc..;uas or church offerings were given. The body was
left decomposing fur tluee days.
Humlliated by this tragic incident Dagohoy got mad and
incited the natives of Bohol to revolt. He took around 3,000 men
and women to the uplands of Talibon and Inabangan. He set up a
s~lf-sustaining communily far from the Spani~>h authorities.
Dagohoy's community grew in number as more prople fled to the
hiJls to avoid being rec ruited by the government to join its
expedition.'\ in Northern Mindanao as well as to avoid the harsh
impositions o ( the government.
Dagohoy and his men raided the Jesuit e~ta te of San Javier. Then
they kiJ led the Italian Jes uit cura te in )agna, Father Gui~eppe
Lamberti in 1744. Because of the killing. the Spanish authoritie
tortured and killed Dagohoy·.~ future father-in-law and the porter
o( the church of the slain priest.
The de.1th of the innocent porter drove more people to join
D~gohoy 's group. Shortly afterwards, Father Mora les was killed in
cold blood. Bishop Miguel Uno de Espeleta of Cebu tried to pacify
the rebel~ through negotiations. The plan to send secular priests to

118
Hohol was not carried out. A 20-year deadlock set in. The ronunwlity
continued to subsis t without outward s ign of rebellion.
Twe nty Spanish governors from Gaspar de Ia Torre (1 739-45)
to Juan Ar>lonio :Martinez {1822-25) tried to stop the rebellion but
failed . l.u the- 1740!; and the 1750s, the Spani<oh government was
preoccllpied with the Muslim raids.
ln 1829, the rebellion finally ended when Governor Mariano
Ricafort pardoned 19,420 su rvivors and permitted them to live in
the new villages. Nothing has been heard on how Dagohoy died.
His ilutonomous conununity la.~tcd for 85 years.
. '

18: Silang's Revolt (1762-63)

Causes: His Imprisonment, Abusive Government Officials,
Ileavy Taxation
The Ilocanos h ad already been complaining about the
anomalous collc<:tlon of tribute and the abuses of thenlcnldes mayores
in the exucise of indulto de comercw. IJi.cgo Silang appealed to Don
Antonio Zabala, the provincial govemor of llocos to consider thAI
demands of the natives. Regarding him an agitator, Zabala had Silang
incarcerated.
Silang's followers and ·f riends suc:c~:ssfully worked for his
release. '!liking advantage of the Spanish preoccupation with the
British u\ Manila, Silang led the revolt of the lloc:ani:Js and made
Vigan the capital of his independent govcmment. His defiance o~
the Spaniards lost him support of many principales. H~ ordered that
those prirrcipa/e; who were opposing him be arrested and brought to
1\im. Should they resist, they were to be slain. He also imposed a
fin..- of 100 pesos on each priest but lower~d it to 80 pesos on their
petition. Pmpcrty of the chu rch was also taken.
Bishop Bernardo 1-"stariz of Vigan ~ued an intcrdkt against
Silang and his followers. He exhorted th e nocanos to withdraw
support for the :rebels' cause. In retaliation, Silang imprisoned aU of
the latter 's followers.
Finally, Spanish Gov..-rnor Simon de Anda sent Silang an
ultimatum. Fearing that Anda was planning to man:h to Ilocos, Silang
decided to seek the protection of tht! British. Shortly thereafter, he
accepted the British offer of friendship to fight against the Spaniards.

119
 However, Silang's leadcn;hip ended with .ll\ assassin's bullet.
Mig~el Viro$, a Spanish me.«ti7.o who wish ed to Lake revenge on
Silang and Pedro &cbcc, a trusted aide of Silang C011$pired to kill
the rebel leader in exchange of a large monetttry rewilrd. Vicol'.~;hot
Silang in the latter's hou~e.
Gabriela Sila ng, Diego's wife, continued the fight. Nicolas
Cariilo, Silang's uncle, temporarily took command of the forces. He
and Gabriela attacked the town of Santa in Ilocos Sur and won over
the ~:,roverrunent force.~. After the battle, Gabriela went to the forests
of Abra and recruited the Tingj:,"'l.ians {ltncgs).
Another battle was fo\tght at Cabugao, but this tune the rebels
were beaten . Carino perished in action. Gabriela and her warrio:rs
fled to Abra and org-.tn~ed a new army of llocanos i\nd Tmgguians.
With her ne"'·ly reorganized battalion, Gabriela m arched
towards Vigan. She rode on a fast horse and led her troops into the
combat. The loyal archers of the Spanish government repulsed her
attack. Once more, she went back to the m ounLl ins of Abra with
her followers. Don 1:\.fanuel de Ao.a, lieutenant go\'cmor of~orthem
Luzon and hi~ Cagayan warriurs followed h er trail. With the aid of
Apayao.~ and Kalingas, they captured h e r and her surviving
followers. On September 20, 1763, Gabriela and her companions
were executed in Vigan, Ilocos Sur.

19. Palaris's RA!volt (1762·65)

Causes: Tribute, Spain's Los~ of Prestige Due to the Briti~h
Occupation of Manila
Simultaneous with the Silang rev olt was an upri~ing in
Pangasirtan. The local inhabitants wanted the abolition of the tribute
and the removal of Joaquin Gamboa, o.lCIIlde mnyor of the province
foe irrcgularilie~ in tax collection.
The rebellion began on November 3. 171i2 at the town of
Binalatongan under the leadership of Juan de Ia C ruz Pala ris. From
Binalatongan, the spirit of insurrection spread to other to""'I\5 of the
province. Pahms urged the p eople to fight since the Spaniards were
very weak because of their defeat at the hands of the British in Manila.
!'or over a year, he succeeded in driving the Spaniards and friars out
of the rebel towns. 1he Domin kat\ friars tried to pacify the rebels,
but failed.

120
 In Match 1764, Don Mariano de A:rza togetht>r with 3,000 loyal
llocano ~oldiers suppressed the Revolt of Palaris in Pangaslnan.
Palaris was publicly hanged. ·
.' .
20. Basi Revolt (1807)
Cause: Wine Mono~ly of 1786
Due to the wine mon~ly of the government, the Docanos were
prohibited to drink homemade ba:;i (wine (crmented front sugarcane).
They were compell~?d to buy wine from government stores.
On September 16, 1807, the Docanos of Plddig, llocos 1\:orte,
rose in arms in defense of their favorite wine, basi. The rebellion
sptead l(l the neighboring towns. Badoc and Santo Domingo.
The Spanish alcalde mayor, who w1:1s residing in Vigan, sent a
fore,; of 36 soldiers and two columns of civilian guards with a cannon
to attac.k Badoc. I lowever, on Sep tember 28, 1807, the Ilia! Ide 11111yor
together with a ~trong force of regular troops attacked them at San
Ildcfonso and quell.cd the revolt.

21. Revolt in Defense of the Spanish Constitution (t8ts)

Cause: Abolition of the Liberal Spanish Constitution
The Spanish Constitution of 1812 w as very much influenced
by the ideals of the French Revolution - Liberty, Equ ality, and
Fraterruty. This democratic constitution granted human righ ts to
both Spaniords and Filipino@. Jt was promulgated by the Spanish
Cortes (t'arliament) and approved and signed by 184 delegate:; of
Spain and her colonies (including the Ph ilippines). One of its
signatories was Ventura de los Reyes, a Filipino.
Upon knowing that this constitution was abolished on May 4,
1814 by the despotic ruler King Ferdinand Vll, an explosion of
v iolence in the cou ntry against the pri11dpales took place. The ma.~~
suspected that the pri.ncipalcs were behind this, since they had been
presumed aiding the Spanish authorities to perpetuate in power.
On March 3, 1815, more than 1,500 llocano.'> of Sarrat, IIO<:os
Norte, under the leadership of Simon Tomas rose in a nns in defe~
of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The llocanos plun<kred the
houses of rich Spaniards and p ro-Spanish natives. They also looe.d
the chu rrhes a nd killed some friars and officials. The Sp41nlllh
121
government rushed infantry ,md cavalry forces to the rebeUious
towns in the llocandia. The revolt ended on March 6, with the
!;urviving leaders of the rebellion severely punished.

22. Revolt of the Bayot Brothers (1822)

Cause: Ft!eling _of Distrust between the Peni•JSularrs and the
Creoles
The insu/ares in the Philippines, al; well as the cn'Oies in other
colonies of Spa in resented the extra privileges given to the
penittsulnres. The fe~ling of distrust and antagonism between the
pminsu/ares and the crecles became intcn.~e in the t'arly decades of
the l ¥' century.
ln.~pired by the achievements of the CM!ie liberators in Latin
America from 1808 to 182&and influenced by the ideals of the French
Revolution (1789-1799), the three Sayotbrothers- Manuel, Jose, and
joaquin - sQilS of Colonel Fromcisco Bayot, a prominent creole of
Manila. cono:pired with other creole officers of tiw! Battalion Rea I
Principe, to overthrow the government, which was dominated by
the pP.ninsulares. The plot was to be carried o ut on Apr:il1 7, 1822 at
dawn.
A few days before April 17, the plan of the Bayot conspiracy
was discovered. Governor Mariano de Folgueras alerted the Queen's
Regiment and surrounded the barracks of suspected rebel~ with loyal
troops and 15 cannons. The Bayot brothers were imprisoned af~r a
triaL

2.3· Religious Revolt of Hermano Pule (1840-41)

Cause: Religious Freedom
In 1839, Apolinariode Ia Cruz went to Manila to pur.;ue priestly
vocation under the Dominican order. He was not accepted on the
groW1d that he was an indio (native). At that time, all religious orders
were closed to indios.
[n June 1840, A polinario, better known as Hermano Pule
retum.cd to Lucban, Tayaba~ Province (now Quezon Province), and
founded the Cofradia de San Jose (Confraternity of St. Joseph), a
nat ion~ listfellowship which fostered the p rae lice of Christian virtues.

122
 H erma no Pu le sough t the recognition of his religious
b(otherhood. H owever, Governor General Marc~lino O raa and
Archbishop Jose Segui.. upon the recommendation of the Spanish
friars, banned his confraternity. Undaunted by the intolerance of the
government authorities, he carried on his religious moveiJlt'nt at
Barrio !sa bang of Mount Banahaw, then later movl:d his camp at
Alit.lo, at the foot of Mount Cristobal. His brotherhood attrllcted
thousands of foUowers in Tayabas, Laguna, and Batangas.
On November 1, 1841, Lt. Col. Joaquin Hu~, a veteran Spanish
combat commander launclled a ma~ive assault on Alitao, killing
hundreds of defenseless old men, women. and children. Hei"ITlllno
Pule was captured the following evening at Barrio lbanga and was
executed on November 4, 1841. The Span ish 5old iers paraded h is
chopped bod y from Tayaba~ to nearby Lucban, hi~ birthp lace.
Enraged by the merciless killing at Alitao, the non-
coromio;.<;ioned officers and soldiers of the Tayabas Rcsir..ont secretly
planned to rise in ao:ns =der the lead exship or Sergeant lrineo
Samaniego. After a few hours of fighting at Fort Santiago, Sam.m!ego
and his men were routed, captured and shot to death at fi<Jgumbayan
at sundown of January 21, 1843.

24. Muslim Wars (1578-1898)

The Spaniards made attempts to subdue the inhabitants of
Mindanao by d<!ploying its military force.~ in the South. The Muslims
on the other hand, valiantly resisted and repulsed the colon izer.;.
They retaliated by rakling territories under Spanish rule with varying
deg~es of inteasity. The war between the Muslim Filipinos and the
Spaniard$ (aided by Christia.n Filipinos) lasted for more than 300
years.
The Muslim wars were brought about by the following reasons:
the Spanish invasion of Mindanao and Sulu, preservation of Islam,
and the Love of adven~ arising from the spoils of wars.
In 1597, ~ Spani~h colonizers tried to seize Jolo and force the
sultanate into subm.ission. After his victorious battle in Borneo for
the Spanish Crown, Governor FranciSICO de Sande sent forces to Jolo,
under the command of Captain Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa. He
ordered the padfkation of the place and the payment of tribute by
the inhabitMts to the colonial gove= n t Sultan Pangiran Budiman

123
(Muhammad td-Halim) resist~ the attack. However, Sulu fell into
Spanish hand~. Pearls wt!re given as tribute to the Spaniards.
The Muslims, haughtily refer red to by the Spaniards as AWros,
avenged hy plundering coastal towns under Spanillh d ominion.
Sirung~n and Salikala prepared a stronger force of 70 vessels and
4,000 warrion>, a year aftt'r their first successful raid in the Visayas
in 1599. This time, they were repulsed with heavy losscsatArevalo,
Ilo ilo province by 1,000 Vis ayan warriors and .70 Spanish
arquebusier!> under the rornmand of Don Juan Garcia de Sierra, a
Spanish alcalde mayor who died in the fight.
To embark its operations over Muslim 1\findanao, the Spaniards
built fotiified stiltions in p;uticular areas. On june 23, 1635, Father
:vlt'lchor de Vera along with 1,000 Visayans began the building of
the stone fort in the province. lhis fort was named Fort Pilar (in
honor of Nuestra Sei\ora del l'i Jar, the patroness of Zamboanga)
which helped the government fore"s in their campaign against the
belligerent oalives.
The Spaniards trit!d to conquer Maguindanao but were
thwa rt ed by native r~~tanc~ . Y:rom 1600-1650, th e s ultan of
:Maguirtdanao, Sultan Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat (Cormlat in
Spanish records) held power in reg inns from the Gulf of Davao aU
the way to Dapitan.
On March 13, 1637, Governor Corcuera with his Spanish-
Filipino troops landed at the mouth of Rio de Grande de Mindanao.
The next day, Ulmitan, Sultan Kudarat's capital in Cotabato fell into
the hands of the Spaniards. Kttdarat retreated to a hill called llihan.
Corcuera's troops assaulted the place and finally captured it after a
bloody encounter. Defeated by the Spaniards, Kud~ra t was able to
escape together with his br~vc w ife, carrying a baby.
On Ma y 24, Governor Corcucra returned to Manila and was
given a conqueror's welcome w ith m usic, rehgious festivals, and
a moro-moro performance (a ~lage play about the contending
Christi.ms and :Muslims w ith the formi!T "merging a s victors).
The fighting Moms intenqified theirdforts to contir\ue the battle
agains t the Spaniard~. After nursing his bullet wound in one arm,
Sultan Kudaratlater mot•nted r11ids on Spanish settlements in Luzon
and the Visayas and inspired feU ow Muslims never to !lubmit to the
Spanish coloi\Uers. The Muslims alsoassaultedtheSpanlsh outposts

124
in Mindanao and Sulu . 1n 1645, the Tausugs finally liberated Jolo
from the Spanish for<.-es.
In 1749, Sultan Allmud Din I was deposed by his brother
Flantilan because of his friendship with the Spaniards. On January
2, 1750, he and his family, together with some faithful followers
arrived in M;tnila. The su ltan wc1s royally ITIX'ived by Bish op Juan
de Arreched~a, the acting governor general. On April 28 of the
same year, he was bi\pti7.cd by the Dominican fathers at Paniqui,
Tnlac. He w as named Don Fernando Alimud Din I, the first
Christian ; ultan of Jolo. H is son. l~rael, and his daughter Fatima
were JikPwioc converted to Chris tiani ty and given educiltion in
Manila.
In 1751, Governor General joSE' francisco de Obando wa nted
Alimud D in I to regain hiq throne in Jolo. The sultan left Manila for
jolo an d s to pped a t Zamboanga. The Sp a n i!:h comma11d er in
Zamboanga claimed to have inlerccp ted a letter from Alimud Din I
tv a sult;~n in ~indanao, which was allegedly treasonable. Alimud
Din I was shipped back to Manila and later imprisoned at Fort
Santiago.
Governor Genera l I'ed ro Manuel de Aran dia, Oban do 's
s uccessor, rel~ased Ali mud Din [and granted him royal privileges.
In 1762, the British troops rescued Alimud Din I a t Pasig and later
restored to him his throne in jolo.
'The Sp anish fun:es, plunged in its conflkl with the British and
the local rebels. were unable to control the Moro (plunderer) raids
on Christian pueblos in the Vis<~yas and Luzon. The !:>eight of Muro
w ars oo:urred in the second half of the 18"· century. Jn 1769, the
Moros la nded at Malate and p lundered I he place.
Accord ing to Span ish records, an average of 500 Ouist ian.~ were
captured and sold annually as slaves in Beta via, Sandakan, and in
other slave m arkets in the East Indi~o. The Spanish government
spent huge sum of m oney for m ilitar y operations against the
m c1rauding troops of the South .
In the d osirlg decades of the 19"' century, t he Moro power
declined. In 1848, Govt:m(lr Genera l Narciso Claveria, using new
stec1mship~. attacked the Silmals at naL1.nguingui. They brought 350
S.unal p risoners to Manila.

125
 On December 11, 1850, Gov~rno r Genera l Anton io de
Urblztondo left Manila for Zamboanga in command of a force
consisting of lOll troops of artillery and 500 infantry to subjugal\! the
Muslims of Suht. Upon his anival in the la~t week of the month_ he
desisted from fighting, realizing !hat his force wa~ not enough to
capture Jolo. He sailed again to Jolo in January 1851. Sulu warriors
fu-ed upon his ships. The Spanish force retaliated and burned down
1,000 houses and around 100 bancas (boats) in 1\mgkil bt!fore sailing
back to :t:amboonga. The following month, after a reinforcement of
his troops, Urbizl:ondo attac~ed Jolo. The natives of Sulu lo~t over
100 men, and were forced into the interior.
In 1861, after more expeditions by the Spania rds in
Maguindanao, the sultan fin.llly Ncogni7.ed Spanish sovereignty.
However, resistance continu ed under Datu Ugto in upper Pulangi.
Superior Spanish arms allowed the colonizers to remain in
Maguindanao unti11899.
In 1874, Admiral Jose Malcampo became the Spanish governor
general in the Philippines. He prepa red a mighty annada for the
invasion of jolo. This would put an end to the devasta ting raids of
the Tausugs on the Christian pueblos. The attack lasted for 24 hours.
On March 1, 1876, Sultan Jarnalul A' lam worked for peace with the
Spaniards.
Sultan Jamalul A'lam of jolo transferred his capital to
Maimbung. The Sultanate of Sulu, being a sovereign government
was able to lease Sabah (North Borneo) to a British company. On
January 22, 1878, Sultan Jamalul A'lam leased Sabah to Mr. Alfred
IA:nt, an Englishman and Baron Gustavus Von Overbeck, an Austrian
of British l\orth Borneo Company for an annual rental of 5,000
Malayan doUars. The contract in 1!178 used the Tausug word "padjllck"
which meam lease. (Tite rental was increased to 5.300 Malayan
dollars in 1903lo 1%3.)
The sultan of jolo, a direct descendant of Sultan J<udarat,
acquired sovereignty over North Borneo (Sabah) the second half of
the 17'"' century. 'When the sultan of Brunei sought help to the sultan
of Jolo l:o supn!ss a :rebellion in 1704, the Sabah territory was ceded
to th!! latter in 1715 out of gratitude.
In 1886, Governor General Emilio Terrero led. the inv~ion to
Cotabato to subdue the Moro Maguindanaoans. Terrero's forces
destroyed some kufns (lortsj of Datu Utto but fa iled to crush Utto's

126
fighters. Alter suffering heavy losses, Govemnr Tcrrcro decided to
return to Manila.
In 1891, Governor General Valeriano Wevler, known M the?
" Butcher'' for h:i~ m thless supprc~qion of cariy revolts in <.:uba,
invaded Lanao. On August 21, 1891, he won the Pirst Batt!~ of
Marawi in Lanao Lake. DatuArnai Pakpak, thcdclcnderofMarawi,
wa~ able to e~capc. He recruited mure warriors to fight against the
Spanish invaders. flailing to conquer Lanao, Wcyler as..<;au lted
Cotabato. However, he wa~ overpowered by Datu Ali jimbangan
and his fierce krismen (warriors).
In 1895, Govemor General Ramon 131anco invaded th~ Lanao
lake region. Blanco's troops att"ckl!<l Marawi on March 10. 1895.
In this Second B11ttle of Marawi, the heruit' Da 1t1 Amai Pakp~k d ied
in .1ction. Blanco won his battle, but he failed to conquer Lanao like
Terrero .md Weyler. To av('.nge the fall of Marawi and the d ea th of
Datu Amai Pakpak, the Mus lim warriors d ec lared a jih11d (holy war),
forcing Blanco to halt the campaign and return to Manila.
11\e bitter warfare between the Spaniards and the Muslims
ended in 1898, after the signing of the Peitce Treaty of r.,ris on
December 10, 1898, which ended the Spanish domination in the
Philippi nes.

2.5. The Rise of Filipino NationaliRm

~ationalism was said to havt rooted from a strong fPeling
among populace that they belong to the same race. Such sentimE'nl
has n ot yet ~xisted in the Philippines prior to the 19"' century.
Although the cultural trails of th~ early Filipinos had striking
similarities. their linguistic differences as well as Ihe local autonomy
of each political unit in th e archipelago ba rt'ly yielded to the
development of this n ational sentiment. The absenc~ of arlequatc
means of transportation and communication made the situation even
more dismal.
The transition of the country's traditional :;ocictal structure to
co lonial bureaucracy brought about the awarenc~s of the local
inhabitants as to their common source of an)(iety and sulfering .
Unknowingly, the Spanish government planted the seeds of
nationalism by perpetuating poverty and injustice among the lower
classes of society. The followin g have been regarded in histo ry as
factors that gave rise to Filipino nationali.~m:
127
 1. Spread of liberali~m. When Spain grauually !!xpused
the Philippines to international commerce in the late 18"' and
early 19'h centuries, libeml ideas from Europe filtered in. The
thoughts of Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voila ire, Locke, Jefferson
and other political philosophers were made known through
books and periodicals brought into the country by men from
foreign ports.
The tr,lnsfonnation of the Philippine economy into a mw
material market for Europe uncon5dously increased their
contact with the intellectual tradition of the West. The
inlprovement in transportation and communic;~tion fadlitie~
required by incrc.1scd foreign tr.tde also brought the Filipinos
closer, and made them reali7.e their common predicament.
When Spain opened the Philippine ports in 1834 to free
trade, commercialization of Philippine agriculture and
economic expansion greatly beoefited the principalia in the
country. They w<?re able to send their children to schools and
even to educational in.<;titutions in Spain, thereupon giving them
exposure to libertarian ideals.
The dL~sipation of Eumpean and American liberalism in
the country was even facilitated with the opening of the Sut!z
Canal in 1869. In like manner, the ideas of masonry (i.e.,
freethinking, anticlerical, and hum.mitarian) also made the new
middle class aware of the repressive policy of the Spanish
authorities in the colony thus, m;,king themselve~ more
O\ttspoken on the excesses of the friar:; and government officials.
2. Sentiment against the prindpales. There was a
mounting dissatisfaction against the prindpali'S (or the political
and social aristocracy, which include~ the prominent land-
owning and propt-rtied ciliT.ens), accommodated as
intermediaries of the Spanish government from the inception
of its colonial rule.
The masses had been skeptical about the local aristocracy
due to their proportion of influence in the 5odcty. 1he llocano
in5urreclion in 1815 was a manifestal:ion of the people's cry to
mass movement.
3. Radal prejudice. The Spaniards commonly n-garded
the Filipino natives as belonging lo the "inferior race'' and
haughtily call~d them as indios. The preconc~tv~d notion of the
128
Spanish colonizers that the natives could not rise beyond their
" limi ted intelligenc~" instigated the enlightened Filipinos to
struggle for equality. Jo~e Riu l's annoMtion of Antonio de
:VIorga's Suct.so> de 1.1s Islns Filipinus domowtced the allegations
of the Spaniards that the Filipinos w ere savages attd had no
culture prior to the coming of the Westem colonizets.
4. Cultur~l changes. The ed ucational reforrns of 1863
dramatica lly imp roved the standards of ed ucation in the
primary level. With the implfmentation of a new educational
system, qual ified I'ilipinos were ab le to pmsue higher
education. Young men fTorn proe;perous Ch inese mestizo and
nativ e fam ilies were able to tal:.e up law, med icine, and
pharmacy. They were able to sco: the repressive <:Olonial policies
of Sp ainliJter being enlightened with liberal ideas; thus. giving
birth to a new breed of Ftlip inos - the ilttstmtlus (cm.l ightened
ones).
The ilust rados got the ch~nce to manifest their political w ill
w~ Carlos .Maria de la Tom! became governor general in 1869.
This beo~volen t governor was able to sh ow his l iber al
disposition in administering the g<.>wrnment a fter he invoked
reforms in the government like the rev oca tion of press
censor.~hip and the <tbolition of flogging i>S a form ol
punishment. I Jeeven lived simply within his mt.'ans. Governor
De Ia Torre as a result. iru.-pired the Filipino middle class to
sust3in tht!'ir c11mpaign for reforms in the country.
5. Secularizati on contro versy. The mandatory
provision of the Council of Trent (154.5-1563) affirmed that
S<'cular priests be appointed to administer the parishes in th~
colon y. Due to lack ol !>eCular priests, Pope Pius V issued in
1567, u pon the request of King Philip II, the Exponi Nobi.<;; which
allowed the regular clt>rgy (those belonging to munastkordcrs)
to serve as parish p riests without d iocesan authorization and
be exempted from b ishop's authority.
However, the appointment o f regular clergy to Philippine
parishes b rought about dissension ;~mong members o f the
Church . The regular orders 111 the outset re~istcd dioce~a.n
visitation on the ground that this wouJd place thl'. m under two
s uperiors, the head uf their religious order and the bishop as
well. This caused th<! ~xpltlsion of priests who refused the

129
 visitation of parishc!\ by representatives of the bishop, The
members of the Society ofJesus, Sf Uesuits) were expelled lrorn
the country for this reason.
The pilrish~s vacated by the jesuits (expeUed in the roWltry
in 1768) wt!re g iven to the native seculars. 1rt the 18" century,
Archbishop Basilio Santa Jus ta accep ted the resignation of
regu lar prie~ts and appointed native secu lar priests to the
pari~ he~;.

The royal decree, which was promulgated on November

9, 1774 c.mlering the :;ecularization of the parishes (ur th~
turnover of parishes supervised by regular clergy to the
seculars). became the basis for the ~ppointmentof native secular
clergy. However, this royal dtxree was suspended in 1776 owing
to friar opposition, as well as the unprepart:'dn~~ uf the native
priests.
The l'l'h\rn of the Jesuits in 1859 as ,~·ell as the policy of
deseculari~ation directh• affected the nalivc seculars. In the
187~. overt op position against the abuse.~ of Spanish officials
and .1gitation mr reforms became e\•ident among Filipino clergy.
The Reculari7.~(ion con tro versy trans formed in to a
Fi lipini ~.a tion issu~ s ince th e sendar priests were most! y
Filip\nos. Th~ effu rt to secularize the parish es in a way
ht>ighten~l the nationalist feeling o/ the people.
Some of the strong proponents of the ~ecularization
movement of parishes were Archbishop G regorio Meliton
Martinez .md Father Jose Burgos (both from the Archdiocese
of Ylanila). ·
lrt December 1870, Archbishop Martinez wrote to the
Spanish Reg~nt advoc~ting secularization M.ld mcntioncd that
discr imination against filipino pricsts would encourage anti-
Spanish sentimcnts.
6. Ctvit.e Mutiny of 1872. In 1868, a revolution led by
the liberal~ in Spa in deposed Quet'Tl Isabella II and gave rise to
the Pm,·i.~i onal R~pubJic of Spain. With the vic tory of the
Spanis h rev olutiun, many colonial officials with democratic
ide~ls were sent to Manila, which included Governor General
Carlos Maria de I~ Torre in 1869.

130
 The xepul:>lican government was overruled with the
restoration of monarchy. Amadeo, son of King Victor Emmanuel
li of Italy accepted the invitation to assume the Spanish Crown
it> f>ecember 1870. With the alteration of the system of
gov~rnml'nt in Spain, th.~ political atmosphere in lh~ Prulippines
likewise changed.
When Rafael de Izquierdo ~placed Governor de la Torre
in 1871, he promptly discarded the liberal measures. The
privileges of the arsenal workers ,1nd engineer corps rcg.uding
e:<emption from tribute and forced labor were al•o abolished.
As an expression of protest, on the night of January 20,
1872, about 200 filipino ~oldiers and dock workers in the
province of Cavite mutinied and killed their Spanish officers
wtdcr the leadership of Sergeant Lamadrid (others write La
Mad tid}. '!he rebellion was quickly .~upprcs!\Cd. Two days after
the mutiny, Lamadrid was executed together with 41 mutineers
at Bagumbayan.
The mutiny became an opportunity for the Spanish officials
to implicate the liberal critic:s of the govenun~nt. Th~ governor
general asserted that a secret faction existed in Manila to
overthrow Spani~h rule. Accu5cd of alleged conspiracy in the
rebellion were l'alhers MarianoGome7.,jose Burgos. and Jacinto
Zamora. They were sentenced to death by garrote on Febru~~ry
1i, 1872.
Some were thrown into jail while the rest were exile<l to
the :\1arianas Islands on March 14, 1872. Among those who
lefl on bonrd the fl<>re.s de Maria were Father Jose Maria.
Gu~•arra, Father P~dro D.:~ndan, Jo.!quin P~rdo de Tavera,
Antonio Maria Regidor, \1aximo Paterno, Jo:;e Maria Basa,
Balbina Mauricio, ,1nd Pio Maria Basa.
The Spaniards S\lcceeded in \\niting the Filipinos in a
common spirit to oppo~e colonial ,luthority. Bctv.•ccn 1872 and
1892, national consciousness was growing among !'iiipinos who
had settled in Europe. The execution of GOM-B'L'R-ZA
~ventually hastened th~ growth of Filipino nationali~m.
Tbe concept uf nativnhood coincided with the
d\!velopm~mt of the<onceptof Filipinos. Before, Filipinos would
only reier to the <'spttiiol"'~ insttlares. Later, it included the m~stizos
de wrgley and the native elite who had Hisp.1nizcd themst'IVL'S.
131
 The propagaPdisls tried to infuse lhe term Filipino with national
meaning, which lateT included the entire people in the
ardtipelago.

26. Propaganda Movement

Many Filipinos took refuge in Europe ,md initiated in Spain a
crusade for refomlS in the Philippines. The emergence of more
Filipino ilustr!ldos gave birth to a unified nationalist movement. This
campaign was known in our history as the Propaganda Movement.
The aim of the Propaganda Movement was peaceful
assimilation, referring to the transition of th~ l'hilippinf's imm being
a colony to a provincE' of Spain. The propagandists believe·d tl•dt it
would be betterif the Filipinos would bccume Spanish citt!ell.\', since
they would be enjoying the :;arne rights and privileges of the latter.
Its adherents did not seek independence from Spain t>ut refonns.
These reforms were as follows: equality of f'ilipinos and
Spaniards before the laws; restoration of the Philippine
representation in the Spani~h Cortes; sccul,1rization of Philippine
parishes .and the expulsion of tt.r. friars; and human rights for
Pilipinu~. :;uch as freedom of speech, freedom of the pr<.>ss and
freedom to meet and petition for r~dress of gri~vances.
Tho:;e whl> joined thi~ peacdut campaign wert' the Filipino
exiles of 1872, the patriots who left the islands to escape persecution,
and those l·vho had been to Spain for their studies. Although not all
of the propagandists were sons of wealthy Filipinos, they were scion.~
of good families. One of the greatest was Marcelo H. del l'ilar, a
la\~yer and joumaiL~t from the t<lwn of Bulacan. His ckle~l hmther
Toribio, a priest, was implk~tE'd in the Cavite Mutiny and exileti.
from then on. he juint-c.i in dUJIIuhun anc.i Jnlitan or litcr<ory jousts
during fiestas. During a pintak(lsi (cockfighting day), he spoke out to
the crowd by satirizing corrupt officials and friars.
Del Pilar also sought to reach out to people through his pen.
He wrote his anti-friar pamphlets in simple yet forceful Tagalog. In
1882, he helped establish the first bilingual (in Spanish and Tagi'llog)
newspaper, the TJinrion,~ Tagalog. I Ie became the editor of the Tagalog
!:>ection.
Between 1887·18!!8, when anonymous manifestos against the
fri.1rs were distributed to the public, he released Vasalnn at "Jocsoh,m

132
 (Prayers and.Mockerics), a manual of anti<l.crical commentary in
the formJt of novena. He parodied the I..nrtf', Prayrr, Hail Man;. th~
Apostlt•..;' Cm~d. the 'Jim Cnmmat~dments, th~ Act ofContrition, and the
<illechism. With the,;e antiderical prot~.>st~. Del Pilar's stay in the
country became dangerous. I lis house WilS burned mystcriott~ly.
I Je left the Philipp ines in October 1888 to e!;eape the pmsP.Cu!ion of
the friars.
Like Uel l'ila r, Gradano Lopez jaena parodied religious
literat u re in his satires. In Iloilo, he saw the misery of rural
communities and the abuses perpetrated by civil and rdigious
authorities. He w rote Fray Botod or "Fri.lr Potbelly" (circa 1874)
where he ridiculed a cleric named Fray l.lotod, who arrived looking
like a hungry mooqu ito and soon becamt:' s tout because of the stocks
la l:en from the peopl.... Bt:cause of~ antiderical literature, he m oved
to Madrid when? he joined o ther Fili~ino expatriates into jou m.llism.
Among those w ho had gone to Spain to stud y was Jose Rizal,
born to a well-to-do family in Calarnba,laguna. In 18M2, he went to
Spain and studied medicine a t the UniversidaJ Central d~.> Madrid.
His prestige was greatly enhanced by the publication of his socio-
historical novel .Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not) ii11887.
The Noli reflected the defects of the Spanish rule in the
Philippine~. particularly the abuses o f the friars. The imp~ct of the
story on the Spaniards in the Philippines was so intense, lhilt later
the reading of it was forbidden In the ootmtry.
Ri7.al may have been the first F1lipino poJitical cartooni~t. In
his sketchbook, hi! drew IampO()~ of Chinese merchants and the
cov~r de~ii,'TI for the Noli included the hairy calf and the slippcrcd
fuot of a Spanish friar.
Other great Filipino p ropag.lndists were Pedro A. t'aterno,
lawyer; Antonio luna, pharmacist and essayist; P~dro Serrano
Laktaw, tcachP.r-tutor ol Prince Alionso de Bourbon (later King
Alfonso XIII of Spain); and Isabelo de los Reyes, folklorist and
newspaperman. Juan Luna, known for !lis monumental painting
Spaliariurt~ and Felix Rcsurreccion Hidalgo, acclaimed for his
masterpiece Virgenes Cristiar~as Expuestas a/ l'opulacho (Christian
Virgins Exposed to the Rabble), also joined th~ movement for
reforms.

133
 The Filipino propagandists were also supported by a number
of Spani!lh hiends. In 1882, Juan Ataydc, a Spaniard born in Manila
founde-d the Circu/o Hi.$pil,O·Filipino. Unfortunately, the society did
not stay long due to shortage of funds and also beo::all<e of the lack
of confidence of the membezs in Atayde.
Professor Miguel Morayta, Rizars J)rofessor at Centra l
University of Madrid, trie-d to form the Asociucirm Hisp411o-FiUpino
in 1889. 11\.is association was concerned with instituting reforms in
the Philippines. The association lobbied successfully for the passage
of some laws which included the law pertaining to the compulsory
teaching of Spanish and the Jaws providing reforms in the judiciary.
However, these laws were not fully implemen ted considering the
return to power of the reactionary group in Spclin.
Since the mt!mbership of the association waRcomposed mostly
of Spaniards, it failed to secure the support of many Filipinos,
including Dr. Jose Rizal and Antortiu Luna. The young fj]jpinos felt
that the Spaniards and the creoles were too moderate in dealing with
their clamor for reforms.
Finally, the l.JI Solidaridad (Solidar ity ), a p u rely Filipinu
organization was establi~hcd in Barcelona on December J l, 1888.
This tool: place at a traditional New Year',; Eve banquet with Galicano
Apacible as president and Gr11ciano Lopez )aena a5 vice-president.
Rizat who was in Londun during that time, w<~s named honorary
president.
To make known the objectives of the Prupa!;anda, Gracia11o
l.ope7. )aena founded a fortnightly newspaper, lA Suli.laridad in
Barcelona on february 15, 1889. Marcelo H. del Pilar recently arrived
from the Philippines. He joined the group and helped prepare the
issues.
lA Solidtuidad was printed in Barcelona from February 15 to
October 31, 1889. then in Madrid, where it wa!'l p rinted from
November 15, 1889 until its last issue on November 15, 11>"15. from
DccembeT 15, 1889 \mtil its last issue, M .H. del Pil<tr be<clme the
editor, replacing Lope:z: Jaena .
The contributors of lA Solif/J!ridild were mos tly Filipinos like
M.II. del Pilar (Piaride/), Dt. Jose Rizal (Dimas Ala11g, l.Pong l.Juln),
Mariano Ponce (Nnni~rg, 1<11/ipulako, or Tigb11larcg) and Antonio Luni!l
(Taga-llog). Some foreigners also contributed their artides, like
Professor ferdinand Bhunentritt and Dr. Morayta.
134
 Many Filipino propagandists turned m asons, including Dr.
Rizill and M .H. del Pilar because they needed tfle help of the masons
in Spain and in other countries in their fight for reforms . This
organization called Freemasonry, consisted of fr<~temal lodges which
later evolved into social soctetie.s subsequently opened to non·
masonS.
In the Philippines, the first masonic Judge was established in
Manila ill 1856. As a role, masonic lodges, were not opened to
Filipinos. It was in Spain where Filipino t'xpatriate~, ~tudents and
intelle<:tual~ found themselves attracted to the ideals of equality,
religious tolerance, fraternity and liberty espoused by the free and
accepted masons.
The first Filipino Masonic Lodge callet! Rt'VCJiucicm was founded
by Lopez Jaena in Barcelona. This lodge was recognized by tfle
Grande Oriental Espanol headed by Morayta In April 1889. The
Hevolucion did not last long. It ended after Lopez Jacna resigned as
Worshipful Master on November 29, 1889.
The following month, M.H. del Pilar, w ith the help of Julio
U urente, organized Lodge Sclidaridatl ill Madrid, with the latter as
the first Worshipful Mas ter. Grande Oriente &-paiiol recognized it
ill May 1890. l.bdge Solidaridad eventually prospered that other
Filipinos joined it, including Dr. Riza l, Pedro Serrano Laktaw,
Baldomero Roxas, Galicano Apacible and othc~.
Towards the end of 1891, M.H. del Pilar sent Pedro Serrano
Laktaw to the Philippines to establish the first masonic lodge in
Manila. Thu' the Lodge Nilud was founded on January 6, I 892. In
one of their meetings, the masons 5et fOith their platfonn. They
wanted a dignified, frey and prosperous country with a democratic
regime and a genu ine and cffc<:tivc autonomy, and a good
govern ment . They were asking fo r reforms . They wanted
representation in the Cortes as well as the declaration of the country
as a Sp anish p rovince, with all the rights and obligations.
As of May 1893, the masonic lodges in the couniTy numbered
thixty-five, nirle of which were in the city of Manila. They also
accepted women members. The first woman to be admitted was
Rosario VWaruel, who was initiated a member of the l.bdge WalllnR
on July 18, 1893. Other female members were Trinidad Rizal,
Romua lda Lanuza, )nsefa Rizal, Marina Dizon, Sixta Fajardo,
Valeriana l.ega7.pi. and Purificacion Leyva.

135
 Alm05t simultaneously with the it~troductfon-of masonry in the
Philippines. Rizal wrore the coru;titution of LA Ugn Filipinll (The
f'hilippine League) while living in Hong Kong with the help ofJ05e
Ma. 'R asa.
In Hong Kong, Rizal d rafted a proposal to Governor General
Eu logil.l Despujol to establish a Filipino colony in Saba h, Borneo,
but the latter refused. Ri.zal's scheme was meant to help resolve the
plignt of ejected renants from Calamba. Laguna.
Aftex arriving in Manila on june 26, IB92, Rizal conferred with
Governor General Eulogio Dt!spujol to obtain pardon for his family.
He met with some Filipinos around the city, then took the train to
Ma lolos, Bulacan;San Fernando and Bacolur, Pam panga: and Tarlac.
On the night of July 3.1892, Rizal founded LA Liga Fi/ipina at the
re~idence o f Domtco Ongjunco in llaya St., Tondu, ManiLa with
Ambro:;io Salvado; as Prc~>idcnt; Deodato Arellano, secretary;
Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Agu5tin deJa Rosa, fiscal. Among
tho~ present in the meeting were Pedro Serrano Laktilw (Panday
Pira), Domingo Franco (Felipe Len!), Jose A. Ramos (Socorro), Moiscs
Salvador (A raw), Faustino Villa rue! (1/aw), Numeriano Adriano (lpil),
Apolinariu Mabini (Katabay), and Andres Bonifacio {May Pag-asa).
lJI Liga was to be a sor t of mutual aid and self-help sudety,
dispensing schoLarship funds and legal aid, loaning capi tal and
setting up cooperatives. The league's motto Unuslmtar Omnium (one
li ke all} served as an avowal of thei r ideals. !:lased in it~ consti tution,
the objec tives of tl'\e Lign were: the lmificalion o f the whok
archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and homogt>neous body;
prot~ction in cases of want and necessity; dele~ against violence
and injustice; encouragement of in struction, agriculture a nd
commerce; and the study and implementation of reforms.
The goa~ of f 11 Ufla were to be carried out by the Supreme
Council, the Provindal Council, and the Popular Council. Each
member of tne league had to pay ten centavos as monthly dues. The
mt>mbers ought to choose a symbo lic nam~.
TI1e members became quire active. Bonifacio for one, exerted
great effo rts to organize chap~rs in various districts in Manila. Rizal
himself caused the circulation of a handbill ling Karapatan ng Ta(>
printed in both Tagalog and Spanish. This' was his tTan:.lation of the
French Declnralio11 of tlLe Rights of Man of 1789.

136
 Titis situation alarmed the Spanish authorities. On July 6, 1892,
Rizal WDS ~ccrctly arrested by order o( Governor Dt!:;pujol and
subsequently imprisoned at Fort Santiago. The following day. the
govt>mor gener11l ordered the deportation ot Rizal to Dapitan,
Zarnboanga del ~orte as punishment for his allegedly 1\ubversive
materials.

27. The Katipunan

Some of the members of the Liga Filipina found out that peaceful
agitation for rcfonn.<> w,,s not enough. Thi<> time, they opted for the
country',; freedom mo~ than anything else. Andres llonifado was
one of them. He did not join the I.a.< Compromisarios or Cuerpo de
Compromi:sario~ l!!d by Domingo Franco. This faction pledged to
continue supporting the Propaganda Movl!ment in Spain.
The radical one~ led by Bonifacio b<:!lieved that the wdfa~ of
the people could not be achieved by requests for reforms but by an
armed revolution. Their goal was transformed from assimilation to
~cparation and then independenc<?.

On the night of July 7, 1892. Bonifacio and his friends met

secretly at Deodato Arellano'!; house at I\o. 72 AzcarragaStrcct (now
Claro M. Recto) near F.kano Street in Iondo, Manila. They decided
to form a setret revolutionary society, modeled in part on Mosonic
Order called K.ata.1stnaum K.agalung-galtmgang Kati;rnnan ng mga Anak
ng Bayan (Highest .md Respected Society of the Sons of the People),
otherwise known a~ KKK. or Katipunan, dedicated to national
independence through armed revolution.
The men, gathered around a flickering table lamp. signed their
membership papfrs with their own blood. It was agreed that the
members be ~cruited by means of the triangle method in which an
original member would recruit two members who did not know
each other but only knew the original member who took them in.
They also decided during the meeting, the payment of an entrance
fee of one real fuert~ (twenty-five centavos) and a monthly due of
meJia real (about twelve centavos).
The triangle method wa!\ abolished in December 1892 after it
was found out to be too cumber~me. >Jew converts were initiated
into the secret society using rites borrowed from the masonry. The
neophyte was made to swear to guard the secrets of the society.

137
 More than a secret society, the l<atipunan was a government
itself with a consti tu tion promulgated in 1892, and another
constitution replacing the fin.t Ont' in 1894. The central government
of the Katipunan was vested in a K?tmr$lllfiSIIng Sangguuinu (Supreme
Council) with the officials aforemen tioned.
In each province, there was a Sanggrminng Raynu (Provincial
Counci l), and in each town, a Sangguniang Baltmgny (Popular
Council). The judicial power resided in a secret chambe-r called
Stmgguniang Hukuman Qudic:ial Cmmdl).
There were three grade~ of membership in the Katip=an. The
first grade caDed a katipun (associ3Le), wore a black mask at the
Katipunan mt>etings. His password was Anak n,'? lln:ynn (Son.~ of the
People). "!he :c;ccond grade called karlJQ/ (:$old ier), wore a green ma~k.
HU< p3ssword was COM-BUR-ZA. The third gradt- ca lled bayani
(patriot), wore a red mask . His password was ll.iw/, the honorMy
president of th~ [(atipunan.
During the- first election, the following officers of the Supreme
Council were chosen:
Dcodato Arellano - !'resident
Andres Bonif<Ki.o - Comptroller
Ladislao Diwa - r iscal
Teodoro Plata - Secretary
Valentin D1az - Trcasurer
There were also women members of the KatiptJOan, t>ut they
were not required to ~ign with their own blood. To b~ ad mitted in
the women's section, one had to be a wife. daughter, or ~ist~r of a
Katipuncro (male member) to ensure the secrecy of the movement.
Among the womc'!"l member:.o were Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's
wife, who was caDed the Lnkambini of the Katipuna n: Benita
Rodrigue;;;, the wif~ of Katipunero Restitute Javier; and josefa and
Trinidad Rizal, sisters of Dr. Jose Rizal.
The women guarded the secret p;~pen; and documents of the
society. When the Kalipunan held a meeting in a certain house, they
made it appear that a real social party was going on. Ukew~. they
were a lso helping the society hy recruiting more members. The
w l)ffien's chapter of the Katipunan was hom d uring the presidency
of Roman Hasa (second president) in July 1893. Josefa R.izal was
elected Presiden t of the women's chapter called LA &mflla.
138
 Bonifacio deposed Arellano as president in a meeting in
f-ebruary 1893 because of lhe latter's inaction. However, early in
1895, Bonifacio realized that Roman Basa was as ineffective as
Deodato AreUano, that he called a II\l.'Cting of the society and readily
deposed Basa. Bonifacio himself was elected Suplt'mO (P~ident).
With the Ka tipunan's organi:zational set-up, Ronifacio turned
his attention to the symbol of it; authority. Upon hi.s 1'\!(jUest, Benita
Rodriguez, with the help of Gregoria de Jesus, made a flag. which
consisted of a red rectangular piece of cloth with thr~ white K's
arranged horizontally at the center. This was the first official flag of
the society; however, some members had their flag with three K's
arranged in the form of a triangle. Others had one K allhe center of
the red.flag. Some generals of the revolution, likew·i.se, adopted their
own designs.
Knowing the importance of a prirru?r to teach the members of
the society irn ideal~. Ernilo Jacinto prepared one, which he called
Knrti/Ja, a word adopted from the Spanish carl illa which at that time
mMnt a primtr for grade school students. (Fonner UP President
Rafael 'Palma, a ~volutionarypatriot, noted that Apolinarlo Mabini
wrote the or iginal sta tutes of the Katipunan's Kartil!a and Emilio
Jacinto translated it into Tagalog for the benefit of lhe unschooled
member,.; of the Kalipunan.)
The Kllrtil/a consisted ol thirteen tcaching.o; which the members
of the society were expecte~ to observe. The primer constituted the
following:
l. Life which is not<"Onsccrated to a lofty and sacred cause is
li..ke a tree without a shadow, if not a poisonou:; w~ed.
11. A good deed that springs from a desire for personal prb!it
and not from a desire lo do good is not kindness.
IT!. True greatness consists in being charitable, in loving one's
fetlowmel\ and in adjusting every movement, deed and
word to true Reason.
IV. All men an- equal, be the color of their s kin black or white.
One may be superior to another in knmvledge, wealth and
beauty, but cannot be superior in being.
V. He who is noble prefers honor to p ersonal gains; he who
is mean prefers personal profit to honor.
VI. To a man with a sense of shame, his word is inviolate.
139
 VII. Don't fritter away time; lost riches may be recovered,
but time lost will never come again.
VIII. Defend the oppre~sed and fight the opprP.ssor.
IX. An intelligent man is he who is cautious in speech
~~nd knows h ow to keep the se(:rtts thCit must be
guatded.
X. In the thorny path of life, man is the guide of his wi fe
and children; if he who guides movl!!; toward eviL
they who an: guided likewise m ove toward evil.
XI. Think not of wom.m as a thing m erely to while away
time wito, but a~ a helper and p.utner in the hatdships
of life. Respect her in her weakncs~, 11nd n:mcmber
the mother who brought you into this world and who
cared for you in your childhood.
XIL What you do not want done in your wifP., daughter
and sister, do not do to the wife, daughter and s ister
of anothcr.
XII I. The nobility of a man does not consist in being a kinR-
nor in thc highness of the nose and the whiteness o f
the s kin, nor in bcing a priest representing God, nor
in the exalted position on this earth, but pure and
truly noble is he who, though hom in the woods, is
possessed of an upright character; who is truc to his
wold; who has dignity ~nd honor; who does not
oppress and docs not help those who oppress; who
knows how In look aftcr and love the land of his birth.
When the~e doctrines spread and the Sun of beloved
liberty shine~ with bnlliant e ffulgen ce on thcsc
unhappy isles and sheds its soft rays upon the united
pcoplc and brothers in everlasting happ iness, the
live•, labors, and sufferings of those who are gone
shall be more than rccompcnscd . {Teodoro Agoncillo,
History of the. Filipino Peoplr., Que Lon City: Malaya
Books, ! 970, p. 181.)
Bon ifacio wrote a decalogue or ten comm,,ndments titled
KPttmgkultrux Gagu?t•in >tg mgw Anak ng Bayan (Outic~ to be Observed
by the Sons uf tht' Country) to lay down the guide lines for good
citizenship. Thi~ ducument in manuscript form still exi.~ts. '!he mlcs

140
include love oJ God, love of country and one's fellowmen; diligence
in work; sharing of one's means with the poor; punlsluncnt of
scoundrel~ and traitors; and the guarding of the mandates and aims
of the K.K.K .
Another step taken by the i<atipunan to propagate i~ teachings
was the ~tablislunent of a printing prr.ss. In 1894, the Ki\tipunan
bought an old handpress with the money donated by two patriotic
Filipinos from Vi.~ayas ··· Francisco del Cashllo and Candido Iban.
These two Kalipu neros, who came ba<k from Au~tralia ln 18'JS, had
one thou~d pesos between them for having won in th~ lottery.
Th.c types used in printing were purchased from l.sabelo de los Reyes,
and many were stolen from the press of the Viano de Mnnila (Manila
Da il y) hy Filipino employees who w~re members of the Katipunan.
Undc:r Emilio jacinto's supervision, two patriotic printers,
Faustino Duque and Ulpiano Femande:l, printed the Ktllayann, the
organ of the I<atipurum, to disseminate the ideals of the society.
Knlnyu.m had its first and only i.~suc in January 1896, which carried a
false masthead stating that it was \:>eing printed in Yokohama with
:\farcc lo I I. del Pilar as editor. This was to deceive the Spanish
au l horitie!l and eva de arrest.
r•ublishcd in the KnlaynQn was an essay titled " Aug Dapat
M.11!¥1tid ng mR" 'li>galog" (Wh.tt the Filipinos Should :Know) attributed
to &mifacio. This composition dealt with the three quc~tions asked
of Katipunan applicants: "What were the conditions in ,the
Philippines befor<! Spanish conquest? What is the conclltion of the
country today? What will the Philippines be tomorrow?''
Copie5 of the Kalayann reached members and possible recruit~
through the efforts of Macario Sa kay and Pio del Pilar as distributors.
TI1e Kalipuneros were tireles~Sly recruiting members in Nueva Ecija,
Bulacan, and Cavitc. The society grew and began to sprc.1d into the
non-Tagalog provin<cs. By August 1896, there were thousands of
KalipW!an members in the arrnbaks of Manila and some 18,00() in
other towns.
During the Holy Week of1895, Bonifacio and some Katipuneros
went to the mountains of Montolban in search of a good hideout
where they could hold their secret meetings. On April 10, 1895,
Bonifacio and his companions including Emilio Jacinto. Restitute
Javier and Guillermo Masangkay entered the l'am:itinan Cave (Cave
of Bemanio Carpio) on Mount Tapusi u1 the mountain ranges of

141
San Mateo and Monta!ban. There they held a se<:rct ~ion leading
to the initiation rites of new recruits. After the ~ession, Aurelio
Tolentino picked up a piece of charcoal and w.rote on the cave wall
in Spanish, "Viva Ia Independencia Filipina!"
Jn the early. part of 1895, Bonifacio became the Supremo (head
of the Supreme Council). He also occupif'd thil; po~ition in the fourth
and fifth elections of the Supreme Council, in December 1895 and
August 1896 respectively.
07\ )Wte 15, 1896, Dr. Pio Valenzuela, acting as 'Bonifacio's
emissa.ry. sailed for Dapitan to get Rizal's support for the armed
revolution. To cover his real mission from Spartislt authorities, h~
brought with him a blind man named Raymundo Mata, who wao; in
need of Dr. Rir.al's medical services. Rizal did not agree to the
Katipunan's plans of an armed uprising since the pi:'Ople were not
ready for it.

28. The Revolution of 1896

By the middle of 1896, as the Katipunan was busy preparing
for a revol\ttion, hlnts about its existence reached the Spa.nish
authorities. On July 5, 1896, Manuel Sityar, the Spanish li!!utenant
of the Civil Guards stationed at Pasig, reported tile questionable
activities of I'Ome Filipinos.
On August 13, 1896, Father Agustin Fernandez, Augustinian
curate of San Pedro, Makati, wrote- to Don Manuel Lucngo, the civil
governor of Manila, about the evening gatherings in hi.<; pari<;h,
apparently by men plotting against the Spaniards.
The Katipunan was finally discove~ed on August 19. Teodoro
Patiiio, a member of the Katipunan betrayed the secrecy of it to F<~ther
lvf.ariano Gil, an Augustinian parish curate. On the basit; ofPatiiio's
infonnation, the Spanish authorities acted immediately.
The Spanish CQ<:adore; {civil guards) began making hundrej.ls
of arrests. Many of them died of suffocation while detained at the
overcrowded Fort Santiago. Two Katipuneros acting as spies for thl!
governor of Manila told lk>nifacio about the discovery.
On August 21-22, Bonifacio caUed for a meetingatthe house of
VidalAcab, then to the residence of Apolonio Samson inKangkong.
Caloocan to ~sue the call to arms. Emilio jacinto ~>ummoned the

142
heads ofKatipunan Councils to K.a.ngkong to di<;CUSS their measures
against tht' Spanish forces.
The next day, Augu st 23. Bonifacio, Jacinto and other
Katipuneros met at Bahay Toro, Pugadlawin, B~l intnwnk. north of
Manlla and gathered at the resid~nce of Meldwra Aq1oino, known
as 'fandnng Sora.
In the mass meeting held i.n the yard of ~ son ~)f M~lchor,\
Aquino, the Katipuncros tore their crdu/as p.>rsonulo•s ((ertificates},
thE.' syrnl>ol of thE.' hlipino vassalage to Spain at the saml.' time
shouting, "Long live the Ph ilippincs~ Long live the Kat i pun an!" This
event is recorded in history as the Cry of l'ug<ldlawin or Cry of
Balin tawak, which proclaimed their d~fia nre to t·hc Spanish
goverrunent.
At Hagdang Bato, Mandaluyong, Bonifacio gave his 1,\st
rnanifes \Q Katipunang Mararahas ng mga Anok ng &y1111 (So<-icty of
Enraged Sons of the Counh)•) regarding the revolution that wo~old
take place in Manila.
Bonifacio led his anny to attack the polverin (powder depot) in
San Juan at the dawn of Sunday, Augttst 30. IB%. 'Thi~ is now known
as the Battle of Pinaglabanan. The Spaniards outnumbered the
revolutionilries who were not fu lly ilrmed. Due tu ht>avy casualties,
Bonifacio and his surviving m en were forced to retreat to Rali!ra.
A day earlier, August 29, Melchor a Aquino, was arres ted by
the Guardia Ch·il at Pasong Punk, Novaliches, and jail~J o~t Flilinid
(prison) for giving ;~id to the Katipuncros.
In tht' aft~moon of Augu.;t 30, Governor General R3mon Blanco,
in trying to quell the Philippi"e Revolution, issued a decree d~-cl,uing
a !>late! of war on Manila and sev~:n Lu:w n provinces · Cavite. Laguna,
Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, J\"ueva Ecija, and Tarlac and p laced
them under martial law. 11\C decree also provided thai tho.;c who
would su rrender within 48 hours after the ptlblicahon of the dP.(rce
would be pardoned except the leaders of the Katipunan.
Taking advantage of the amnesty provision, some Katip\U1eros
sunendered like Val~nzuela. However, the Spanish authoritie~ only
subjected them to torture to make them squeal matters about the
revolution.

14.1
 After the San Juan del Monte Battle, Bonifacio, Jacinto. <tnd other
leaders like :'vfacario Sakay, t.polonio Samson, l'austino Guillermo
and General Lucino (alia s l'ayal) sel up Cclrnp in the hills near
Ma riqu inil {now Marikina), San Mateo, ·and Montalban. ~1ore
Filipino~ joined them.
St.>ries uf executions by the government bcg.m after the
prodamation of a state of war. Blanco inaugurated a reign of terror
in the belief that this would stop the rebellion. On SeplE>ml>er 4, four
members of the Kalipun an wt>re executed at Bagumbayan. On
September 12, thirteen were put to death at Pla.l:a de Armas. near
tht> Fort of San Feli~ in Cavite and are now remembered as ''Los
Tn."<:~ MartiresH (Tile Thirteen Martyrs of Cavilc). They were Maximo
Inocencio. Luis Aguado, Vicloriano Luciano, l-lugo Perez, Jose
Lall.lna, Antonio San Agustin, Agapito.Cunchu. Feliciano Cabuco,
Maximo Gregorio, Eugenio CAbezas, Severino l apidario, Alfonso
de Ocampo, and Franci5co Osorio.
On September 16, twenty- two prominent rc~idcnts of Manila
were imprisoned at Fort Santiago for alleged involvement in the
insurrection. Among them were 'lelesforo Chuidian, Ambrusio
Salvador, Amhrosio Rian>;arel' Bautista, Juan LUI\il, Antonio LU11a,
and Mariano Lunjap.
11•e following month, aroUJld 150 Tilipino citizens were loaded
on S.S. Maniln bound for Cartagena. Spain. From there, they were
taken to Fernando Po in Nrica to serve as exiles for their alleged
involvement in the rcbclhon.
Meanwhile, Ri7.al was arrested whil" on hi:; way to C\tba to
serve as a doctor for the Spanish anny. On November 20. Dr. Jose
Rizal appea red before Colonel Francisco Garcia Olive to anGwer the
charges filed against him. By December 26, the litigation of Riza l'
took place before a milit."UJ court. Two days after, Governor Carnilo
rolavieja approved the vcrdicL Convicted of ~clition, rebellion, and
illicit Jssociations, Ri?.al was executed by a firing squad at
Magumbayan Field (now Luneta) on December :-10, 1896. at 7:03a.m.
Eight Filipino soldiers, with eight Spanish soldiers b~hind them
carri~d out the execution.
Such inodents involving detention, dep<>rtation, and execution
only made the Filipinos more unrelenting to the Spanish govcrruncnt.
The more they became determined to continue the struggle.

144
 TI1e Katipun~os in Cavite rose in anns on Augwt 31, 1896.
They assaulted the tribunal (municipal building) of San Francisco de
M.llabon. At Ca\ite el Viejo (now Kawit), the Magdalo troops Jed
by Candido Tria Tiruna a tta cked lh e en emy garrison. The
Magdiwang forces on the other ha.rui, pounded the Spaniards in
Noveleta.
In the morning of September 5. Emilio Aguinaldo and his men
assailed the Spcmish lroops :<>tationcd at Imus under the command
of General Eusebio Aguirre. In this battle, the Spaniards lo1:1t
hundreds of men and :;ixty guns with ammunition. From that time
on.• the Cavitcftos recognized Aguinaldo as a man of di~tinguished
valor and a~ lied him Hmeml Miong, no longer Capi.tan Miong.
TI•e Sp ani'<h regular army w~re t remend ously defeated at the
tw in battles of Binakayan and Dalah ican in Cavite, fought on
l\'ovember 9-11. Both Magdiwang and Magdalo fo rces in their
rc:spcctivc trenches built by General Ed1lbcrto Evangelista (an
engineer trained in Belgium) fought furiously ag.1inst the Spanish
army under lhe pcr!>onal command of Governor General Blanco.
Unfortunately, Candido Tria Tirona, the secretary of war in th~
Ma.gdalo Council died in the Battle of Binakayan.
The citizens of Taal, Lemery, Calaca, and Bayongyungan in
Batangas also joined the revolu tion at the end of Octobt:r 189h .
However, they were dispersed a fter the Spanish. garrison in Taal call\f'
to the aid of the besieged towns .
At the outbreak of the revolution, the number of Katipuneros
grew. On December 4, 1896, the Kalipunan membcrn of Dalangay
Dimasalang met at Bigaa (now Balagtas) in the province of IJulacan.
They wanted to reintorce their operation again~t the Spaniard.~ and
to conduct an election of officials under their newly founded
Kak.uong Republic. Led by General Eu.~bio Roque (also known as
M11C$lrong Sebio and Dimtllmngo), Canuto Villanueva, and Casimiro
Ga lve7., around 6,000 men and women enlisted th em se lves as
m~bers.

The Spanish government had already known the existence of

the Katipunan at Kakarong Real (a.k.a. KakaronR' de Sill) because of
the armed resistance it had begun against them since Augu~t of1896.
On January 1, 1897, the govemml;!nt troops under General
Olaguer-Feliu rushed to the fortifications of Kakarong and launched
a massive assau lt against the people:-, including civilians. The
145
 revolutionaries, ,·aught L>y surprise. resisted with ferocious courage
but they \"ere Ovi'Twhelmed by the superior armaments of the
enemy. Around UOO rebels were killed. Th(.' gov~mment force~
capt-ured si.>< fortified po!lilions. seven t·ann<ms, a cartridge factory
and a large numher o{ fire11~.
MaL'S!:mng Sehio managed to escape h is persccuton; at first.
Ten day.<: lal(.'r, he was captured and arrested at Bung;, Mayor, Bustos.
. On January 16, a l .5:00 in the afternoon, Maestrung Sebio was
executed .
With the objective ol ending the revolution, Governor Polavieja
launched an .111-out offcn~ivc on t'et>ruary 15, 1897 in Cavitc. O n
february 17, a Spanish sn iper killed Gcnl.'ral Evangelista in the Battle
of Zapote. Two days later. General l.lcha mbrc o! the Spanish forces
c:aptu red th .. town of Silang. G<'tl('ral Aguinaldo aided by Generals
Vito llE-larmino and Artem io Ricarte, mou nted a counteroffrnsivc,
bu t failed to get Silang back.
On February 25, 1ll97, the to wn of Das mar.iiias, Cavile, was
taken by the Sp anish troop.s led by Gen<'ral Antonio Zobald who
also attacked Salitran (ba rrio ol Dasm arifias) w hich wa~ defended
by General Flaviano Ycngko. Yeng ko wa:> mortally wounded in
action and died on Mar<"h 3, 189i at Im ~ Military IIospital. Yengko
was the youngest general of the Philippine rcvolution, being younger
than General Gregorio del Pila r by one year, 2 mo•\ths and 7 d;~ys.
In the bloody battle of S~li Ira n, GE-n eral Zabala was killed by
Yet\gku'.s troops.
On May 17 of the .~ame year, the Katipuneros led by .l'rand.~('O
del Ca~tillo attacked a Spanish garri!lon in Akli\n. Unfortunately,
the leader died in a('tion. H~ men decided to retreat into the
ffiOlU\tains.

The amnesty offer of government lured twenty Katipuneros to

i\Cccpt it. Not true to its promL~e, the government killed nineteen of
them. The martyrs o! Aklan were Ramon Aguirre, Denito iban,
Maximo Mationg, Tomas Briones, Candido lban, Simplicio Reyes,
Domingo del a C rm:, Simeon Inocencio, Canulo Segovia, Valeriano
Dalida, Isid ro Jimenez,, G.lbino Sucgang, Claro Delgado. Catalino
Mangat, Angelo f emandcz;, Gabino Yorisal, Francisco Villorenle,
Lamberto Mangat, and V;~ leriano Masinda .

146
29. Rivalry in the Katipunan
In C.witt-, there were two Katipunan council• - the Magdalo
Council, h eaded by Baldomero Aguinaldo (Emilio Aguinaldo's
cou!tin ), and the Magdiwang Coundl with Mariano Alvarez. (undl'
of Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifad o's wi f~) as president.
The capital of Magdiwang Council wa~ Novclcta, then l~ter
tra~fl'nt:d to San Francisco de Malabon (now General Tria!l). The
other towns undt'T its jurisdiction were Rosario, Tan.za, 1\'aic, Tentate,
Maragondon. Magallanes, Sailen, Alton.~, lndang, and San Ruqut>.
The Magdala Council had its capital in lmus. The other towns under
1ts jurisdiction were Kawit, Dasmariftas, Silang, Amadeo, Mendez,
Nun~, Baroor, and Cannen.
Emilio Aguinaldo first gained pop\1larity after he had beaten a
se,;eant of thi! Guardia Civil in a single combat. He even became
more re nowned after his succcs~ fnl uprising in Kawit (hi s
hometown), then in the Battle uf Imus and in the early part uf
November 18!16, he liberated the town ofTalisay, Bat~nga!l, from the
Spanish soldiers.
Upon invitation of the Mugdiwang Provincial in Cavite,
Bonifacio left his hideout in Morang. On D<.-ccmber 1, 1896, he and
his wife, together w ith his two brothers (Ciriaco ,,nd Procop io},
General Lucino and twenty soldiers arrived in Cavite.
The Magdalo Council hosted a ~neralassemhly of both factions
in rmu~ on December 31, ll day after Rizal's t:xecution. ll<mifacio
conducted the mt-eting. Among the issues discuss!!<.~ were the
e!il:ablislunentof a revolution~ry government under the new e lected
oHicials and uniting the Magdiwang and Magdala forces under a
single command. The Magd;do faction believed that· with the
outbreak of revolution, the J(atipunan had ceased to he a secret
society and theretore should be replaced by a nt'W one. ·
The Magdiwangs insisted that there was no need to crea te a
revolutionary government because the Katipunan was ac tually a
government with a constitution and bylaws recognized by everyone.
General F.dilbe:rto Evangelista tried to reconcile the two groups by
drafting a constitution e~tablishing the Philippine Republic. This
constitution was reportedly discussed in lhc assembly. Due to ht'ated
debates ~rising from the issues. the assembly accomplished nothing
definil'e. [t~ proceedings ended with the arrival of josephine Bracken

147
(Dr. Jos~ RiL:al's widow), accompanied by l'a("iano Rizal. They later
agreed to reschedule the joint assembly at a different place.
The Second Convention of these two Katipunan factions was
held on March 22, 1897 at Tejeros, San Francisco de Mala bon, Cavite.
The two factions met at an estate-house of the friars, which the rebel~
had captured earlier. Majority of those who attended were the
Magdiw.:mgs. G~neral A~;uinaldo and other Magdalo officials were
a brent hecau:;e they were defending the Magdalo towns at that time.
Thes~ssion whkhstarted at about twoo'dock in the aflernoon
was presided by Jacinto Lumbreras, a Magdiwang. Severino de las
Alas, a Magdiwang. suggested that theconvE'ntion assembl~ should
resolve w hcthcr thete should he a ne-~v govemm.,nt to replacE! the
Katipunan. Lumbreras called for a rece~s after this issue led to
another heated discussion.
As it turned out, the convention upheld the views of the
Magdala Council. Th~ majurity wanted .1 new revolutionary
govemmrmt. This re~ulted to the election of new officials. llonifado
presided over the election. Before the casting of voles had takt>n pl<~ce,
Bonifacio reminded that whoever should get elected in any position
should be rc~pectcd. elected were as follows:
Presid<mt - F.milio Aguinaldo
Vice· Prc~;ident - Mariano Tri<~s
Captain-General - Artcmio l{icarte
Director c:Jf W,1r - Emiliano Riego de Dios
Director of the Interior-- Andres Bonifacio •
Daniel Tirona. a Magdala, protested Bonifado':<;dcction saying
that his position should be occupied by a lawyer. He suggested a
Ca vitciin lawyer; jose del Rosario, for the prn:l. Bonifacio fdt insulted.
He demanded Tirona to retract what he had said. flu! Tirona. instead
of offering an apology, tried to leave the scene. Thi~ infuriated
Bonifacio and made him drew his revolver to shoot Tirona, but
Ricarte and others intervened. The people began to leave the hall.
Bonifacio angrily declared the election null and void and left the
iiSSE>'mbly room with his bodyguards.
From Pa$ong Santo!, a barrio of Dasmariilas, Aguinaldo went
to Tejeroo as informed by a special committee headed by Col. Vicente
Riego de Dios. Being the new president, he had to take his uath. He

148
was swom into office inside thp Catholic Church of Santa Cruz
:-.1alabon (1lmza) together with other newly elected officials.
A d ay after the Tejeros A~~~mbly, March 23, Bonifacio gathered
his followers and drafted a document called A('ln de Tejel'l.)!;, signed
L'}' t;onif<ldo and 44 other plotters.
This documen t rejected the revolutionary governmen t of
Aguinaldo on the followlslg grounds: first, theTejt!ros As~embly lades
legality; second, there was a Magcllllo conspiracy to oust Monifacio
from leadership; third, the election of officials was fraudult!nt; ;md
fourth, th.lt actual pressure hol.S been brought upon the presidency.
Another secret meeting was held on April1\l, 1897 at the friar
estate house in Naic. Bonif<Jcio and his coconsp irator!; drew up
another doc:ument called the Naic :vtilitary Pact, signed by 41 men,
including flonifacio, Rici\rte, Pio del Pilar, and Scvcrlslo de las Alas.
An army corps 1rndcr the command of General Pio del Pilar w~
created.
While l:!oni(,,cio and his companions were busy conferring,
Major Lazaro Makapag01.l who was held prisoner downstairs
managed to escape and informed President Aguinaldo, who was in
bed suffering malaria, about the rcc~nt developments. Aguina ldo
ro~ from his sickbed ;tnd went to the friar-estate house to confront
his conspirators.
Seeing that Agu inaldo's soldiers had already surround~d the
~st~te house, Bonifa~io and his Magdiwang fullowe~ left huniedly
except Ccnc::ral Pio del Pilar and General Mariano Noricl who
s ubsequently joined Aguinaldo's troops.
President Aguinaldo convoked a !'E'Volutionary assembly in
:--laic. The following m atters were taken up: adoption of a new ~I
flag with a white sun uf eig ht rays at the center, a s tandard uniform
for the soldicrn .. the myadillo and " !let of new rule~ fixing military
ranks and theirin~ignias; and, the reorganization of the revolutionary
army.
Jlonifacio, with his wife Gregoria, his two brotht>rs (Ciri.1co and
Procopio) And loyal followers fled to Limbon (barrio of lndang).
Upon learning of Bonifacio's presence at Limbon and the alleged
crimes committed by his soldiers in Jndang, Aguinaldo summoned
Colonels Agapito Bom:on, Felipe Top11do, and I05C Ignacio Paua to
go to Limbon with some troops and arrest Bonifario and his men .
Bonifacio furiously resisted.
149
 Ciriaco Bonifacio and two soldiers wert' killed, while Bonilacio
himself was woundl'd in the left arm and neck. Bonifacio (in a
hammocl<), Gregoria, and the surviving Bonifacio soldiers were taken
prisoners and brought to Naic.
The case of the l.loni facio brothers evolved quile t:apidly alter a
Counctl of W<~r headed by General Marimo Noriel was created. The
trial begun on }..1ay 5, with Placido Martine?: as ddense attorney for
Bonifacio and Teodoro Gonzalez for Procopio. Tragically, the
Bonifacio brothen~ were given the penalty of d eath the next day. The
charges were treas<m, conspi:racy to assassinate Prc~ident Agumaldo,
and bribery.
l'io del Pilar testified in the trial of Bonifacio saying t hat the
11\tter had been forcing omcers to join him. As lor Si!v~rino de las
Alas, it was he who made the false charges that the trial'S bribed
Bonifacio to establish the Katipunan and made the f-ilipinos into
fighting a war for which they were poorly armed. Ile also said that
Bonifacio ordered the burning of the convent and church of lndang
and th ~t his soldiers hnd taken by force from the people, carabaos
~nd other animals. He a lso accused Bonifacio and h is men that they
were p lanning to sw-rencler to the Spaniards.
Lieutenant Colonel Pedro Giron, htrning as state witness, told
the Council that Bonifacio g~ve him an initial payment of ten pesos
to assassinate Aguinaldo but he refused to follow the order.
On Mar 10, 1897, General Noriel ordered Major Lazaro
Makapagal to release the Bonifacio brothers from p rison. He gave
Makapagal a seal~d letter w ith orders to ~ad its det.1ils after reaching
their destination.
Makapag~l took four men with him and opened the leller upon
tht: request of Bonifacio. The h~ller ordered the execution o( Arodl1!s
and his brother Procopio. Included in the letter was a warning that
failure to comply with the ord~r would result to severe punishment.
Mak apagal followed the order and executed them at Mount
Nagpatong, Maragondon (according to the National Historical
Institute). Makapagal p laced a few twigs on the shallow grave of
the two brothers.
On the same day, the Spani.~h anny attacked Marngondon.
Upon M.Jkwpagal's return. he found the Filipinos rct:rcating. On May
12, a fter two days of defending the town, Aguinaldo and his men
w ere romt"'lled to le.tvc. They CT'OS~ed the m oUJ\tains to Batangas
150
and aided General Migud Mah•ar in a fight against the Spaniard~ in
T.'lisay. On June 10, they cros.o;cd the Pasig River and bivouacked at
Mount Puray. MQntalban. Two days later, the :\oforong freedom
fighters under General Lie<! rio Geronimo arrived and join.e d them.
Tired of successive combats, General Camilo de Polavieja asked
for hill relief as governor general. His request was given on April
15, 1897, with Fernando Primo de Rivera succeeding his post on
Apri1 23.
Govemor General Rivera issued a decree granting pardon to
rebels who would give up their arms and surrender until May 17.
Most Filipinos simply ignored this decree. Thereafter, the governor
general launched a camp aign against the rebels, forcing A1,ruinaldo
and his forces to seek refuge in Batangas..
On june 14, the Spanish troops led by Colonel Dujiols attacked
the rt'bel camp at Mount Puray. Aguinaldo and hi,; men resisted.
After six hour~ of bloody fighting, they won over the Spaniards.
After the Battle of Mount Pur.,y, Pre;id~mt Aguinaldo organized
the Department of Central Luzon under the jurisdiction of the
revolutionary government. The Department Government was
headed by !'ather Pedro Dandan, canonist of the Manila Cathedral
as Pres ident with Dr. Anastado f'randsco, Vke·Pr<!lidcnt; Paciano
Rizal, Secretai)· of the TreMury; Cipriano Pacht-co, Secretary of War;
Tcodoro Gonzal~, Secretary of the Interio r; ;md Feliciano jocson as
Secretary of Wei/are.

30. The Biak-na-Bato Republic

President Emilio Aguino'lldo and his men headed for Bulacan.
Finally on June 24, 1897, they arrived at Biak-na-Balo, San Miguel
d e Mayu mo . From this an.a,Aguinaldo and his men joined the \roo~~
of Gene ral Mariano Uanera of Nueva Edja in assaulting Spanjards
s ta tioned in the Central Luzon provinCf'-". With the coming of the
rainy se~on. Primo de Rivera's offen>iive attacks temporarily ceased.
On November 1, the revolution~ry leaders met and adopted a
constitution titled the Prouision11l Cunstittdion ojtiw f>hiiippin.e &!public.
It was intended to be eff~ctive fot two years. It dP.darcd that the aim
nf the revolution was the separation of the Philippines from Spanish
monarchy and the formation of an independent statE!. lsal>eto Artacho

151
and felix F.m-er wrote the provisional ron~titution, whi~·h was based
on ih<! Cuban Constitution known ASJimagllayu CnMtitution.
On the same da y, the Bi a k-na-Bato Repu bl ic: was a lso
inaub'l.lrated and the officials w ert': Emilio Aguinaldo, President;
Mariano Trias, VJce·Presjdcnt; habt>lo ArtM:ho, Secretary o f the
Inter ior; Antonio Montenegro, Secreta r}' of Fore ign Affai rs;
Baldomero Aguinaldo, Sc<-ret~ry of the Treasury; and Emilia no Ri~go
de Dins, Secretary of War.
·1he struggle t>cnveen the Spanish government anrl the Biak-
na-Bato Repul:>lic had re~ched a deadlock. Governor c:~neral Primo
de Rivera sent l't-d ro Pate rno to Bi.1k-na-3.llo Cur p(' Kcfu l
n('gotiations w ith the revolutionaries, which began in August ilnd
concluded in lkt·ember.
This agreement known <:~s the Pdct of Biak- n<l-Ba to, resul ted to
the voluntary exile of Aguinaldo llnu his men to Hong Kong . This
pact consisted of three documt>nts. The firs\ two were signet1 on
Dcremher 14, and the third on December 15, 1897.
"!he first document, called Protrllm, provided th.1t Co-vemor
Primo de Rivera would pay 800,000 pc~n~ to those who ros~ m anns
and would let Aguinaldo and his men to rE>tire in volun tary exite to
Hong Kong. The S<:'cond document called Act of Agrl't'mt'711, reitera tr.d
the granting ol amnesty to those who would Jay down their arms
and the privilege to move frcl!ly in the Philippines and abroad .
The third document di~usscd the quc~tion of indemnity,
wherein Splli.n would pay a tot;o\ of 1,700,000 po.>sus, of which 800,000
peso!> was to be paid to ll1ose who would Ia y down their arms as
mentioned in the iirst docum ent. The rcma ini.ng 900,(l(X) pews ,,,,,.,
to be distribuh:d amo11g the civilian population as in~1emnity lor
the damages c:reated by the wM.
On Dcccmher 25, 1897, Aguinnl<io w ith Pedro P~temo and
others wen t to Lingayen, Pangasinan, from \;,-ht>re a Span ish
merchant ste-amer was to take them to Hong Kong. Two dars a (ter,
Agu inaldo and 25 other leaders saikd for Hong Kong on board the
steamer Ura1111.~. in compliance with the pact. Ceneral Art<•mio Ritarte
stayed behind a t Biak-na -Ha to to supervise th(' surrender of arms by
the revolutionaries.
The Spanish gowrnm~nt announced the ~nd of hostilities on
)<muary 23. 18\/ll. U prod<~iml!d amn es ty l'h·u days later; and it ga,•c

152
 part of the promised money to the rebels in Hong Kong. However,
after the peace pact, n either side fully complied with the terms of
the agreement. The guvernment never instihtl~d the expected
reforms. likewi<.e, the Filipinos con tinued their p lan to overthrow
the government.
There were sporadic uprisings in different parts of the COWl try.
On Mar<:-h 7, 1898, the r~volutionar ics in Zambales besieged the
cables:ation at .Holi.nao and seized the telegraph line conn~ted tQ
Manila. On March 25, Federico Isabelo Abaya and his men were
.Jb k- to get Candon, IlO<."O.'i Sur, from the Spaniards.
l'antaleon Villegil~, popularly known as L.t'QI\ Kilat inci ted a
revolt in Cebu known as T~s de !lbril in retaliation of the Marc:h 25
incident wh en the Spaniards massacred many Visayan sailors at·
CAmba Street, Manila.
In Centra l Lu zon, Gene ra l Francisco Makabu los of Ta rlac
~stablish e d a provincia l revolut io nary government wi th a
constitution written hy him. The Makabulos Constitution adopted
on April 17, 1898, set up th is provisional government in Central
Lu7.on to continue in force until a general governmen t for the
~pub l ic wa.~ establish ed.

In Ma lolos, General lsidoro To rr<:>s established his camp to

continue the revolutionary spirit. Revolts were also cxperien~tl in
tlohoL Cebu , Panay, and other island~ in th<:> rountry. Feliciano
Jocson, a pharmacist, incited the pa triots in Manila to con tinu e tn c
fight against the Spaniards.
Aguinaldo and h is offi<:ers Wl:'nt into exile b ut did not t'lld the
fight to win indepem1ence from Spa ln. On a leller written in Hong
Ko•' 8 da ted February 19, 1898, Marian o Ponce :l la ted that General
Aguinald o had signed the Pact of lli ak -na·Bato b~ause und er its
rerms, the Filipino revolutionist!> cu\lld rest and regain th.. ir lost
strength and then return to combat with renewed vigor.

31. The Spanish-American War (1898)

ThP. Spanish-Americai' war which broke out on April25, 1898,
ended on Augu,;t 12 of the same year. There were factor~ that
contributed to thE' United States' decision to open hostilities agains t
Spain. These included the Cubanstmggle for independence, efforts
of the Americans to extend influence o,·erseas, nnd the ~inking of
the U.S. warship ,'vlllitl<'·
153
 Like the Filipinos. the Cubans w~re fighting against Spain to
obtain their independence. Under the leadership nf Jose Marti, the
Cubans revolted in 1895. lhe Cuban rebels rejected Spain's offer of
autonomy, instead of complete independence. The brutalities
committed by the Spanish government in Cuba such as the rounding
up of peasant population and pi.:Jcing them in concentration camps
were made lo suppress local rebellion. Thousands died due to
illnesses and limited food provisiorus. Such cruelties infuriated the
Americ<tn pub lic.
The New York journal and the New York World were among the
American newspapers which publishl'd the sturies about the aUegl'd
atrocities committed by the Spanish govemmc:nt in Cuba. They
called for the t; .S. government to inrervene on the side of the C ubans.
ThL~ idea won widespread support among American citizens and
politidans. 1lris gave rise to the beUef of M<mifest Destiny, where the
t:nited States has the divinely ordained duty to help troubled
cuuntrie, .
America's open support fur the Cuban revolution and her vast
investments in Cub3's sugar industry led her involvement in this
Spanish colony. Spain could not oppose the United States, n rising
powerful nation, in the face of the Cuban Revolution.
A leiter of Spain's Ambassador to the United States {Dupuy de
Lome) to" friend in Havana, Cuba, was stolen and publi~hed in a
New York ~riodical. It stated that liS President William McKinley
was a weakling and a low politician. This created a national feeling
among the Am~ricans to support the w.1r against Spam.
The replacement of the Spanish ambassador cou ld not, however,
relieve the .1ggricved American populace. The provocation was
heated up afler the mysterious blowing up of the U.S. battleship
Maim in Havana, Cuba, which was sent by the U.S. consul general
in the city to protect American citizens clnd property. This incident
happened on the night of February t8, 1898. It reportedly resulted
in the death of 266 officers and men. (In 1976, ba~cd on U.S. 1\avy
Study, the findings suggestt>d that the explosion could have been
caused by spontaneous combustion in the ship's coalbunkers.)
ll•e American authorities vit>w~ the assa1dt in Havana as an
act of treachery. US new~papen; blamed Spain for the tragedy and
evoked American sympathy with this cry, " Remember the ,\.!~ine".

154
 On April19, the .U.S. Congress passed several resolutions
d emanding the p ull out of Spanish forces in Cuba. To save her honor,
Spain declared war against the United States on Ap ril24. The next
day; the U.S. Congress declared war on Spain and thus the Spa.nish-
Am~rican war began.
Past noon of April 25, Commodore George Dewey, commander
of the A,;iatic Squad run received a cable from the Secretary of Navy
stating tha t war has commenced between the United States and
Spain. Dewey was inshucted to proceed against the Spanish fleet
anchored in Manila Bay.
An often-4ebated question in the U.S. d uring those times was
why a U.S. naval squad ron should be sent to the 'Philippines in order
to end Sp;mish rule in Cuba. This has been ascribed to ~ growing
spirit of American imperialism induced by supporte.rs of Manifest
Destiny, which in like manner encountered considerable opposition
in the United States.
The condtl$ion of the Spanish-American war, which reAultcd
to the victory of the Americans, paved the way to the end of the
Spanish colonial rule and the rise of the United States as a global
power.

32. Filipino-American Collabor ation

At the time of th e Spanish-American war, General Emilio
Aguinaldo was in Sin gapore where he had negotiations with the
American con~ul general, Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, regarding ::,~
Americans' offur to support the Philippines in figh ting the Spaniard:;.
The United States wQUld then recognize Philippine independence
after the defeat of Spain. Pratt advised Aguinaldo to meet with
Commodore Oewcy who w;~s then based in Hong Kong, if he werp
to join the.latte r should he sail for the Philippines.
General Aguinaldo r u shed to H on g Kong but missed
Commodore J:kwey who had already :sailed to Manila to destroy
the Spanish flee t. Dewey proceeded at once to Manila with his fleet
consisting of four armored crui~es - Olympia, Baltimort, Boston and
Ri>le.iglr and two gwilioatli -Concord and Petrel.
The Battle of Manila Haybeganon May 1, 1898at5:40 a.m. and
ended at noon. Admiral Patr icio :Montojo of the Spanish forces
incurred h eavy casualties with 160 of his men 'killed an d 21 0

135
wou nded . The Spanish forces consisting of twelve ships, including
the flagship Reina Olsti1Ja were sulxllli!d. The U.S. naval squadron
had no fatal casualties. None of the- ships was heavily damaged.
This b a ltle made Dewey an instant hero. The Congress
promoted him to rear admiraiMd later admiral. Howe-ver, the L".S.
naval squadron co uld not att~mp t to occupy Manll~ in the absence
of ground troops, which d id not anive until about three month.~
later.
On news of Dewey's victory, ships from Britain, France, Japan
;)nd Germany began to arrive in the Manil~ Bay area. They had
recently ob rained concessi oM from Ch ina for naval bases and
designa ted commercial spheres of i.ntere.st. At that time, Germllny
had sent her warships to protect the interests of her nationals in the
Philippines.
The German fleet o f eight war~hips led by Admiral Von
Diedrichs wa~ especially aggressive. The fleet acted prov ocatively
by cutting in (ront uf American ships . They supplied the city with
flour i!J\cl other products, ignoring the American economic blockade
on the Spaniards in the city. This angered Dewey. He sent an
ultimatum to Von Dledrichs to stop it or else fight. Captain lid ward
Chichester of the English flel.!t came to .!lupport Oew ey. Von
Diedrich.>, fcarin!\ to nskbattlewith the combined Anglo- American
fleets, ended his hostile activ ities.
Upon the- ~d '·ic~ of the I long Kon!\ junta, General Aguinaldo
left on board the McCulloch (others s11y McCulloughj, Dewey's
d ispatch vessel, and arrived in Cavite on May 19, 1898. He
reassumed command of rebel forces. His firs t act upon hi s ~tum
wa.s his proclamation on May 21, urging the people to rise in arms
and join the American~ in a wmmon struggle ~gainst lht> Spaniards.
On \fay 24. 189B. Gcner~l Aguinaldo established a didatorial
government, \vilh him as the d ictator. upon the advit~e of Ambrosio
Rianzarc.> Dautista. Aguin;.Juo established a new government to
revoke the authority of the Bia k-na-Ba to Repub lic and \Illite the
rcvoluiionary· iorces. At that time, a dictatorship was necessary to
carry out lht' war successfully. This government was temporary and
w~s to last only until a republic could h~ve b11en established.

On May 2S. the Consultative Assembly in!;tituted by Governor

General B~si~ioAugt:stin met for Ihe first time. But the Filipinos did

156
not like to se-Ull~ for the projected reforms. TI>ey clamored for total
~dependent~. On the saJT\l:' day, Aguinaldo's new army repu!S('d
the Spanish marines at Alapan, a ba rrio in lmus, Cavite. The
Philippine flag (The Sun and Star~ Flag) WiiS first unfurled in the
Battle of !\.Iapan.
Th is initial success inspired other people to relivl! the
revolutionary spirit. During the sub~equcnt clays. the Spanish fon:es
wen~ routed in BHaan. Cavite, Buhu:an, l'ampang.1. Laguna,
Batangas. Tayabas (now Quezon), and other p rovinces.
The c..ptvre of Manila was the principii I ohjecovt' of General
Aguinaldo. He and hi~ troops commanded l>y (;encral Gregorio
del Pilar. Pio del P1i;,r, Artemio Ricarte. and M~ri11n0 Noriel, .1mong
others, 5\lrrounded the d ty.
Dewey's &quadrun domina It'd the bay and thus the Spaniards
were tr,1ppcd within thl! city walk Aguinaldo's men had cut off the
supply of foodstuffs ilnd potabl~ wa ter in the city. The popHiaC€'
s uffered terrihly during the siegl!. Aguinaldo offered Governor
General AU!,'llStin terms for an honorable surrender but the latter
rejected him. Dewey demanded the surrfflder of Mmtila on August
7. Consequently, the Spanish governor gener~ l honorably conceded.

157
 Chapter Test No. 5
Name: ________________ Date: _ _ _ __

Course, Year, and SKI.ion: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

I. M ultiplc Choice. Encircle the letter of the cor~c;t answer: (25

pl~.)

1. It was the first part of Muslim Mindanao to be attacked by

the Spaniards.
a. Hasilan c;. Sulu
b. Davao d. Zamboanga
2. He was the Spanish governor general who captu~d
Larnilan, Sultan Kudarat's capital.·
a. f'ranci~co de Sande c. Antonio
de Urbiztondo
b. Jose francioco de d. Sebill>tian Hurtado
Obando de Cozc:uera
3. After Lamitan feU into the hands of the Span.iarcb, Sultan
Kudarat retreated to this placP.
a. Balanguingui c. Marawt
b. Jlihan d. Lanao
4. He was the sultan oJ Sulu who leased the territory of Sa bah
to .lv1r. Dent and Baron Overbeck of British North Bomro
Company.
a. Sultan jamalul A'lam c. Sultan Pangiran
Budiman
b. Sultan Bungsu d. Sultan Alimud Din l
5. British 1\orth Bomoo Company paid this annual rental in
Malayan doUars to the ~ultan of Jolo for its lease in Sabah.
a. 2,000 c. 4,000
b. 5,000 d. 6,000
6. He died in the Second Battle of Marawi in 1895.
a. Datu Utto c. Datu Amai l'akpak
b. Datu Ali Jimbangan d. Datu Ubal
158
 7. TI\is resulted to the entry of liberal ideas from Europe and
America to the f'hilippines.
a. educational reform:s of 1863
b. opening of Philippines fo world Lrade
c. expulsion ol ]e!>uits
d. Cavite mutiny of 1872
8. Tl}is aflirmed that secular p riest ~ be appointed to
,ldm.irlistcr the parishes in the co lony.
. a. Council of TT€'nt p-1~ c. Carlos Mario d~ Ia Torre
b. £xponi /'{obis d. prlncipales
9. This historical date marks th<.' G0:'\1-BUR-ZA martyrdom.
a. January 20 c. Febntary 12
b. }anuary25 ·d. Fcbntar~·171"·'~'
10. He wrote Fmy Botod, where he ridicu.led a typical cleric
who became fat l:>eca.u se of tho> p rovisons 1.1ktm from the
people.
a. M .H. del Pilar c. j. Ri.tal
·b. G. Lopez Jaoma , . ·~~ d . P. Paterno
11. Thils was the group foundt>J l>y Migu~>l M~1rayta in 11'189
to campaign for reforms in the Philippines.
. a . Circulo Hispan~Filipino c. Lt Solidaridad
· b. Asodacion Hispano-Filipino d. Revolucion
f'·'""
12. This term refers tv tho~ enlightened wilh lil>~ral ideas.
a. principales • c. ilnstmd~ f' · u1

b. espanole5 insula res d. rt>formist~

13. This propagandist u~d the pen n~m~ Taga·llog m his
articles in La Solidaridad.
a. :vt.H. d el l'il.l r c. J. Rizal
b. M. Ponce
14. He bl<eame the La Liga Filipina presi~lent.
a. Dr. J~e Rizal c. Gali~::ano Apacible
b. )o>t: Mii. Baso ·d. AmiJrosiu Salvador t· I~

!59
 15. She was the first woman to be admitted as mason in the
conntry.
a. Trinidad Rizal c. Romualda Lanuza
• b. Rosario Villaru!!l •·'~ d. Gregoria de Jesus
16. Apolinario \<fabini used this pen name in La LigaFilipina.
a. !law c: Panday Pira
May Pag-asa
b. •d. Katabay p ·'""
17. La Liga Hlipina was founded on July 3, 1892 at this place.
a. No. 72A7.carragaSt. (now C.M. Recto), Tondo, Manila
.b. flay<~ St., 1ondo, Manil~ ,.r~
c. Madrid, Spain
d. HongKong
18. The women in the Katipunan were accepted during his
presidency.
a. A Bonifacio .c. D. Arellanop·'~&
b. E. Aguinaldo d. R. Dasa
19. 1his refers to third grade member of the Katipunan, with
a mask in this color and wHh this password.
a. katipun green GOM-BUR-ZA
b. bayani black Anak ng l:!ayan
. c. bayani red fuza I I". I&~
d. bayani red Anak ng Bayan
20. Ktllayaan, Katipunan's newspaper carried a false masthead,
with M.H. dell'ilar as editor. and issued as print~ in this
pla(e.
a. Tokyo c.. Madrid
b Yokohama d. Barcelona
21. In the afternoon of August 30, 1896, Governor General
Ramon Blanco issued a proclamation dedaring a state of
war on eight province~;, which indudt- Manila, Cavite,
Pamp~nga, BulaC'an, 'Larl~c. Laguna and two more.
a. Batan<>as and 1\:ucva Vi7.cava
0 ' '
b. Bataan and Nueva Vizcaya

160
 c. B;~tang~s and l\·ueva Ecija
d. Bataan and Nueva F.cija
22. He tried to recondle the two faction.<; of the Katipu.nan in
the Imu:; Convention by drafting a constitution
establishing the Philippine Republic.
a. M. Tria~ c. B. Aguinaldo
b. E. Evangelista d. A. Ricarte
23. This marked the establishment of the Kakarong Republic.
a. De.;. 2, 1896 c. De(:. 18, 1896
b. Dec. 4, 1896 d. Jan. 1, 1897
24. I Ie told the Council of War that Bonifacio gave him an
initial payment of ten pesos to assa~sinale General
Aguinaldo but he refused to follow the order.
a. Lazaro Makapagal .;;. Pedro Giron
h. Severino de las Alas d. Pio del Pilar
2~. General Francisco Makab\alos established his provincial
revolutionary government in this province even after the
signing of the !'act of Diak-n,\-Bato.
a. Pampanga c. Batangas
b. ~ ueva Ecija d. Tarlac

II. Essay: Answer the following: (10 pis. each)

1. Why did the early Filipino re\'olts fail? Cite examples.
2. What were the efforts of the filipino propagandists to
achit"Ve peaceful reforrm;?
3. Wl\en is a revolution justifiable
4. What prompted the United States of America to declare
the Spanish-Ameri<:<~n War?

161
 The Birth of a Nation

1. Pr oclamation of Philippine Independence

In anticipation of the ultimate triumph of rcbelaiTilk.~, on June
12, 1898, between four and five in the afternoon, Cent!r~ l F.milio
Aguinaldo bdorc ~ huge crowd p!'(l('laimed t11e i.nd t>p~nucnce of
the PhilippinPs in Kawit, Cavil~. Finally, after 333 years oi Spanish
domina tion, the Philippines obtllined her independence. C.c&ral
Ag\tinaldo guided the Philippine revolution lo its t.>nd .
,The sun and stars flag was officially unfurled on th~ b~Jcony of-
Aguinaldo's m.1nsion as the Philippine 1\atioml March w<~s played
in public. Oona Mar~ I;~ M;uiiw Agondllo, assisted by he r daugh~r
l.ort.>n7a and Mrs. Delfina Herbosa de 1\:ativid,ld (niL'CC of Or. Ri7al}
had *'"n the flag in !long Kong. General Aguinaldo mRde ilsde5ign.
The national anthem titled, Mnrrhn NncioMI l'ilipinn (lurmerly ?vlardur
Filipiun Magdnlo) compn5ed by Julian F~lipe, was playt!d by the town
band o f San f'I"Cinciscu de :vfalabon (now General Trias) whose
mPmbers h;~J leamt!d the m11sic just a day before the occ.1!>ion.
In 1896, Andres Bonifacio favored Julio N akpil's Mnmugal H•l
Dalit ng Katagal11~an lobe the llirmra nncinnnl (national hymn) of th"
revolution. Since Doni facio I~)Sl his lead.,rship to Aguinaldo, another
·hymn was preferred. It wa~ on ]tmt' 5, 1898 when Julian Felipe went
to Aguina ldo, handling il letter of introduction from Gen. Mari~no
Trias. felipe w;~s then ask~d to compose a m~rch to be played for
the 189S Declaration of lndepen,knce. On June 11, rei ipe p~x-nt"d
hi!; draft to Aguinaldo and pl.1ycd the mal'('h on th" JJiiffio, in the
presence of General Mariano Trias, H<tldomero Aguinaldo and other
revolutionary leaders. After some discussion with his general~ who
were then <~!tending d conkrence with him, Aguinaldo .tg~ed to
accept it as the MMciza Nacioual Filipiun.
The Act of th~ f)~(/amt io11 of Plzilippill<' [n,lfJ't'lld,>rr<<' w a~ ~olt'mnly
re<l<:l b}' Antbrusio Rianzares Bautisto1, which hll' h imself wrote.
!nchtded in thil; document wa s the explanation for th~ d~5ign <~nd
(olur uf the flag. The declaration wa~ signed by 98 p~ople with one
of them an AmL>rican .. LM. johnson, Colonel of Artillery.
162
 Aflt'I" the proclamation of l'hilippin~ indcpmdence, Apolinario
Mabini became the adviser oi General Aguinaldo. Upon Mabin:i's
advi~. Gen. Aguinaldo changed the fonn of government from
d ictatorial to revolutionary. Thus, Aguinaldo became the President
nf the Revolutionary Govemnu!nt. By a decrl!e of June 18, 1898,
Presirlen l Aguinaldo organized the municipal and provincial
govenunen!s. He di..rc<:tcd the town chiefs in all provinc41S II.> elect
members to a Congress from among the residents in these provinc41S
who are noted for their education c'IS well as SllCial position.
On August 1, 1898, the first .c onven lion of municipa I presidents
;vas held in Ilaroor, Cavite, capital of the RevolutiolUlry Covcmmcnt.
The Dec-laration of Philippine Independence of June 12 was ratified
in this convention. While President Aguinaldo was laying down the
fo1mclations of an independent government, troops were coming
from the t: nited Statl!s to reinforce Dewey's forces. By the end of
July 1898, nL'ariy 12,000 Am~rican troops under the overall command
of Major General Wesley Meritt had arrived from San Francisco.

2. The Incredult>us Battle of Manila

~cneral Fermin Jaudenr.s succeeded General Basilio Aul,'l.lStin
as go,;cmor general of the Philippines. The new governor had to
devi.50! a plan to save the p~tige of the Spanish government.
Governor General Jaudcnes, through a Belgian consul, Edouard
Andre, s ecretly told Dewey and Meritt in early August 1898
conct>rning th~ capture of M.1nila. With thto end of hostilitic5,
t\merican forces would be occupying the beleagul'rt:'d city and its
h.1rbor. The governor was not aware of the peace protocol that had
ill ready been concluded in Wa$hlngton b~twcen the Un.i~d Stares
~nd Spain on Augu.~t 12, 1898.
It wa5a rainymomingcm August13, 1898when the sham Battle
of Manila began after Dewey's naval gun bombarded Fort San
Antonio Abad near the luneta. At about 11:20 a.m., the Spaniards
had already raised the flag of sunender. General Greene only noticed
the flag at around noontime. The American troops entered the city
gates after which they closed it. At around five in the afternoon the
tcrmq of capitulation were resolved. The Spanish authorities decidt:'d
to surrender the Spanish troops and the Filipino volunteers within
th~ Walled City. The Americans agreE-d to secure the city, including
its inhal>itants and churches.

163
 Although some 12,0()() riliplnos had t,,k.,n part in the siege of
Manila, the Americans did not allow th"'m to enter the city and its
suburbs, even if unarmed. The Filipino troops deeply resented this
American gesture. Many frankly voiced the .1pprehcn~ion that the
Americans wished to exer<:ise colonial power in the country.
After the fall of Manila, General Di~go de los Hios l><x·am!' lht>
governor general. lie bcc.1me the last Spanish governor gener<1l of
the Philippines. OnAugus.~2_1!, lS9B, he transfem~d his heaJ.quart"'~~
to floilo and took mmmand of the Spani.sh fore"'~· But the Visayans.
led by (;eneral Martin Delgado forced Govenlor de lQS Rios to il'ai.'C
Jloilo on December24 and move to Zamboanga. On May 19, lii<JY,
!he Am~ican troops occupied Jolo, displacing the Sp.1nish garrison
.in Z<unboanga. The Siege of Baler (part of Quezon province). th<>t
highlighted the gallmtry of both l'ilipino and Sp;~nish soldiers, ended
on June 30, 1899 (now Fhilippine-Spanish ~riend~hip Day pursuant
..to !{P.pub!ic Actl\o. 9187). Jn \lovember 1899,all Spanish forces were
shipped to Spain.
Tite pt•ll out of Spanish military in the Philippines was provided
in the Treaty of Pari~; signed on December .10. 1898. The tr(!aty
nl.'gotiations were initiated by Spanish and American rcprescntativ\~<;.
T.he treaty provided for the Sp,lni~h withdrawal froin Cuba. lt>avlng
the island temporarily to America. The Tt>l!er Ameru..lment, passl!d
when the l:.S. dedared war ~g~tlnst Spain, prevented the Unitf!d
States from taking Cuba. Spain had to ced"' the Philippines. Guam.
and Puerto Rko to the United States. which .in tum paid Spain the
sum of $20 million. The civil and political status' of the inhabitanl<;
in the ceded territories was to be determined by the U.S Congress.
With their impending defeat from the L:nitcd StatPs, Spain ~igne-d
the treaty. L'S Secretary of State John Ha}'~ in behalf of the US
government handed to Spanish commission meml•er JulesCambon
the 520 million sum as payrnent to Spain for the Philippines.
General Aguinilldo tried .to persuade foreign countries to
rccogni?.e J>hilippine independence. He sent Felipe Aguncillo, a
Filipino patriot-lawyer, together with Sixto Lopez to Paris to ~sk for
the reco!,rnitlon of the revolutionary govemment.llowcvcr, Agondl!o
was not ev\.'n permitted to attend the conference in Paris. From there,
he went to Washington, where he worked against the ratification of
the treaty by the United States Senate.

164
 The treaty and the U.S. occupation of the Philippines prompted
opposition b:om among American citizen.~, including Mark 1\vain,
a writer and satirist; Andrew Carnegie, a business tycoon and some
members of the L".S. Senate.
After a heated debate in the U.S. Senate, the treaty was finally
_!:atificd on l:'cbruary 6, 1899 by a margin of one vote. It was argued
lhat the Philippines would simply fall into the hands of Germany or
other countrif:!:; if U.S. forces left the region since the Filipinos were
unprepared to govern themselves.

3· Tile Malolos Republic

Uncertain about th"' outcome of the forthcoming peace
conference in Paris, Aguinaldo ordered on August 22, 1898 the-
transfer of the government's seat of power from Bacoor, Cavite, to
1\.fulolos, Bulacan.
Aguinaldo refused to acknowledge American control in the
country. He had already been preparing the foundation of a
republican state. He wanted a government without foreign
supervision. Anumber of Filipinos had ~hownsupportfor autonomy.
On Septembe-r 1S, 1898, tne Revolutionary Congress was
inaugurated at the Barasoain Chur~h iJl Malolos amidst colorful
festivitie~. Outside the ~hurch Banda P11sig played the national
anthem. Spectators lined the streets as President Aguinaldo, his
advisers and member.; of the Congress walked to the church where
the ceremonies were Lo he held.
The altar of the church was draped for the assembly. General
Aguinaldo convoked the assembly in the ope-nin~; se~sion. He urged
the dd~gates to promulgate a constitution that would be the most
glorious expression of the noble aspirations of the Filipino people, <.1
proof that the Filipinos already had the capacity to govern.
President Aguinaldo sat with his cabinet facing delegates on
both sides of th~ aisle. The Congress adopted the parliamentary rules
of the SpaniM Cortes.
In the afternoon, the Congress elected the following officers:
Pedro Paterno - President
&nito Legarda - Vic~·Pr~~ident

165
 Gregorio Araneta -Secretary
Pablo Te«son - Secretary (who replaced Aran~ta)
Pablo Ocampo - St>Cretary
A tot,, I of 93 representatives took part in the Congress, 35 of
!hem were directly elected. Many of them were holders of academic
degree.<; from universities in Europe. The president of the Congress
himself, Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, was a holder of a bachelor's degree in
ta~· from the Ul'iversity o£ Salamanca and a doctorate degree from
P'e Universidad Central de Madrid.
As the delegates converged o:lt Malulos, they made it evident
that they wished to enact a constitu lion and establish a penn anent
·government for the country. The seat o£ the Revolutionary Congrcs.~
was fixed at the Barasoain Church.
Mabini argued that under the decree of its creation, the Congre,;.'l
was a mere consultative body. It possC!'>scd no legislalive powt-rs. It
was e~~ntial for all powers to be vested in one person or entity to
ensure swift action. Felipe C. Calderon contended that it was
necessary to show that the Philippine~ wa~ duly constituted as a
State in order to strengthen its claim to recognition of its sov<-rcign
status.
President Aguinaldo upheld Calderon's views. evidently
considering Congress to be the authoritative spokesman for the
Filipino people and the true rcHcction of their dreams and
aspirations.
The committee to draft the con.~titution was «lmposed of 19
members with Felipe Calderon as !he chairman. It studied the three
constitutional drafts ~ubmitted -the Mabini Plan, Paterno Plan, and
the Calderon Plan.
The Mabini Plan was the Constitutional'Progr;~mme of the
Philippine Republic. The Paterno Plan was based on the Spanish
Constitution of 1868. The C11lderon Plan was a constitution ba.~cd
on the constitutions of France, Belgium, Mexico, Co!lla Rica,
Guatemala, Nicaragua and Brazil. After a thorough examination and
deliberation, the Committee chose the Calderon ?Jan find submitted
it to the Malolos Congrcs~ for approval.
According to Felipe Calderon, the Committee rejected the
Mabini draft bccau~c it was based on the Statutes of Universal
Masonry, abhorred by the majority of the del~gate.s who were
166
Catholics. However, significantly written in Mabint's draft were the
provisions advocating women's rights like the cxcrrise of public
office, education in any branch of science or of the art5 in public
institutions, C>Cerri.'IC of a profession or industry; right to vote, an d
exemption from military service and from personal tax.
Ca lderon mentioned that the Paterno dra{l was also discarded
because il was pattemed from the Spanish Constitution of 1868.
OLher matt~rs were also tak~n up in the Congre~s. On September
29, 1898, the Dedaration of Philippine [mlependence made on ]Wle
12, 11198 in l<awit was confirmed in special ceremon ies. In the
following month, the Congress authorized the Executive to float a
domestic loan of20 million pesos redecm.tblc in 40 year~, to support
the new government.
Discussions on the draft constitution las ted until Kovcmbcr
29. 1898. Article 5, Title III of the draft became the most debatable.
This refers Lo religion and the separation of Church and Stat~. Tomas
del Rosario, one of those who figured prominently in the conference,
spoke in favor of the principle of separation of Church and State;
while felipe Calderon, on the contrary position wanted lo maJce
Cttholicism the state religion. Mtcr the members of the Congress
voted fo r it, the result was a tie. The second votutg resulted to the
~eparatiun of Church =d State, winning·by only one vote given by
Pablo Tecson.
A few other amendment~ were placed in the draft constitution
before it w as submitted to Aguinaldo for <~pprova l. The draft
constitution provided for an executive, legislative, and judicial
branch of government and the creation of,, Permanent Commission
acting as a legislative body when the A~~cmbly was not.in session.
Finally, on January 21, 1899, Preside-nt Aguinaldo proclaimed
the Malolos Constihttion as the fundamental law of the land. Then
on January 23, the First Philippine Republic was inaugurated amidst
festive ceremonies at the Barasoain Church. It WdS popularly known
as the Malolos Republic .
Amidst the inaugwal rites, President Agu in~ l<lo iss ued a dec~
granting pardon to aD Spanish prisoners of war, ex~ept to members
of the Spani.~h regular army. He also gave the Spaniards as well as
other fo reigners the right to engage in business within the limits of
the Republic.

167
 To disseminat<' tht> ide<~ls and ,lspir.ttit>ns of the Republic,
publication.<, were printed. Tile oflid.1l org.1n ol tl>c Republic was[/
Hmrldo d,·[n Uo•volucirm (Ht'rald of the {{('volulion), with its first is~uc
on September :?.9, 1898, al>out fot•r months l-elore th<.> emergence of
the Republic. Its name was afterwardl; chango1d IV Hmsldo fili1>hw,
then to Judice Oficio~l, and finally to Gncd11 de rilipi11.1~. with it:; bst
issue on October 14, 1899.
Some Filipi.J'Ios who wrote artides using I heir nom de plume
for the newspaper were R.~facl Palma (Drtpil. Hupcm), Ccdlio Apostol
(Catullo). f-ernando Ma. Gtlerrero (fuh•ill Gsl), Epifanio de los Santos
(G. S'olon) and S.1lvador V. del Rosario (jwm Tag11io). ·
In Ihe provinces there were many l'evolulion,uy nf'wspapt~f!}'
publi.sh"d hy patriotic individuals lik~ f./ Nut'!!O [)i,l (The Ne"( Day),
founded and edited by Sergio Osmeita. lis first issue .-.ppeared ·in
Ccbtt onAprill6, 1900.
In 1899 jose Palma,the23-ye<H old brother of J{,,fa~l !'alma and
membl!r of lilllldtpt'ndm1:iu, wrote lh~ poem"Fili;tinus" which was
later adapted as the Spanish lyrics ot the national anthem of the
Philippines. still at war against the Americ;~ns. (The English
tran~lation of the lyrics were done by Camilo Osias and M ./\. Lane,
while in 1951 the Tagalog translation w~s used.}
For Mabini, true independence would not simply mean
liberation from Spai.J'I but also educating the people for autonomy
.:~nd refr.lining from colonial mentality. Thus, the Malolos C ongrcss
had set up educational inslilution~.
A system of free il!>d compulsory el~ment.try education was
provided for by the Malolos Constitution. A colle~ for boys called
Burgos institute was established in Malolos under E:nriqut> Mendiola,
with a regular .1eademic course l.e.:~ding to the dcgn.-c of 13achdor of
Arts and Sp€C.ial vocational couf'es in ,,gric.ulturP., mmmen:e. and
surveying. TI>e girls le<trned their lessons <It home under private
tutors. They were (Onferred the degree of Bachelor of Art~ after
passing the government examination.
The Univ-.r.<idad Lilrraria de Filipinas (at the convent of Baraso<~in
Church) wa~ also establishe.d with Joaquin Gom~ales ~s first
president. Gonzale~ was subsequently, replaced in September 1899
by Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrer().
The university offered courses in law, medicine. pharmacy and
notary public. However its existence was short·lived due to Filipino-
168
• American conflict which resulted to the dispersion of its faculty alld
students.
Military training for officers in the Army of the Republic was
offered in the Military Academy ofMa.loiQS wh(.)!;e director wa~ Major
lvfanucl Sityar, a former Spanish lieutenant of the Spanish Guardia
Civil. Some of it.• i.t\.<;lruclors were graduates of the Military Academy
o( Toledo, Spain lil<e Major Jose Reyes and Major Candido Reyes.
P.rt>sident Aguinaldo made effor~ to renconcile the new gove:rnrnt!nt
with the former enemies.
The Filipino army in Luzon included a battalion of Igorot lancers
and a company of Negri to iiTChers. There were more soldiers than
rifle:; in the armed forces of the Republic. Those without ri()es were
armed with bolos, bamboo spears,llnting·anti11g~ (amuMs) and bow~
and arrows.
The Republic has a relatively small navy. It consisted of eight
steam launchers captured from the Spaniards and several interisland
steamers donated hy rich families in Batangas. Filipinas, 3n inter·
island steamer owned by Compania General de Tobaccos became
the army flagship.
ln Mindanao, Spanish colonial rule particularly ended in
Buluan, Agusan del 1\:orte with the hoisting of the Philippine flag.
Butuan wa~ then the military capital of the province of Surigao.
Emissaries oi the Revolutionary Governrnl!nt led by Wence~lao
Gonzales proclaimed a Philippine Republic in 'Butuan on January
17, 1899.
Four flags were .hoisted on that d.ly: the tricolor flag of the
Philippine Revolution, the white flag of surrender, lhe national flag
of Spain and, th~! Pontifical flag. These flags were symbols of the
forces operating in the Philippines at that time.
The Malolos Republic i.s the first Republic in Asia. The new
government has empowered the people to choose their
represenl<~tives to create laws beneficial for the nation. It has
manifesl:t!d the capability of the Filipinos to govern in the midst of
turbulent times. At a time when most of Asia was still under colonial
power, the Philippines stood out as a beam of hope.

169
 Chapter Test No. 6
Name: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Date:------
Course, Year, and S e c t i o n : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

f. Multiple Choke. Choose the letter with the c:orrect answer.

Write your answers on the blanks provided: (20 pts.}
_ _ 1. This person made the design of The Sun and Star;;
Flag.
~· Emilio Aguinaldo
• b. Mar:.:ela :VIari.fto Agoncillo
c. Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista
d. Mariano Trias
2. This was the title of the anlhem at the lime it was
play~ on June 1.2, 1898.

• ~- Marcha Nacional Filipina

b. M;m:ha Fi!ipina Nacional
<:. .\1arrha Filipina \1agdalo
d. Himno Nacional
··-·····- 3. He compMcd the "Marangal na Dalit ng
Katagalug<'n".
a. Andre!< Bonifacio • c. Julio Nakpil
b. Julian l:'elipe d. Hafael Palma
4. This document included the explanation for the
d!!$i!,'Tl and the color of the Philippine flag.
a. Treaty of Paris
•.b. Act of the Declaration of Philippine
fndependence
c. Act of the Proclamation of Philippine
Independence
d. Act of the Proclamation of the Philippine
Republic

170
 5. ThL-; was the form of government in the c:ountty at
the time of proclamation of Philippine
independence.
·a. Revolutionary c. Monarchial
b. Presidential g. DictJtori.ll
6. In 1~98, this was the capital of Agu inaldo's
government in Cavite.
a. Imus S.· &coor
. b.
~
Kawit d. Tndang
7. lie sent Edouard Andre, a Belgian consul to confer
with Dewey and Meritt regarding the sham battle
in \1anila.
a. Basilio Augustin c.EmilioAguinaldo
•b . Fermin ]audenes d . Diego de los Rios
B. BcfQfP. lP;;ving the Philippines for Spain in
November 1899, the Spanish forces stayed in this
plare. ·
a. Sul u c. Manila
b. Iloilo g. Zamboanga
9. Treaty of I'atis was signed on this historic date,
marking the end oJ Spani.qh d'omination in the
Philippines.
a. August 2':!, 1898 . ~- December 10,
1898
b. August 22, 1899 d. December 10,
1899
10. In behalf of the U .S. government, L'S Sec. of State
John Hay gave the amount of $20M to thi.~Spam-:h
commission member.
''!.· Jul~ Cambon c. Jules Canbon
b. Julies Cambon d. .Julies Canbon
11. He was elected president of the Revolu tionary
Congress in Malolos.
· a. Emilio Aguinaldo ·~· Pedro Paterno
b. Apolinarin Mabini d. Felipe Ctlderon
171
--· ... 12. This was the total numhcr of rcp~cntativcs who
took part in the Malo!()~; Congress.
a. 91 . Q· 93 c. '1'> d. 100
___ l 3. His draft oonslilution was based on the Statutes of
l:niversal Masonry.
• a. I'. Calderon ~- A. ::VIabini
b. P. Paterno d. E. Aguinaldo
· - - - 14. I hi.; wa!l the! (in.l! given name of the offida! organ
of the Malolos Republic.
a. Heraldo Filipino c. Indke Oficial
• ~- Gacda de Filipinas d. El 1leraldo de Ia
Rcvolucion
___ 15. Rafael Palma used this nom de plume for the
ofiicilll newspaper of the Republic.
a. Calullo ·s- Dapit Hapon
b. Juan Tagalo d. fulvio Gil
1f>. This school in Malolos offered cour~>e:; in law,
medicine, pharmacy and notary public.
a. .Burgos Institute
' ~- Univcrsidad Literaria de Filipina~
c. Universidad Central de Filipinas
d. :viilitary Academy of Malolos
_ _ 17. The Fir~t Philippine Republic was inaugu~atcd on
this day.
a. September 15, 1898 • ~:;. January 2~, 1899
h. January 21, 1899 d; January 25, 1899
_ _ 18. 1lUs was the fonner p()l;t· of Manuel Sityar. Dire<: tor
of the Military Academy of Maiolo~.
a. Secretary of the Maiolo:; Congress
.Jl. Spanish lieutenant of Spanish Guardia Civil
c. Colonel of lhe Filipino army
d. delegate of Spanish Cortes

172
 19. Tite Philippin<' Republic in Bu ll''"' w,)~ proclaimoo
on this d ~ }'·
' a. january 17, 18')9 c. j.tm o.try 7.3, 18')')
b. januarv 21, 1899 d . )oiiHI;ory 30, 1899
'
_ _ 20. One of the flags below w.ts not hui~l~~ ~ d uring l hr
p roclamation of Ph ilippine RcpuiJii<: in Bu tu an.
a. white flag ol surrender ·
b. na tiona! flag of Spain ·
.s;.. The sw1 and stars flag
d. Pontifical flag

II. Essay. Answer the following questions: (10 pt!;. each)

1. What is the significance of the p mclamation of Philippine
Independence in 1898?
2. Is the l'eparation of_Church and Sta i'C nccc:;sar}'? Wh}'?

173
 The American Rule

1. Vl'ar of Philipp ine Independence from the U n ited

States
Filipino-American re lations d ctc:riorn tcd as the Amer ican
military authorities took over M.lnila in Aug us t 1898. The lll<lndatory
evacua tion of the Filipino lOX>ps in the Cdplurec.l distcictl; of the dty
di<unayed Aguinaldo and his mm wh<l joined th e battle, thinking
that the Americans were on th~ir side. The signing oi the Tn:aty of
Pa ris withou t consulting the Filipinos hcigh tcn<:d thP IPnsion.
Previously in I long Kong, the Amcricao5 offered assisl~nce to
Aguinaldo in fighting t he common adv~rs<lry, the Spaniards.
llowcvc.-r, the negotia tions turnPcl Ot•t tube t~ntative in niiture. The
plan of the new co lon boers ·wtts b~coming mort" evident as the
Americans eventually contToll.ed more areas in the cottnll:y.
, There was a popular belief nmong the supporters of tvJauifi'.~t
bestiny that the United St11tcs hild the Cod -gi vt:n right to itelp
oppressed countric~ and huild d~>mo.:ratic nations. When US
Prc~ident William Mel< ln l~v i:~sut·d h i~ ~o·c:alled J3~nevolent
•
Assimilation Prucl.1ma tion on Dt>cember :n. 1898, he expressly
indicated American policy regarding the Philippines. Although
President McKinley w<~ntcd peace, the A merk'ans occnpi~d thE!
Prulippilles inspite oflocal rcsist.mc:e. On january 20, 1899, President
McKinley appointed the First Philippine C(urunission (Schurman
Commis.~inn) to ffillk~ rt'Comm~ndations in lh<' administration of
the country.
Bitter feelin!,'S wert> growing het\.,.cen the American sfJld iers in
th~ city ami the Filipino dissidents smrounding the capital. Hostilities
began on the night of February 4, 1899 at about B p.m. An American
soldier named Pr ivat·e l{obe rt Willi~ Grav&on with two other
a
member~ of the u.s. seniTy shot and killed man who happens to
be a Filipino soldier. ·
The mdn together w ith thret> other Filipino soldiers were trying
to cross the San Juan Bridge un their way home. The American
174
soldier~ tried to stop them and Mloutcd, "Halt!" twice since the
Filipino soldiers were already entering into American Jines.
Unfamiliar with the word !UIIt the Filipino shin> ted "Hal to!" The
Amer icans fired on the Fili p ino soldiers who were ca ug ht
un prepa red.
The next day, Sunday, General Arthur MacArthur issi.Aed his
order to advan<:e against the Filipino tl'o()ps without investigating
the shooting incident. Aguinaldo tried to avoid war. He ~~ an
emissary to infurrn Go.,ernor General Elwell Otis that the firing on
their s ide had been against his o rder.
Governor Gtmer~l Otis an.~wcrcd that since the fighting had
hcgun, it m ust goon to the grim end. On the samc&y, Aguinaldo
issued a declaration informing the Filip ino people that they we re
now a t war. ThL~ turned out to be the seven-year Filipino-American
War (1899·1 '106). The Filipino civilian:;, caught between the
American:; and the filipino revolutionaries, also suffered badly. More
than 200,000 Filipinos died during the war, most often by famine
and disease.
The :'\1uslims, uncerta in or bot·h Christian rilipinos and
Amr.ricans opted to remain neutral. They signified their non·
involvement in the Filipino-American w.u. On August 20, 1899, John
Bates and Sultan Jamalul Kiram II of Sulu with three da tus signed
the Bates Treaty This treaty provided that the rights and d ignities of
the sultan and his datu,; sh"ll be respected. Likewise, the Muslims
shall not be interfered with on acwUill of their religion.
Nevertheless, the Muslim province remained under American
military rulcunlil1914. School:; that taueht non-Muslim currkulum
were est·a hlishcd. The Onited States, seen as a challenge t·o l~lam.
intensified armed resistance in the region. PanglliYla Hasan ted a
rebellion against the American authorities. !lis fight for freedom
ended on Marrh4, 1904.
In the s1•lnorbs oi Manila, the American fleet started b(,)mbarding
the l'ilipino fort north of San juan del Monte on February 5. 1899. In
the afternoon of that day, a fierce hattie in La Lorna, ncar the Chinese
c:emctcry ensued. Major Jose Torres I:Sugallon, one of General
Antonio Luna's gallant office rs feU mortally wounded. After
capturing l.a Lorna. General MacArthur headed for Caloocan .
In Kaloocan a fierce batUe followed, with the American..~ on<:e
again victorious. Undisma yl!d by his defeat l.u na prepan.>d fur ,,
175
plan for the recapture of Manila by burning American occupied
houses in Toru:lo and "Binondo. This took place on February 22,
Washington's birthday (an American nationa l holiday). American
fire brigades rushed to the area and fought the flames. They repulsed
Luna's men with heavy losse~. Luna then retrured to Polo where
he established his hcadquarrers.
In late February, reinforcement arrived {rom the United States.
The AJl\Cri(".an troops under G!neral M.,cArthur began their offensive
north o f the dty. They wanted to capture Malolos, capit,,l of the
Philippine Republic. LUI\a resumed his command by building his
po.sition at the jUIIction of Rio Grande and Bagbag Rivers, just outside
Calumpit.
The Filipinos fought with fierce ~alor near Malinta. Colonel
Harry 0 . Egbert of the 22"0 U.S. Infantry d ied in action. Fighting as
they retreated, the Filipinos burned Polo and .\1eycauayan in order
to delay the enemy advan<:e.
On March 30, the American army was already in Malolos. By
this time, the Aguinaldo government had evacuated Malolos and
estai>Hshed its headquarters in San Isidro, Nueva l::cija. General
Mac Arthur wanted to pursue Aguinaldo bu t Governor General
Dwell Otis ord~red him to rest in Malolos. On !11arch 31, Gen eral
MacArthur captured Mlllolos. Subs€quently, the United States,
through the l'irst Pllilippine Commission, annoUilced the extension
of its sovereignty ovPr the country.
T he Filipino troops, although insufficiently ~rmcd and
inadequately fed continued fighting. In Quingua (Pl.aridcl), on April
23, the American cavalry under Major Bell suffered hcavy losses
und~r General Gregorio del Pilar. In this battle, Co lonel John
Stotsenberg was killed.
On April 2.5, the Battle of Bagbag River was fought. General
Luna irked by the insubordination of General Tomas Mascardo, left
Calumpit with his men to pu11ish Mascardu, who was then in
Pampanga. General Gregorio del Pilar was left to defend the Filipino
lines. Whro Luna returned to Cah.unpit the next day, the Americans
had already succeeded in penetrating the Filipino dcfem.ive lines.
Mabini through his manifesto written in San [sidro, Nueva Ecija
dated April15, 1899, urged his countrymen to continue the struggle
fur independence. Unlike him, the members of the filipino Assembly

176
(formerly Congreos) wanted <~utonomy ralher than independence.
Under this circwnstance, a resolution was passed hy the Assembly
asking Aguinaldo to reject Mabini's stand and to ~move him as
President of the Cabinet. On May 7, 1899 Aguinaldo wrote ~1abini
informing hi m of a new Cabinet under Patemo. The latt~r cnhnly
acreptal the decision.
ln the case of General Antonio Luna, some Filipino:; in forefront
found him uncompromising. His dreadful temper won him enemies.
His plan to recapture Manila was supposed to be canicd out together
with the Kawit Company, Aguinaldo's bodyguard~. Due to the
laHer's lack of cooperation, Luna recomm..nded to Agu inaldo that
the Kawit Company be disanned for military insubordination.
General Luna met his tragic end in the hands of hi-; fellow
patriots. Early in June, he received a message from Aguina ldo a(';king
him to go to Cabanatuan. H e left his conunand in Bayambang,
Pangasinan. He arrived at the hP.adquartersofCabanat\tan on June
S. He was angry to see that one of the sentries was a member of the
l<awit Company, the presidential bodyguards, which he asked
Aguinaldo to di~hand for military insul>ordination.
In the a.ftcmoonofthe same day, General Luna, after ~ttending
a meeting with his fcllow patriots who were already planning to
make p<!ace with the A~ricans (which he veh~ment ly opposed),
was stabbed to deilth by Aguinaldo's guards. He recei,·e<l abou t forty
wounds. I lis aide·de-camp Colonel Frmcisco Roman wa~ also .killed.
ThP. next day, he was buried with full military honors on Agltina ldo's
orders.
Severino de las Alas, t.hl;' Secretary of the Interior in his circular
inform!!<.! the provincial chiefs of LWla 's death and said that it was
caused by Luna's insulting and assaulting of the President's
bodyguards and th~ plan of Luna to take O\'er the presidP.ncy from
A8'1inaldo. After Luna'~ death, some demoralization Sl't in. ~any
officers began to surrender to the Americans.
The American5 mounted a full-scale offensive on October 12,
1899. From Cabanatuan, Aguinaldo moved his government to Tarlac,
then to 13ayombong, 1'\uevd Vi1:caya and then to Bayambang,
Pangasinan. With his wife, son, mother, ~i.~ter and some m~mbers
of the Cabinet, he boardf.'d the train on the night of November 13
bound for Calasiao, with the Americans still finding w~ys to trap
him .

177
 l.ly November 1899, thl' Filipino soldiers n.-sortcd to gu~>rrill~
warfare. In Aguinaldo's fight to the North, Gcncr~! Crr.gorio del
Pilar conskh:r~ the advantagE'<>us ttlrain o£ l'a.~ong Tirad, ne;tr the
town of Cervantes. !locos Sur. At 1irad !'ass, Gtoner~ I dd Pilar with
60 riflemen, stood guard to intercept lilt> Ameri(·an soldit.>I'S and give
Aguinaldo sufficient limP to E"SC.<I~.
l.n the m orning of December 2, 1899, Major Peyton e.;. Man::h
and about 300 American troopers ~tormtod the Pass, but were
repulsed by Del Pilar's men. The Americans h<td not so far ltlCil ted
the exact position of the f'ilipinus. Pasong Tirad was 1,500 feet high.
Through Januario Galut, an lgorot guide of thP. Am('rit:ons, the
secret tra il to the top w.1sknown. In the mids t o( the combat, General
del Pilar, mOW'Ited on a white horse, wash it with a !Jull!!t that p<>sscd
through the neck. Only o?ight men escaped a live tort-late the tragic
news to Aguinaldo.
After the Battle oJ Tirad Pa-;.~, the Amcrk.an authorilif:'s lost track
of Aguinaldo until Cecilio Segismundo. Agu ine<lou's mcsscngl!r fell
into the hands of Gener.1 l Frederick Funston, s tationed in :-.lucva
& ij11. He w~ ce~rrying impurtant letters to Bald omero Aguinaldo,
Gene-ral Urbano Lacuna, and other guo?rrilla leaders. The dispatch
to Baldomero Aguinaldo diro?ctcd the send ing of rclnforccmPnl to
Palanan. lsabela. This gave Funston a due to th~ wh~reabout.s of
Aguinaldo.
With the approval o£ General MacArthur, who had succeeded
Otis~~~ military govemot funston employed 1!0 Macaheb~ scot• Is,
two former officers of Aguinaldo (La?.aro SeF;ovla and Hil.trio Tal
Placido), three Tagalog nahvcs and four other Amt:'rican officers for
the capture of Aguinaldo.
Pretending to be the reinforcement w ith five Amt.>riom
prisoners, the Macabcbe scouts wcrcablr.to ~enter Ae;uina ldu's camp.
Aguinaldo and his men mel them and even r;ave thl•m food. AI a
given signal, the Macaht>he..« suddenly op ene-d fire. Tal Pl.3cido, a
fat, powerfu l man gr<~bbed Agumdldo frum behind . Gcner.J I
Funston and four other AmEc>rican officers en tered the mom and
arrested him in the name of the Llnited S tates.
Aguinaldo was ta ken aboard the Vicks hure; and !Jruught to
Man ila . General MacArthur graciou sly rece iv ed him at the
\1alacai\ang Palace. On April19, 1901, h~ took theuathof i>llegi.,ncc
to the Unit~<.! States and appe<1led to ~II Filipinos to accept the
sovereil:,"'1ty of the United Stales.
178
 At the time when some patriotic Filipinos were still fighting
for independence, some official~ of the revolutionary government
had already decided to make peace with the colonizers . The
Pacificadns (Pacifists) led by Pedro Paterno illld Felipe Buencamino
founded Asociadou de Pa:. Among thl' o rganizers were Cayetano
Arellano, ToJl•a.o; del Kosario, Trinidad Pardo d e Tav~. Leon Ma.
Guerrero, Rafael Palma, Justo Lukban and Pascual Poblctc.
While Aguinaldo a nd some of his men were in the highlands
of Northern Luzon, the Pacificndo$ (Pacifists) in a meeting on
Dl'cembr.r 23, 1900 renamed the league for peace the P.mi.UJ Fedun/
(Federa I Pazty), with Trinidad Pardo de Tavera as elected pre!.ident.
The Federal P<~rty wanted to make th~ Philippinc5 a part of the United
States and be given rights and privileges extended by the U.S. to
other territories becoming cventuall y a state of the union. The
Fetfernlisti/S were haughtily called Am~rictmistas or pro-Am"ictm$ by
the national ists.

z. A Goventment Under America

Although the Filipino-American w.u was still in progress, on
Marcl\16, 1900 President McKinl~y appointed the St.'l::ond Phi lippine
Commission (Taft Commission). He g.1ve the commission the
legislative and executive authority to p ut up a civilian government.
On fuly 4. 1901, the American civi l government was proclaimed
with Judge William Howard Taft as the first civil governor. Governor
Taft exerc:ised both exect•tive and legislative functions because he
was the head of the Second Philippine Commission that served as
the lawmaking body. I lis policy, /Ire Philippinl7s for ~ht Filipino~, !.tid
the foun da tion o f a democratic gov er nment durin g hi!';
admini.~tration. Subsequently. the Second Philippine Com.mission
passed a law establishing a high school system in the country.
One the achievements of the Taft administration wa.~ the sale
of huge tract~ of friar lands (41 0,000 acres) to FiJjpinos on easy
instaUment term.~. In 1904 the US government paid the Vatic11n US
$7.2 million for the5e lands held by th~ religiou.~ orders. Howevl'r,
thLo; scheme did not really alleviate the plight of Filipino tenants
because estate owners bought I'\'OSI of these laruls.
The fi rs t congressiona l law ahout the governmen t of the
Philippines wa5 the Cooper Act also known as th~ Phllippine Organk
Act of 1902. It provided for the extens10n of the. United States Bill of
179
 Right~ to thP. 1-'ilipinos. II also guaranteed the establishment o( an
elt-ctive Ph llippine Assembly, after the pruclamatiun uf wmplete
peace and twu yean; after the publicatiun of cefll;u~.
Governor 'k1ft p roclaimed Yl.uch 2, 1903 as Census Day. ft was
the fir.;tnfficial census of the Philippinc:< duringtheAm~rican period.
ll rep<:>rted a lnt.Jl Philippine ropulation oi 7,6::15,426.
Fil ip ino natiunali~ts organized politic,,] parties to counteract
the pro-American activitiesol the Pnrtido F~d,:ml. Among these partiO:'S
wP.rc Pnrtido Nacionnlistn (NatinnaJ.ist Partl'.). (ou.nJI!d by Pascual
l'nbiPlc in Augu~ t 1901;!artid.Elm~rdi~llr <{ndepend•:n<o;> Pi,!rty},
found l'cl bv Dr. Pedro A. Paterno; and the Pnrlisi.Q.....fkwl!n!J.lP
(INmocrati~_~'!rWJ~tmded by Alberto B.uc thl. Leon Ma Guerrero,
ft•sto Ltil(T;,an and jose de Ia V:ina in 1902. fJ.trlido J)( mor.mta like
P~~rtida Nt!CiOIItl/i$ta advocated the indeper~tJI!nc:e of the country
through peaceful mean~.
The Pmtilfo Cu115ervndor, composed of prom inent members of
the Spanish community like Maca rio Adriatico, Franci:;cu Ortiga~,
and Gre~orio Singicm , was orgaruzed in ~ruary 1901. This group
l"t'Cogni:t.ed American:;overeignty in the Philippines; under the Treaty
of Paris . It advocJtcd for autonomous represeJIIal ive g(lvernment
after peace ,md order had been reslored.
Though thousdnds of Filipino~ :mrrendered illl a result of the
Amt-riran pea"· propaganda, some military comma nders rdu~cd
to lay down th~ir arms. In Samar, Gcn!!ral Vicente l.ukban resorted
to amb\tslting American soldiers. Enraged at this tadic, G~nera l Jacob
Smith ordered the mas~a('J'e of all men •nd child ren above ten years
of age. H e wanted the pruvmce of Samar be turned into a "howling
wilderness." Such bnrbarity occurred in the town of Ha langiga,
SamM in l901-1902. After the end nf I he bloody campaign, Smith
was court-martialed for the cruelties inflicted by his n·o ops and found
guilty. They re tired him from St'T'Vice .
The fearless General Miguel Malvar con tinu ed lh e figh t for
Philippine independence. In a m.,nifesto to the Filip ino people dated
July 31, 190 I, he urged the continuation of resis tance to th~ American
OCC\lpation. General Franklin Bell believed that the en tire population
of hL~ area of operc1tions in Batangas and LagtU1cl were actively aiding
lhe guerrilla fort-e:> of G~neral M;~lvar. Accordingly, h~: decided to
t>rnploy tactk~ to cau~e w much general apprchen.~ion. The principal

180
 measure h e used wa_q rcconcentration. On April 16, 19D2 General
Malvar smrendered in Lipa1 Batang,,s, twornonth:s after the capture
of General Lukban in Ccltu big, Samar.
Bell directed his commanders to set up the uuter limits of an
c~rea ~round each town chosen as a 7.onc of rcconcentration. Before
[~cembt>r 25, 1901, the people must have moved into this zone w1th
all food supplies they could bring. All property found outside the
zone after saJCI date would be confi.o;cated or destroyed by the
Americans. Furthermore, after January 1, 1902, any man found
outside the rcconcentration area would be arrested and impriqoned
if he could notprcsent a pas~ He could either be shot if he attempted
to cun away.
Severo\ I other Filipinos rt'fust>d to conform to American rule.
However, the AmPrican a uthoritie:s were d etermined to assert
sovereignty in the Philippines, as manile~ted by the anti·natiunalist
Jaw~ imposed on the local inhabitants. These included lhe Sedition
l.aw, Brig.1ndnge Act, Recnncentration Act a nd the Flag /.llw.
Subsequently, these anti-nationalist laws were ~aapped following
the policy of l'ilipinization in 1916 except the F/Qg Law, which was
repeal ed in 1919. Flag Law (1907) prohibited th e display of the
Philippine flag and other s ymbols used by the res is tance agains t the
United Statt-s.
It was on November 4, 1901 when the Second Philippine
Commission or Taft Commission passt'd the SNiition Law which
imposed dea th penalt y o r a long pri~n term on anyone who
ad vuca tE'd ~'Paration frum the L"nitcd Stat~ even by peaceful mea ns.
Sedition w~~ defined as action pro-independence, me;~nt to incukate
a spirit oi h atrt>d and enmity 11gain.qt the American people and the
Gov ~:mment of the United Sta tes in the Philippines and to incite the
people to open an armed resistance to the constituted authorities.
Within thi5 p recept, the diRplay of the Philippine flag, the singing of
the Pillionill anthem <1nd plays advocating independence were
p rohibtted .
Juan Ahad 's T.u;iknlmrg Guinto (Gold Chain,;} wa.< clo~d after
its Batang~s performance on May 10, 1903. The author was found
guilty of ~dition. He was sentenced to two Yt!M~ imprisonment
and a fine of US 52,(Xl0.
/lim/.' A(o Palay (1 /\m Not De-a rl) by Juan Ma t~ pang Croz was
c:o:;ed on ~~~)" 8, 1903 at the Teatro ~ueva Luna in Malabon. The
181
red sun on a KaliplUlan flag th.1t rose hehind lht! :;tage cau.9cd the
riot inside the theater. A drunken American soldier climbed the ,;t ~ ~e
and tore the scenery apart. A month later Cruz was arrested and
later in1prisoned which he served in full.
Kahapon, Ngaytm at Bukils (Yesterday, Today IUld Tomorrow), a
play written by Aurelio Tolentino w~s also ~arded as seditious. lt
had its last show on May 14, 1903 at the Tcatro Lihertad. There were
different version$ of the la!>t S<:ene. In the uncensored version,
lnangbayw's (mother cuuntry, the Philippinesi children rise in arms
against M~laynatin (Who know10 ? referring to the L'.S. Insular
government} and &_gong Sibol (newcomer- the United States.) In
the censored version, Bagonp; Sibol grants the ch.i.ldren their frel!dom.
Tho! uncensored version resulted to Tolentino's a rrest. He- w<os given
hie imprisonment in 1905. In 1912, he was pardoned.
On November 12.. 1902, Governor William H . Tart pu shed
through the pas!<age of the Brignnd~gt• Act or l .r.y dr. Brmrlol.-ri1'mo
which punL~hP.d with death or with a prison term of not less than
twenty ye<~rs for members of an a rmed band. Persons aiding
brigand s were to be given prison te rms of not less than ten years.
On Jun e I, 1903. the Philippine Commission pas,;cd the
l<Pcmu:elltmtion Act, which gave the governor gencr.1l the power to
authorize any provincial governor to reconcentrate in the towns all
resident:; of outlying ba rrio,; if la.tronr~ or outlaws opera led in thl'Se
areas. This JaN was pa~ to facilitate the apprchensiM of guerrilla s
who were being protected by the people.
In September of 1902, the resis tance group!> that had been
operating in Rizal ;;.nd Bulacan me rged int o a consol ida ted
mo\•cmcnt with Gen~ra l Luciano San Miguel as su preme mllit.uy
commander. Starting \vith a force of around 150 mt>n armod with a
few guns captured from municipal police detadunents, San Miguel's
group tioon a ttracted new rccntils. They r<tided towns to obtain more
weapuns. They also captured some Filipino Scouts se rving tho! U.S.
Army.
The end for San Miguel c-ame on March 28. 1903, after some
Philippine Scouts di~coverecl his headquarters between C~loocan
and Marikina. San Miguel and his force of two hundr~d men
defended themselves. Hit thr~e times, San Miguel n~verthcless
fought until his last l>reath.

182
 With the death of San Miguel_ Faustino Guillermo assucncdlhe
leadership of the 1\"ew J<at:ipunan movement in Ri:.c.al and in Bulacan.
Soon after, Guillermo wa~ captured. Two men pretended to have
defected from the CoMtolbulary force underCaptainKeithley. While
in.~ide Guillermo's camp, they took Guillermo as prisoner and 1\lmed
him over to Keithley.
At the height of th~ rebellion in Samar in 1902, Macario Sakay,
Julian Montalan, and Comdio Feli1.ardo organized their resistance
forces in the Rizal·Cavite·Laguna-Batangas area by formally
~t.lblishing the Philippine Republic, or what Sa kay referred to as
the Tagalog Republic. H e was cha.en as presidomt w ith Monlalm in
cha rge of m.ilitaryoperations. }'rancL~co Carreon, a former councilor
oi the Katlj)\lnan as v!ce·president.
Sakay exerted efforts to providt> some amenities for the
movement. In April 1904, Sakay released a manifE'-~to addressed to
i\ll foreign consulates deciaring that he and his men were real
revolutionaries and not mere brigands <IS the U.S. government
claimed bi!Cau~c they h ad a flag, .1 government oll\d a constituhon.
To a blain S<.'CUrity of his followers, Sa kay imposed ~nctions to
lmcooperl\live FilipLnos. In one instance, they abducted the family
of Mariano Trias, a fo rmer general of Aguh,aldn. This was a
rctaliatOI)' move for his collaborationist acts. Trias untered the arrest
of four town PJ\'sidents s~pected of ~upporting the b'Uerritlas when
he becamto the iirst civil governor of Cavile. Thereafter the Philippine
Consta bulary reswed Mrs. Trias and her children. The same way,
the government forces nevertheless were not t~ble In suppress the
Sakay rcbcllion.
In m.id-1905. Governor Gencr.tllleruy C. ]de attthori7.cd Dr.
Oo minador Gomez, a well-known labor leader, to conduct
negotiations for the surrender of Sakay and \tis men. Dr. Gome7.
went tu T<m~y and told the rebellt>adt>r that hiq surrender w,ould
hdp restore pe<Ke and order in the country, a co11ditlnn provided by
the Cooper Act uf 1902 for the ~st,,blishment ui a Philippine
Assembly. This assembly would serve a~ a training ground for se lf-
govemment, the first step toward in.l.lependencc.
Sakay agreed to end his resistance on condition that a g~neral
.l mnesty ue given to them, tha t they be JJemlilk><l to c.arry firearms,
and that hl" and hi~ men be allowed to leavl" the ~011 ntn: assured of
personal !<afety. Gomc.t ,,ssured Sakay that h is conditions were

183
acceptable to the Ame.rican government. In Ju ly 1906, Sakay left his
headquarters in Tanay and went down to Manila. The p('()ple
honored him through re<:eptions and banquets.
Colonel Ha rry H. Bandholtz, who hacl been handl ing the
negotiations with Dr. Gomez, Invited Sakiiy, his principal lieutenants
and Or. Gume.z to a party in Ca vile. \"/hile at the hotLse of Cavite
Governor Van Schaik where the party was being hcld, the Americans
and the Philippine Conslilbulary arrested ;md disarmed Sakay and
his men. Sakay and his principal officers were charged with ladroni:>m
or banditry and other crimes s uch as rohhery, rape, kidnapping and
murder.
In accor<tanc~ with the provi<;ion~of the Brignndnge Act, the court
!M!ntencM Gen~ral Macario L. Sakay and Colonel Lucio de Vega to
die by public hanging. The other officers were sentenced to long
prison terms. Julian Mont,. fan and L~<m Villafuerte were eventually
given executive clemency.
On Septembe r 13, l\107, Sa ka y an d de Vega were tak~n out of
their Bihllid Priwn cells. Stand in~; on the death platfonn in the prison
pla:..a, General Sakay shouted ~~ the top of hi~ voice saying that he
was not a brigand but a ~incerc patriot working for Philippine
independence.
llle l~st revolutionary general to surnmder to the Amcrkans
was General Simeon Ola, who surrem!ered to Colonel Bandholtz in
Guinobatan, Albay on September 25, 1903. Wkc Malvar, O la took
the oath of allegiance to thl.' l,;nitecl States. Artemio Rkarte refused
m
to t.1kC oath of allee;iance ro the United States and W4S exiled I Iong
Kong and later in Japan.
As the 1901 elections for the First Ph1lippine Asse mbly.
approached, the nationalists saw the need for fusion in order to win
against the w ell-organized Par/ida Nnci1mul Progresista (National
l'rogress1ve PM ty), which wa,; formerly the Pn rtido Fdanl. The
p,;rtida NoKiunn/ista .1nd Parlido Nt!ciullnl ProgNsis/.1 dashed in the
elec tions of July 30, 1907 fo r 80 sea ts in the First Philippine Asllembly.
The Partido Nncionnli;tn advocated imm e<thtte and absolute
independence. It won a l~ndslide majority.
The Philippine Assembly was inaugurated at the Grand Opera
I louse, Man ila on Ot:tobl'r 16, 1907. Sergio Osmena w~s chosen
Speaker of tht- A,;sembly w hile Manut>l L. Quezon became the
rrujority floor leadt.-r. The first bill passed by lht! Philippine Ass..-mbly
184
was t he Gaba ld on law (sponsored by Assemblyman lsauro
Gabaldon) w hich appropria ted one milli01"1 pe.o;os for barrio schools.
Purs uant to th~ Philippine Organic Act of 1902 (also kno wn as
Cooper Act), two l'ilipino resident conunl:;:;ioners represented their
countrymen in tht> U.S. Congres.~. They were Benito l.egarda (1907-
12) and Pablo ();;arnpo (1907-09). The residen t conunissioner~; took
part in the debates in Congress in defen!>~ of Filipino interes t in
1\meri.:i\ b ut were not given the privilege to vote.
On Augu5t 19, 1916. the U.S. Congress p assed the Jones Law,
which was s•gned by President Woodrow Wil'\CIJ\. The Jones Law
provided a bicameral Phil ippine legislature wi th an Uppt'r Hous~
called the Senate (with 24 members) and a Lower House called the
House of Representatives (with 93 members). The Jaw contained a
preamble declaring that independence would be granted to th~
Filipino people as soon as a s table government could be established
in the Philippines.
The new legislature under the Jones Law was inaugurated on
Octobcr26, 1916, withQ\le>:on as President of the Senate and Osmefia
as Speaker oflhe Hou!>~ (until 1922, since h e became the St'nate Pro-
tempore after 1922). The Narirmnli.~tns dominated both Hou~s. The
Progrrsistns had. only on~ seat in the Senate and seven in the House
of Representatives.
On October 5, 1921, Leonard Wood rep laced their popular
Gov~rnor General Francis Bu rton-Harrison. In his first y~ar of
arlminis1Tati01"1, he voted 16 bills passed by the legis lature, whe~a~
Harrison, in his whole term (1913-21), vetoed only five bills.
The heightening tension between Governor Wood a nd the
Filipino leaders came to its cl imax on fuly 23, 1923, when Senate
Pn-sident Quezon. Sena t~ Presid en t Pro-tempo~ Osrnei\a and th e
Filipino Department Secretari~s res igned from the Council of State.
The inc1d~nt. known as the "Cabinet CrL~i~ of 1923" happe11ed w hen
Governor Wood governed the countty without the coo~ration of
th~ leg islature.
Upon Que7.on's advice. Filipino cabinet members resignl!d from
their posts in protest of Governor Wood's handling of the Ray Conley
case. Detective C01"1tey of the Manila police was charged with
immorality and miswnduct in office. Wood created an CJdmirustrative
committee which later ~xonerated Con ley and recommended his
reinstatement. Se<:retary of Interior Jose P. taort!l and mayo r of
185
Manila Ramon Fernandez had earliet resigned becau~e of Wood's
intcrferen~l! in the prosecu tion of Co nley. Laurel's resigna tion
iru:\trred political repe rcussions. Quezon, ctcting as spokes01an of
lh<> Filipino members of the Cabinet. accused the govemor general
of controlling the affairs of the govenunent in utter clbregard o f the
ttu thority the clepa rtrnent hcad5 ilnd o ther offic ia ls.
In 1926, Governor Wood abol.il;hi!d the Board of Control. which
was created by law during Governor llarri!;On's ~rm to oversee and
m nnilge the owne rs hip o f s tocks nf governme nt-owned and
controlled corporations. Tho!;e institutions includet1 the :-.1;mila
Railroad Co mpany, the M~nila Hotel, and the l'hihppine :"Jational
Ba nk.
Govemor Wood found himself oppo!>ed by Filipino advocates
of polilkdl autonomy. Thedilt>mma awak<!nL'(} the nationalistic .spirit
of the people. The Nacionolista and the Democ rata l'a rti~ joined
foiU!s in a co mmon cause again.'>! this governor general and to work
for the rcco)l,nitiun of the country's independence. A coalition c;>llt!d
Nation.JJ Supreme Council was formed. Tens•on ended w•th the
governoc gl!neral's death whilt> undergoing ~urgE>ry in the United
Sliltt:s. Governor Wood dit'd o n 1\ugust 7, 1927.
From 19 19 to 1933, there had been t·..,clvc Ind ependence
Mission,; sent to Ihe L'nited Stat<~ !u campaig·n for tht> recognition
of Philippine !nd~p~ndencc. In Dt"cember, 1'1~ 1 . the ninth mi$Sion
popularly c.1llet1 the Os-Rox Mls;;ion, after il5 leolder,SenJ tc J.>re~ident
pro tempore Sergio Osmena and I lou~ Spt>aker :-.1anuel A. Ro xas,
bwught home the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act. The HHC Act divided
thE' Ph ilippine Cong ress into two opposing Cilrnps - the Auti:; and
tile Pro.>. The AP!tis, l... ct by Sena te President Que7.0n, opposed the
Act because.' o f its objectionable featmc~; while the Pros h~aded by
Scr1.1!m Osmena and Speakl!r Roxa5 upheld it o n the ground th ~t it
wa~ 11-.., best independen«> measure.

Thi! I IIIC Act pr()v id cd th e pant ing of Philip pi ne

i:ld t>~'cnde ncc afler 12 years. bu l rese rving mili tary ami naval bases
ior the t:nited Sta tes. Also included in this c-on troversial measure
w a~ the control the currency sp rum ~nd the cond uct llf foreign~ ffaits
by the US Pro!sident. American goods were alluwed free entry into
:h..- 1'1-.ilippincs. lhE' bill also dirl-ctcd the U.S. to retain land for
milit.lry and Mher r<-$J?rvation.~.

JHn
 In December 1932, Quezon sent a one-man mission (Benigno
Aquino) to Washington to disco~ his objections. Aquil'\o, however,
was won ove r by Osmodta and Roxas to their side.
In Novemhcr 1933, Quezon led the t welfth mlsNion to
Washington to secure a better independen.ce act. A new independence
measu re called Tydings-McDuffie Law was passed and tl8tled by
!'resident rrilnklin D. Roosevelt on March 24, 1934. It closely
resembled the I liiC Act. The law was accepted by the Philippine
Le~;islature.
The JYdings-McDuffie taw provided for a ten-ye<tr lran5ition
p<.'riod under the Commonwealth of the Phil ippines, prepara tory to
the granting of absolute and complete independe nce on July 4, 1946.
Also included in the provisions w<.'re an annual q uota of 50 Filipino
immigran t~ to America: control of the currency, coinage, foreign
tradtc', and foreign relatiorus by America .md representation of one
Filipino resident conunissioner in America and an ;\~!::ican High
Commissioner in the l'hilippines.
The Tydings-McDuffie Law au thonzed the Philippine
Legislatu re to call a constitutional convention to d nft the
Con5titutio n of t he Phil i ppine.~. It is a lso rtc'quired that th<.>
Constitution be app roved by the American president and ratified
by the p eople in a plebiscite.
On July 30, 1934, the Convention met in an in~ugural session at
the hdll of the Hou~ of fu.'Presentatives, LfRi!ll.ltive Build ing in
Ma11ila. The clec teJ officers were Claro M. Recto, President, Rube rto
Montinol~:~ and Teodoro Sandiko, Fin;t and Se<:OI\d Vi~·Prcsidem,
respectively; Narciso Pimentel, Secretary and Nard1;o Dlol<no,
Scrgeanl-<>t-arnL~.
The drafting of the C<mstitution ~~~ted six m onths - from j uly
3(), 1934 to February i!, N35. The Coru~ht ution w<~s.•1pproved by the
Convention by a vote of 177 to 1. Twenty-two members were absent.
Ol'e member had died In August 1934.
Tomn!l C.1bili of landO ..-as~ the dissenting vott'. He opposed
the cunstitu tion b<.'cause it did not provide the system of popular
election fur the mcmbers of the N <ltlonal Assembly from I <~ nao.
G regorio Perfecto, a delegate from Manila, signed the constitution
in his own blood, like !he K..1tipunan blood compact or pncto d~ smzgre.
Presi'dent Roosevelt approved the Co1'1Stitution. Then on May
14, 1935, the plebi scite for the rat ification or rejection of the
187
Constitution was held. for the first time, Filipino won\ell E!XE!rcised
the right of suffrage. The Constitution wa$ overwhelmingly ratified
by the people with " total of 1,213,046 in f~vor .md those again~t
only44,%>.
The first national elec tion under the 1935 Constitution was held
on September 17. 1935. The candidates for President and Vice-
l'l'€'sident were Manuel L. Quemn, Sergio Osmcna (Coalition Partyi;
General Emilio Aguinaldo and Raymundo Melli.7.a (:-:a tiona! Soci.1list
Party): and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay and Norberto t-:abong
{Republican Party). Quezon and Osmdia were overwhelmingly
elect~ as President and Vice-President respectively by majority vote.

:i· The American Legacy

Alter the victory of the Amnicans against th e Spanish Oe~t in
.
the Hi!ttle of :>.f ani!a on Mav 1. 1898, the US militarv
;
reinforcement
grew in number. The Un ited State~ in fact, sent its top gener.1ls to
the Philippines, indt•ding G'i'neral John "Blackjack" Pershing who
urged the Colt gun factory to manufacture the famous Colt .45 caliber
aulnmalic revolvl'r. This kind oi weapon was u.o;ed against the
Muslim warriors in battle.
Vet~riins of the India n wars were also ~en! to th~ country.
Among them were C~neral Elwell O tis and General Henry W.
Lawton, (for whom a strel't and a p l.1za were ru!:rrwd respectively}.
Some of the American soldiers helped in building roads. The rest of
them ~l;~lfed the American public schools. They came to be known
as nwmasites, from the name of the t:.S. army ship that they boarded
on their wa y to the Philippines. The~e American teachers, numbering
.1bout 540 who arrived in the country on AugttSI 21, 1901, estJblL~hed
the modem s.:hool ~}'"Stem.
Puh lic e lementilry ed\!Cation, which pro vided cducation.dl
opportu nity for all citizens, was fin.mced by governmen t funds.
Ed ucation was sought to acquire not only theoretical knowledge bu~
nlso practical skills to meet lhll' t>ssomtial demands of life. The cngli~h
language wa~ used to transmit the;;e new ideas in the country.
The American,; propagated the use of the English language fo r
better under~!and ing with the Filipinos. EnglL~h ~a me the language
of instruc-tion in all schools and bec.1me the official language of the
government.

188
 The first Amrrican newspupt'r to •'PI'<',u in the PhilippinL>s w.t~
tht' llouuding Billow, published .1t irn:'!:!,tll<tr intL~rv~l~ on b<Ji\rd
Dewey's il<~~ship Olympia. The fir:;t Amerk"" .i;~ily ncwspJ~"ICr lo
be publi:;hed in Man ilA wa<; the Am,·rimn Soldirr, with its ii Nt issue
dated Sep tem\~r 10, 1898.
The first Filipino wt!('ldy in En~li,;h was th~ PhiliJII'iH<' Ho•rot/.1,
fow\dcd l.>y Senare President :vl~nud L. Que:.:on in 1902. NMion.distic
pt'rindkal~ like[/ RertncimiO'IIIO o1ml MrtiiJI,~ f'ag,;i/ang oll~<)circuliltLXI.
Despite thl.' St>dilinn Law of 1901. l1xal writers conlinur.d criticizing
individual Americans committing offmsesagainst FilipinO$ hy n$ing
tnlingltagn or symbolism ~~ a literary device to elude dctechon of
c~ n ~rs.

In 1908, [f Rrnocimia tto a!l.l('krd the then Secn•tMy of the

Inte-rior, !Jean Worcester in the article tlw~ dt• l{npilln {Uird ~ nf Prey).
Worcdter i m mcd iatcl y sued the vwncr anJ eJ ito r~ oi th,~ nc wsp~pc r
for lib~!. The litigants were ddc;:.led in court. Thl• newspap,~r.
together with its m<~chinery was ~old at auction. Ttodoro M. Kuh""·
th~ editor nf the newsp~p~!r, wu~ imprisoned but later pardoned by
GovPmor Gencralllarrison.
A nP.w generation of Filipiuo wo·itr.rs in English Mtrilctcd
appreci<~tioro from she people. C.ulos P. Romulo wm' the Pulitzer
Prize for international OE'portinx in 1942. jose Garna Vill" was li'>l<~d
among the top short story writers in America in 1932 by F.Jward
O'I:Sricn, a known America n antho log ist.
'Jhc period from 1905 to 1930 was lhr golden age of the Zlrrzuda
in the country. Severino Reyl!s' Wt~/1111.1( Sugnt (Not ·Wound<.>d) was
on~ o( the mo.<t iamous Tag.ltog zarwe/o>. Wilh the intruduction of
the Hollywood talkies {talking pictul"eli) i.n 1930, tht' 2flrzwln vanished
:t:i ,\ popular theatrical art.
Cartooning l>egi!n to hln!'t<;om at the htm of th<.• l'\.'llllory afiN
the American colonial go,·emmcnt ,\IJowcd free press to Oul•rish .
Arti11ts like George Pineda (1379· 1972), whtl in vented the immortal
repreSP.nta tion of the I'ilip inv - the ~/l/olk<>l·wParing s lippercd juan
do: Ia C w:r., ctid political c.utooning like Jost- ~~~rrPim (1'f0!· 1954),
chief cartoonist of the 1-'hilippill( Frff Pr~ss mag"""'"" Irom the 1920s
to the 1930~.
In music, the young gcncrJtion enthusi<1stoc~lly welcomed
American j<~zz and swing music. llowev<>r, talented Filipino

189
musicians tried to preserve the country's musical heritage. Nicanor
Abelardo, a Bulakcno, became a prominent Filipino composer of
kundiman;;, wal tzes, mal'(hes and sonata:; for piano and violin.
Among his famous compositions a~ Mutya ng Pasig (Muse of l:'a.Gig),
l'Va;Wln Ka frog (Where Are You My Love?), and Bituing Marikit
(Beautiful Star). Other luminaries in thi~ field were Francisco
Santiago, Jovita I'umtes, and Naty Arellann. Santiago bt-l:ame known
for his Auak Dalila {Ch.ild of Woe) and Mtrdaling A raw {Dawn).
Protestant Christianity wa~ introduced in the cuuntcy by the
i\mericon.~. This new religion, which shes~:; per~onal salvation
through failh, was able to attract a number of new Filipino converts.
In l89<J, Mr. C. B. Randall, a lay worker, distributed the Jirst b1bl~ in
Manila.
Bishop fames M. Thobum of the Methodist Episcopal Church
of lndia delivered the first Protestant sermon in the country.
Methodism, which began in 1729 at the Universily of Oxford in
l::ngland, was brought to the C'nited Stalt!s befote the American
Revolution (1775-1783) by migrants from Ireland and England.
During the i\mcrican occupation in the country, Ute people were
permitted to honor and celebrate the anniversaries of the Filipino
na tional heroes. The country carne to commemorate the Bonifacio
Day (Nov.,mber 30), Ri:tal Day (December 30). America al~o added
h~r holidays such as Valentine's Day(February 14}, Washington Day
(February 22), Glorious Fourth (July 4), and Thanksgiving Day (4"'
Thursday of November).
The Filipino people adopted the American mod e of dressing.
Men started wearing pants with belts or with suspenders . For ca~ual
wear, polo shirts became popular. Coat-and-tie became the typical
fom1al attire. The women began to wear skirt:;, high-h~led shoes,
nylon stockings, artificial eyelashes, make-up and even perfumes.
Mr., Miss, or Madam a.> sa lutations bt"Carne conventionaL
Wom en were granle>.d more r ights in ~ucation, in piaccs of work
and l!Ven in politics. Coeducational schools were also institutP.d.
In 1903, ChMie~ \1. 5wift established the MJ::RALCO (Manila
Eledric Company). Its original name was Manila Electric Railroad
and Lighting Compan)~ the first company given the franchise to
operate electric cars called trarJt>ia and supply electricity to Manila.
Communication likewis e improved with the cre ation of the

190
Philippine Long Distance 'Jelephone by virtue of Act No. 3436 in
1928.
On February 17, 1905, the 11hilippinc Constabulary School was
established. Later it became the Philippine Military Academy, the
firs t military officers' school in the country. From Intrnmuros, it was
moved to Baguio.
In 1910, the Philippine General Ho;;pital (PGH) located at Taft
Avenue, Manila w,ls ~st,lbllshcd by the government to attend to
indigent patients.
The Amerkans also train~d the Filipinos in v;trious physical
activities. Outdoor games such as ba5eball, softbalL calisthenics,
football and volleybalL and indoor games li~ bowling, biUI,uu. table
tennis, poker, black jack and other card games became ITcmendously
popular. The American~ emphasized th!! importance of sport
activitU!s to improvt> physkal fiiTlcss and elise tension arising from
work. They also inculcah~<1 in the minds of the player~ the notion of
~ortsmanship.
The American era also marked the improvement of
infrastructure, transport and l'Ommunication faciliti<'S as well as
community services. Manila ami other popula ti on centers had
modern ~uildings constructed along American art:hilect ur allines
resembling Greek or Roman temples with porticot!s.
The- architectural plan for the City of Manila and the Que:zon
Memorial Circl~ (with eight main roadsencird.ing from the rotunda)
were dont' by the Americarus.ll WIIS Uanicl Burnham, noted Chicago
architect and town planner who dt>signt~d Oaguio City.
Filipino sculptors w~re given rc!Thlrkable recognition in the
middle of the 19''' century. On~ uf th•• most prominent in the fidd
"'115 Guillermo Tolentino (1890-1976), l-est known for his masterpiece,
tht> Bmrijacio Monument, which Is a group sculpture composed of
s.:veTa l figure~ gathered around a centralubelisk. The principal figure
is Andres Bonifacio, the leader of the Philippine revolution in 1896.
Behind him stands Emilio Jacinto. The monument was completed
in 1933.
Thl;! Americans used their st.1y in the Philippines tu teach us
their way oflile and the princ•ples of dcmocraq•. individual freedom,
re~pcct for rights and liberties of the people, free and open elections
and multiple political partil'S 11re among the principles foW'ld in a

191
demo(r~cy. The Americans came and enhanced the knowledge of
the Filipinos on democratic ways ~nd iru.titutions. They organi7t>d
the dvil rou rts, including thE> Supreme Court with Cayetano A~llano
as the firs t Filipino Chiei Ju~titt;-
local governments were established in towns and provinces
W'lder the control ol American troops. The first e]l'({iOt'l under the
American flag was conducted on May 7, H!'l9 in Haliwag, Bulacan.
It i~ a fact that the Filipinos had a I ready some idea of a
democrMic government as proven by the establi~hrnent of a
rt>publican government in Mnlolos, Rulacan. However. the First
Philippine Republic d id not las t long having been overthrown in
1899.

4· Philippine Independent Church

In the second phase of the Revolution, whkh began with
Aguin11ldo's return from 1-lol'lg Kong, Governor Ccncral Basilio
Augustin and Archbi$hop B~rnardino Noz<llcda <'Ommissioned
Father G regorio Aglipay to confe r with the revolution ary leade rs to
bring them back to the Spanish side with a p romise of autonomy for
the Philippines. On the oth er hand, l:!milio Aguina ldo sent Colonel
Luciano San Miguel as his emi"W~ry l1:l Aglipay for the purpru;e of
persuading the lattt-r to go to the North to work for the revolutionary
cause.
Aglipay went ::--Jorlh to investigate the<ondition of the bishopric
of Nueva Segovia (Caeay<~n) . L'pon hi~ return to Manila ~o report to
NozaledA, he found :-..f~nila bL-sieged by the American.•. He decided
to go to Cavite and join Aguinald o's movement, particularly the
Mal<Jlos Congress .
On O ctober 20, 1898, Aguinald o issued a denec appointing
Aglipay as Military Vicar General, making him the religious leader
of the revolutionary movement. A d.1y after his appointment, Aglipiiy
issued .1lcttcr to the hlipino d~rgy to form an ecclesia.stic~l coundl
which would ask the Pope to<~ppoint Filipinos in all Church positioru;
from ar('h\>•.shop to the lowe-st parish priest.
Archbishop 1\'ozaleda, ct~eply a larmed by Aglipay's decisions
charged the latter with usurpa tion of power. Nozaleda iss <Jed his
decree ~xcorrummicating Ag.lipay which took effect on M~y 5, 1899.

t92
 Returning to the Philippines early in 1901, ls~bdo de los Reyes,
a radical propagandt~t, campaigned for the establishm~nt of a
Filipino Church. In July of the same year he fowlded the Uuum Obrera
D~mocraticcl (Democratic Labor Union). On August 3, 1902, de los
Reyes called a meeting of nis l)emocrafic: Labor Union at the Centro
d~ Rt'llds Arlt'S and propo~ed th~ t SI6\Jlishmt'Tll of~ Filipino Church
indep•mdent of Rome with Fr. Aglipay as the SupremO! Bishop. The
proposal was accepted and thus the lglc·:;ia filipi!!a /ll(t,•peudimk
(Philippine Independent Church) was founded.
In ,1 conieren~-e w llh the jesuiLq, J'r, Aglipay mad~ hi~ last
attempt to prevt!nl a schism in tile Church. H~t ilict.not y~tt ace~tpt the
posititm of a Supreme Bishop in the Philippine Independent Church
when he w.1S bei ng interviewed , t the Jesuit house in Sta. Ana,
Manila. J'or fou r ddy.~, J'r. l'ranci.<;<.'O foradada, a Spaniard, exerted
a ll l'fiorts to wi.n ba ck Aglip ay to the Ca tholic fold <~I though the I<~ tier
had not yt>t given up his Catholic fai th .
On the fifth day, foradada handed Aglipay a document lor his
signature, affimling h is return to Ca tholicis m. Aglipay wanted an
as.~uran,·e thai by signing 1he docu men t, the p roblem oi the J'ilipino
Catholic priests will~ ~olvcu, that is, tht-ir appomtm~nt to th~ posts
formerly held by the Spanish reglt lars. For.1dada in reh.tm replied
why did he mind so much the Filipino p1ies ts considering they arc
vic ions and inefficient. Aglipil y felt very offended and he demanded
Foradada to withdraw his odtOltS remark. Hl' leit the- }~StJit hot•se
and :severed relations with Roman Catholici~m.
Year~ later, the Jc~uits tried their be~t ~o make up with Aglipay.
F.:lthcr Joaquin Vilallonga was chosen to dl'al with Aglipay but the
latter h;~d already made hi~ dec:i~ion to support the l'hilippinr
lntfe1>endent Church. In 5.-pteml.le-r 1902 bishops were consecrated.
On january 18. 1903 Aglipay was consKrated Supreme Bbhop by
the bishops of Manila, Cavite, :'\Jueva Ecija, Isabela, Cagayan.
Panga~inan and Abra.
According to the Philippine censu~ of 1918, out of a total
population of ten million, close to one and d half million Filipinos
were members of rhe Aglipayan Church.

s. The Colol"Um-"
Tht> remnauts of Hermann Pule's Cofradia de S.Ut jose retreat~
to tht' moun tdins bd w een Tdyal>.l~ au d LdgUnd. They :rettled o1t thl•
193
 mountain of San CrL~tobal and considered thLq place their Jerus<~lcm.
ThiG group came to be known a~ colontm, ~corruption ol thr Latin
phrase, ef s.r~ula saecu/orum (world without end) u.st'd ~~ Mass. to
~nd certain prayer.;. During the American occupa lion, tlw term
colorum was used by the authorities to refer to rebel organizations
with mystical characteristic;.
l.o lMum organi7.~tions W€'re ~ctiv€' in the 1920s. In Ley~ ami
SamM, the Societl<ld dr 111 CunfiunZil was fcmned . The Cnbal!aos d.- In
s.•grodtr [ami/ill had one thO\LSand followers in Pampanga..
Pangasinan, Bulacan and Nucv,, Ecija. Other colonup. groups were
established in Tarl.:lc, Riz.:ll, L1 Union, I.Satanga~ ,1nd Surigao.
TheH• co lvrum groups were char~cterized by religious
fan,Hici.sm, whlch was a <oml:>ination of Catholic devotion, hem-
wo~hip anrl folk-superslilinn. \1P.mhlc'rs w€'rt' recn•itro Irom the
opprcs~d mass.>s thill sought the messiahs for thl'ir rudemption.
In Tarlac, the colomms wor~hippPd jo.~P. Hi:-:a l ,md Apo lpE>
Salvador. They belit>vPd that the two leaders would resurrect and
save them. Felipe Salvodor, otherwise known as Apo lpe was born
in Baliwag BulacMl on May 26, 1870. When the Ka tipuneros from
Balintawa:k arrived in Baliwag, lpe join~d them. lie was appointed
as colonel by Ag\linaldo in 1899. When Agu inal do surrcnd~red to
the Americans, he went to the mountilins and beg<u1 his guerrill a
operation~. Soon, ht~ organi7.ed his group ;md ca lled it Santa lgl~sia
or Holy Church.
/\polpcwamt:d his followers that a ~ond dt-lug.:-wololcl ocwr
and destroy a ll non-follow€'rs illld thl't after the flo~KI, there would
t:>e rain of ~old and jewels fur his followers. T'h.l1 colonuns ofTarlac
l>elieved that tlnli11g-anlmg>' madt> all members invulnerable to the
bullets firl'd by the enemy.
lo Surigao, the colorum gnlups were devoted to the Sacred
Heart of ksus, hnma~ul<~te Hedrt of :Mary and jose Rlzal. They
believed that une day Ri.ull would retum and m lc the Philippines.
The group grew in number and spre~d from Surigao to Agusan,
Cot.l bato, S.:tm.u and leyte.
The colorums of Surigao began their upri~inp; by the encl of
1923. They killed five Constabulary soldiers and latlc'r attacked a
Constal>uiMy deta<hm<"nt which resulted in the deitth of the
provincial comtnand~T and twelve :ooldier,;. The government h,•d to
supprt;';l!< t hecolomm rebellion which lasted from january to October;
1924.
194
 Govemo r Genera1Leona rei Wood, Teeognizing the patriotic zeal
that animated the colorom rebellion, prohibited the display of
pictures of Filipino heroes in all public schools in Mindanao.
In Nueva Ecija, Pedro Kabola founded a secret sociery in 1923
c.1Ued Kapisanan MakDbola Makarinug. They intended to assault the
municipal building ot San Jose and execute all town officials so that
independence could be achieved. Subsequently, land wuuld be
equally apportioned among the masses and the c11ciques iiS well a~
the American~ would be expelled from the country. But before the
appointed date of the a!tack, the Constabulary troopers were able to
discover the plan. Kabola was killed. Hundred.~ of Kapisanan
members were arrested and jailed for coru.piracy and sed !Uon .
. In P.1 ngasinan, an Ilocano named Ped ro Calosa b egan
organi7.ing a colorum group in 1929. Member.; were given r;mks
ranging from corporal to general and wore colorful red and white
uniforms with antin~-nnlin~ embroidered on them.
In J<~mt<'ry 1'.1:11, the colorums decided to attack the town of
Tayug. ~upposeJ. to l>e the spark of that would ignite the Central
Luzon area in a p~a~ant revolution. Armed with knives, bolos ~nd a
few guns, Calosa and his followers marched on Tayug at the night
and managed to rout the soldie~. When a Constabulary detachment
aJTive.:l, the colorum group ret rea ted into the convent. Pedro Calosa
escaped 1>111 was captured a few days larer.
In a n interview years later, Calosa himself said that many of
th~ colonun m('mhers were tenants who hau been ejected by
ltacmdau;;, or w~te small farmers 'deprived of their lands by land
grabbers who u~-d their power to advance their personal interesffi.

6. Land Tenure Sy.< ;tem

Pr~ing issues like social reform,. land own~rship, tenan<y
rights and the dbtnl>u tion of wealth had b een the cawe~ of public
discontentment. The fulciendtl system, introduced during the Spanish
pcriod, k<.-pt the peasants in bondage. The landlord -tcnolnt relations
ensued even after the institution of a democratic government.
Tenants were either inquilinos (cas!'~ tenants) or ka511mas (share
tenants}. '!he inquili!lo p aid yearly rent for using a piece of land.
Asidt from thL<>, he W<IS often required to give various ~rvices to
the hitCr'lld(ro ior free. Rdusal to work or to contribute to th.e expenses

195
could mean outright dismiss<~! from the hacit.ndn. It became
customary for the children of th~ tenants to serve the landlord as
domestic: servants to help their parent~ pay the inrer~st on debts
incurred due to cash advances.
Th~ ka,;anm or sharecropper provided the labor on the hacienda
where he shared the harvest on a 50.50 ba;o;is with his landlord or
hacmdero, after deducting th~ cxpcn.<:cs incurred in planting and in
harvesting. Like the inquiline, he was t"xpeded to render peTsonal
St"rvkes to the landowner, at the latt~r·s discretion.
Low productivity, due to traditional farming methods, along
with cacique exploitation insured the tenants a luw standard of living.
Free trade lil<ewise reinforced the feudal agr~rian system uf th~
Spanish regime and twisted the normal development of local
industries.
Dependence upon duty-free American goods incn.•ased the
suffering of local producer.~. In the 192tl<; to the 1930s, a number of
pca.~ant uprisings and labor protests evolved from case~ of
E-xploitation and pour living conditions.
The Philippines though a country rich in resources was unable
to sustain the ba~k n~eds th~ mas~e!;;. The Filirino leaders, absorbed
with much attention on how to gain political autonomy had not fully
given efforts to bring about economic independence.

7· The First Labor Groups

In January 1902, lsabelo de lo:> Reye:; organized the first labor
union in the Philippines, the llniun de Litogmfo.s ~ Impr«sores de
Filipirms. Soon after its founding, the members decided to reorganize
'themielves into the Union Obrera Democratica (U.O.D.), a fEderation
of smaller unions of printcr5, lithogrnph~rs;<:igarmako!rs, tailor;o;and
shoemakers which demanded higher wages and worker's benefits.
With its official organ, Lil Redmcion dPl Olm.'m, the Union voiced
the social d~mands and nationalistic feelings of the workers. As a
result of one of the strikes, Isal:>do de los Reyes was imprisoned. A
few weeks later, he was pardoned.
Or. Dominndor Gomt"z, who succeeded De los Reyes, led a
group of laborers on May 1, 1903 in a demonstration before
~lalacilfiang. However, Gomez was replaced by Lope K. Santos for

196
 the union member!; di~trust~l.l tht' furmer's involvl'ment in thc
surrender of Sa kay which lt-d tu his (apturl'.
.Lope K. Santos, ~ printer a nd newspaperman, was the last
presiden t of the U.O.D. under him, the union l:>ecamc known as the
U11ion dd Trabt~jo rh filipinns. Political riv~lries had led to its
d issolution in 1907.
On May I, 1913, Labor Day was first officially celebrated in the
country. The labor leaders org11.niud the Coto,~r~so Ob>'r'ro d<' Fili1ti1111s
(C.O.F.). This Congres.o; approved n>soll•t ions demanding eight·hour
labor day. child an d wome.n labor t~ws and an employer's liability
law.
Barely four yt>ars later, Vire-nte Sotto e~tabli~hed his A~nm!>lm
Obrnd, which he u~d to sup port his candidacy for the I louse of
Reptesenta ti\'<?S. In 1917, JoalJUin Balmori founded the Frdnaciou
del Trubajo to support the cand ida tes of the !kmocratic l~art)•. The
Cotogr~so Obrero df Fi/ipinns fo r its part, backed the Nacionalist a
Party's candidates.
ln Dul.1can, the U11i011 ng Mngsa.snl.:a was formed in 19 17 to figllt
the evils of tenancy and wmry. In 1'J1 9, /R.rinto Man~h;m, fo rmed hi.s
own g roup in view of the declin(' of the l)riginal p~asant organization.
Also in 1919, lh~ l.J.:gionario~ dr.l Trnhnjo W8S formally organized
as~ rt'sult of a 5trike again~\ the Manila Electric Company. The group
pressed a nu mber of n ationalistic demand~ ~uch i!S protection of
Philippine products from foreign competition. Crisanlo Ev;mgcli.~ta,
one of its organiz~rs later left the IISSocia tion due to the adoption of
Masonic initiation rites.
In 1924, Evangelista, Domingo Ponce and Cirilo l.!ognol formt>d
the J>nrfido Obrrro dr. Filipino.>. Its platfonn s howt>d 8 strong Marxist
influence.
Attendance at world conferences and their a/filiation with
iotE'rnational organizations of the Ldt, radicalized some l<~bor
leaders. In 1927, the C.O.F. affiliated itself with the Red International
of Labor Unions. Du ring i ts convention, subjects such as
communism, class struggle and proletarian intcmationali.~m were
d iscussed. The following year, the C.O.F. leaders Evangelista and
Dognot attended the Red International of Labor J;nions Conferenct•
in Moscow.

197
 8. The Communist Party of the Philippines
During the t 929 congress of the Congre.so Obrrro d(• filipinas
(C.O.F.), the conservative members dashed with Cri.santo Evangelista
and his group over the proposals s ubmi lled hy the lilttcr. Some of
the recommenda t ions indud~<d the o rgcJni:>:ation of fac tory
committees as a first step toward the formation of industrial unions,
the establishment of a workers' political party, the advocacy of class
struggle and the condemnation of the 1\acionalista and Democrata
partie:;.
With the radicals in the minority, Ilvangelista and his followers
walked out and immed iately launched the Katip~an ng mga ll uak·
P(lwi s ~/jei1111£1)r.f:<.A.P. Evangeli~ta became the elected exl!cutive
-sccre·tary while Ma:nahan, the vice-president, in charge of the peasant
movement.
O ther officers were jose H ilario, Antonio Ora, Pabicio Dionisio,
Ciriio Bognot and H.C. Hao . Th e K.A .P. wanted unity among
workers, peasants and the exploil!!d masses. It advocated. s truggle
against American imperialism in the Philippines, betterment of living
and working conditions, i.mmediate and complete indepeodence of
the country, unity among revolutionary movements the worlu o'·er
and the establishment of a Soviet system in the Philippines.
On November7, 1930, the Communist Pa rty of the Philippines
wM formaUy establislu~d w ith all the officers of the K.A.P. except
Hao and Hilario, as members of the lirs t Cen tral Committee of the
CPP.
Communist parties h ave been in~tituted in !\omc countries in
Europe and Asia to establish and maintain the Sovie t sy~tP.m. The
working class has been designed to dominate the administration of
the government.
Com.muni~m is a concept of society in which th~< m ajor resources
and means vf production are communally owned. Theoretically, there
would be equal ~hating of the benefits of production. This ideology
involve~ the abolition of individual ownership of p roperty. It
advocates the revolution of the w orking masses to overthrow the
capitalist socie ty so that a cla ssless society may be achieved.
The promi~cs of Corrununism confounded a number of peop le.
The C PP became more unrelenting after ~orne of its officials were

198
apprehended by the military. Soon ~ftcr, Antonio Ora, a CPPCentraJ
Committee member was arrested in Manila.
While Ora was being taken to pri~on he died repnrtedlydtte to
an automobile accident near Cahanatuan, Nueva F.cija. The CPP
members hecame skeptical about it. They were thmking that the
incident was not purely by chc>n('e. As a re~ult, the Communists
staged 11 demonstration on January 25, 1931. More Ullin ten thousand
workers joined the funeral march carrying red flags ,,nd placard~
with anti-imperialist slogans.
Evangelista, Manahan, Dominador Ambrosio, Guillermo
Capadocia and Alfonso Pangilinan were arrcsted the following
month. Ch.1rgcd with sedition on the ba~i~> of the platform a<:tions
and demands of the Comrnuni~t Party, they were found guilty by
the Court of First Instance and sentenc<:>d to jail. rt was on October
26, 1932 when the Supreme Court dedar~d the CPP an illegal
organization.

9· Sakdalism
Bt!ni!,'TlO Ramus, leader of a popular movement Sakdal, used to
be a Senate derk. fn 1930, he purpo~ely left his job to work agail\St
the .1dministration. The immediate cause of his resignation was his
involvement in a student picket staged G1 a Manila high school, which
had been provoked by ncp,ativc remark~ made by an American
tt!acher against the Filipino students. A number of Filipino
professioll<lls gav~ th~ir support for tht:< students. Ramos had already
been warned by Quezon not to join the prot~~~ action but still he
declined.
Ramos consequently founded Sakdt~l, a tabloid weekly, which
became the vehicle for bitter denunciations of the ruling oligarchy.
This tabloid exposed the discontentment of the masses. It also
adopted the position that independence is not givm but mu~t be
taken through the united a<:tion of the people. Through its
newspaper, the Sakdal movement campaigned against
maldistribution of property, exte~$ive taxes, ~nd the concentration
of land ownership to a few. S\•bsequently. Ramos transformed the
movement into a political party.
In the 1934 election of delegates to the Constitutiotllll
Convention. the Sakdalistas desired to have a number ()[ candidlltt'll.

199
In cam1Mign mceli.c\gs and through their paper, the Sakdalistas
opposed colonial education in the country, in rarticular Camilo
Osias' grade school "Readers'', for their glorifkation of American
culture. They also expressed opinion ~gainst Americ<~n economic
control and the military bases. In this election, the Sakdalistas with
three c;:mdidates for representatives won.
With the coalition of the Antis and Pro~ of the Nadonallista Partv
for the 1935 1\:ational Election.<>, the s,,kdalistas predicted the greatir
exparu!ion of Am('rican economic power. They conli.c\ucd their barrio
campaigns to boycott the plebiscite for lhe Commonwealth
Constitution. I lowever, Governor frank Murphy issued a ruling thal
any campaign against the plebi.:;cite shaU be branded as seditious.
As a consequence, many Sakdalistas were arrested.
In various parts of the country, perpetuation of feudal and
usurious practices, which originated from the Spanish regim<;.>,
·.inten!lified the <'gony of the peasant masses. On May 2, 193.5. one
hundred fifty peasants armed with bolos and pnltiks marched to the
municipal hall of Sitn lldefonso, llulacan and hauled down the
American and Philippine fl~gs, and raised the red Sakdal flag. Other
Sakdali$lils did the s,,me in Cavit~, llizal, and Laguna. The peasants
occupied the town hall~ and burned American flags in such plac...s
as Tanza, and Caridad in Cavitc, and Cabuyao and Sta. Rosa in
Laguna. Altogether, almost sixty thousand Sal<.dalistas were
involved. ·
On the second day, constabulary troopers ~uj!lprcsscd the
uprisings in the beleaguered towns. Oisorgani:t.ed and poorly armed,
the pca5ants were in no way equal to the Constabulary detachments
dispatched in the centers o( the rcl:>ellion. fifty-seven peasants were
kiU~d, hundreds were wounded, and around five hundred were
imprisoned.
!l('nigno R<lmos was in Japan wh~n the revolt broke out. He
was then arranging for Japanese support for the Sakdal party. He
deni<;.>d his inv·o)vement in the May 2 incident. Disowned by their
leader, many peasants withdrew support for Ramos. As a result,
Sakdalista influence greatly diminished in the <:ountryside.

200
 Chapter Test No.7.

Name:-------- Date: _ _ _ _ __
Cour~~' Year, and Section: _

1. Multiple Choice. Choc>se the letter with the correct an~wer.

Write the answers on the blanks providl!d. (40 pts.)
_ _ 1. During Washington Oay in 1899, this Filipino
general ord~red the burning of American ocettpicd
houses in Tond.o and Binondo.
a. E. Aguinaldo <:. G. del Pilar
b. A Ricarte g, A Luna
2. In the Battle of Quingua on April 23, 1899, the
Filipino troops were head~d by this gen~ral.
<1. E.ll.guinaldo c. G. del Pilar
b. A. Rica rtc d. A. Luna
_ _ 3. Gen. Luna left hi~ forces in this town where the
Battle of Bagbag Riven,·as being fought to proceed
to Pampanga and punish Gen. Mascardo.
a. Baliwag c. Bustos
b. • Bulacan d. Calumpit
_ _ 4. c;en. Luna wanted to punish Gen. Mascardo for
this offense.
a. rebellion c. murder
.\l,. insubordination d. corruption
_ _ 5. lt was in this town where Gen. Lu.n..1 met hL<: tragic
end.
a. Bustos <. Malolos
Jl. Cab;matuan d. Calumpit
_ _ 6. He was th~ Secretary of the Interior who issued a
circular informing the provincial.chiefs that Luna
plannt>d to take over the pr~!sidency hom
Aguin,11do.

201
 ll· S. d~ las Alas c. P del PHar
b. F. Roman d P. Giron
7. Pa~ong Tirad is located in this provi.nce.
a. !locos 1'\orte c. Cagayan
h !locos Sur d. La U!'ion
8. Major Peyton March ,md his men stormed Tirad
Pass on this day.
"· Dec. 2, 1898 c. Fch. 22, 1898
\l. Dec. 2. 1899 d. feb. 22, 1899
9. This was the number of Gen. Del Pilar's rill~men
who fonp;ht at Tirad P.1ss.
a. 8 b. 40 c. 50 a. Go
10. HI' wa1; Aguinaldo's messenger who fell into the
h~nds oi Gen. Funston.

"· Frilncisco Roman c. Urbilno La<'lma

b. C~dlio Ser,ismundo d. J~m•-uio Calul
11. !·lis policy, tfw Pllilit•t•iu,·.~ f(lr Jlrr. Fili;Jii!O.<,Iaid down
the found.thon of a dl'mocratic govl'mmentJ.uring
his administration.
a. Emilio Aguinaldo c. Jac<>b S<:hum1an
b. Arthur MacAI'thur <1. William Howard
Taft
_ _ 12. This law imposed death pcn.1lty or long prison
ttrm on anyone who adv(l('a\ed ~eparalion from
the UnilE'd Sto\tes even by pl'acelul me;~ns .
•1. Rc:roncentriltion Act £,. Seditio11 L•w
h. Brigandage Act d. 1-'lar, l.aw
___ B. This play wriiiE'n by ju~n AbaJ was the- first dr<~ma
regarded as seditious.
a. Punlo ng Kaaway Kilhapon,
l\'gayon at Bukas
b.' Hindi Aco Patay s;l. Tanikalang
Guinto

202
_ '14. Gen. Jacob Smith ordered th~ ma~;sacr~ of ull men
and children above ten years of ngc in l:lalangiga,
found in this province.
i!.· Samar c. LeytP.
b. Nueva Ecija d. Il..1silan
_ _ 15. In Sep tember 1902, he led the resistance groups in
Rlzal and Bulacan until his headquarter:; were
disro\:crcd by Pltilippinc Seoul:;.
a. Macario Sa kay c. Julian Montalan
b. Faustino Guillermo !:!_. Luciano San
Miguel
16. ]be family of thi~ former Katipunan general wa~
ahcf ucted by Sa kay's men a.~ a rcti!liatory move for
his collaborationist acts with I he American;;.
a. A rtemio Rica rle <. Ma riano !>once
b, Mariano 'frias d . Miguel Malvar
17. Dominador Gomez went to negotiate for Sakay's
surrender in hi~ headquarters found in this town.
a. Lipa c. lmu~

b. Cab.:mahtan d. T~ nay
18. He was the last revolutionary general t-o surrender
to the American-;.
iL Simeon Ola c. Cornelio FclizMdo
b. Miguel .\falvar d. Artcnrio Rkarte
19. During the American period, the firstele<:tion was
conducted in this place.
a. Cabanatuan c. M..tlolos
b- Manila d. B.11iwag
20. He became the first filipino Cltief Jus tice of the
Supreme Court.
a. Felipe Calderon c. Cayetano Arellano ·
b. Jose Abad Santos d. Manuel L. Quezon

203
 21. This was th~ first Filipino wc~kly ncw~papcr in
English.
a.. American Soldier c. Uounding Billow
h, Philippine H~rald d . · Dullctin
_ 22. l ie fo unded the Iglesia Filipimr l nd<·P<'m1n•nt.! in
1902.
il.. Gregorio Aglipay c. ls.1bclo de !c-.; Reyes
b.felix :'vlan<~lo d . franci$co forJdada
_ 23. Colorum, is a corruption of this Lati.n phrase. ~~
saemln :i/lecu/omm, which h:~s this mNning.
a. as it was in the beginning
b. have mercy on us
c. pray for us sinners
Q. world without end
24. Felipe Salvador known as Apo fpc four><.k-d this
colorum group.
a. So<iL-dad de Ia Confia!lka
b. Santa Iglesia
c. K~pisanan Makabola Mak~~ri11ar;

d. Co(radia de San jc-.;e

25. The (Olowms of this place allele ked a Const<~bul<~ry
detachment in 1923.
a. Tarlac c. Surigao
b. .:-.1 uE'v a Fcija d. Iloilo
26. This terrn TeiE'rs to t'ash tenants .
a. kasama c. cacique
b. inquilino d. hacendo.'ro
27. H e organized the firs t l abor union in t he
l'hilippincs.
a. Vicente Sotto c. Lope K. Santos
b. Isabelo de los Reyes d. Jua'luin Bi!lmori

204
_ _ 28. This labor group founded in 1924 by C.
Evangelista, D. Ponce and C. Bognot showed
~tmn.g Marxist influence.
a. Partido Obrero de Filipinas
b. Katipunan ng mga Anak-Pawis ng Pilip inas
<:. Asamblea Obrera
d . C.P.P.
_ _ 29. <.:ommun ist Party of the Phil ip pines wa~ declared
an illegal organization by the Supreme Court in
this year.
i\. 1930 c. 1933
b. 193:l d. 1934
_ 30. He was thl' CPP Comtral Committee member who
was killed in an automobile accident while being
taken into prison.
a. Antonio Ora c. H. C. !lao
b. Cirilo Bognot d. C uilkrmo Capadocia
_ _ 31. Sa kdi\list a s o p posed co lonia l e du ca ti on
pa rticula rly a grade school book titled " Reade rs"
by this Filipino writer.
a. Antonio Ora c. jo~e Garcia Villa
b. Manuel L. Quezon d . Camilo Osias
_ _ 32. Thi~ Jaw provided for the estab lishment of an
elective Philippine Assembly after the
proclamation of complete peace. ·
a . jones Law c. Payne-Aldrich Act
b . Cooper Art d . Flag l aw
_ _ 33. This was the fust political p arty in lhe f'hilippincs.
a. Conservador c. .\lacionalista
b. Democrat.a d. Federal
34. Up on h is l! dvioe, the Filipino cabinet members
resigned from their post11 rc~ulting to what is
known as the "Cabinet Crisis of 1923."
a. L. Wood c. M.L. QueT.OJ\
b. J.P. Laurel d. S. O!mefta

205
 _ _ 35. The O:c;-Rox MLGsion in 1931 brought home this law
from the U.S.
a. Hare-Hawes.Cutting Act
11. PC!yl'le-Aldrich Act
c. 'lydings.-McDuffie Law
d. JoncsLaw
- - 36. This Jaw, brought home by the u•• lndep~dence
Mi%ion provided for a te11 ·year tra!lliitiun period
under a commonwealth government.
i!: Hare-Hawes.Cutting Act
b. l'ayne-Aldrich Act
c. Tydings-McDuffie Law
d. jonesLaw
_ _ 37. lie was the prcsidt'nt of the 1934 Constitutional
Convention.
a. M.L.Quczon c. T. Sandiko
b. C.M. Recto d. S. Osrru.>iia
_ :38. Tomas Cabili opposed t h r. p r oposed 1935
Constitution because it did not provid~ a ~ystem
of popular election ior the ~atiunal As~embly ill
this area.
a. Lanao c. Basilan
b. Sulu d . Cagayan
39. · Dean Worcester sued the e..iitor of El Rt:nacimiento
because of this article.
a.
Walang Sugat c. Tanikalang Ginto
b. Aves de Rapina d . Blackjack
_ _ 40. This w as t h e gold en age of .:arn tela in the
Philipp ines.
a. 19<15-1920 c. 1910-192.0
1:1.. 1905-1930 d. 1910-1930

206
II. f;s~ay: (10 piS. each)
1. Discuss the reasons behind the Filipino·AP>erk'<ln Wa r
(1899-1906).
2. What were the cultu ral changes brought about l>y the
Ameriran'> lo the filipinos?
3. How did the militaPI groups in the COW'IIry oper.ll~ dunng
the Americ~n administration?

207
 Commonwealth Period
t, The Tr;msition
Amidst colorfu l ceremoni es, the Commonwea lt h o f the
Philippines was inaugurated on November 15, l'.IG5 M the Legislative
Building. The country now had a self-ruling govern ment except in
matters of treasury ~nd foreign affair5. Recognition of Philippine
independence by the United States was to come in 1945 after this
period of tr~n.~ition punruant to the Tydings-McOuffit> Law.
Some Li.S. officials and dignitaric~ who a ttended the ceremonies
were Vice-President N3ncc Gamer, Speaker joseph 6yrnes of the
U.S. House of Rcprescnt.1tivcs. U.S. Secretary of War George Dem
and General Dougla~ ~acArlhur. Chief Justice Ramon Avanceful of
the Supreme Court ~worn into office the new state officials which
include President Manuel L. QuE?.on, Vice-President ~rgio Osmt!fta
and the members of the Nationa l Assembly. In this occasion, U.S.
Secretary Dem prodClimed the exi.stenc" of the Commonwealth of
the Philippin~ and the ten-ninat:ion of the Philippine government
established under the Jones Law.
Upon a~~uming office, !>resident Quezon secured the enactment
of laws that would improve the- conditions of the- marginali~ed
society. He readily adopted the policy of ~ncial j11~Hce, referrmg to
justice to the common rao by improving his condition .
The policy m easures included the follow ing: the establishment
of a Cou.r t of Industrial Relations to resolve lilbOr d isputes and the
promotion of social justice as show n b}' the Eight-H our Labor Act
and the Mininuun Wage law. Written contTacts between landowners
and tenants as requisite, as w eUas the establishment of credit facilities
for farmers were also included. Authority given to the P~denl lo
acquire p riva te lands for resale to farmers was also par t of the sod a]
justice policy.
Cons idering the problem of nat iona l security, the :--lalional
Assembly Cl'l.'lcted Commonwealth Act No . 1, the Nation.1l Defense
Act. which provided for citU:ens' army. In formulating the Philippine
defense system, President Quezon req11ested and obtained the
208
sen· ices of Gt>neral Dou~ll!~ MacArthur who beca me the Field
\1'arshal of the PhHippine Army.
l'ilipino-Amcrican rclalioo.'l continued in the transition period
p rov id ed hy the Tyding!l·McDuffie La w. In 1937, Quezon and
Pres icit>nt Roosevelt agreed to create a joint Philippine-American
comm ittee to probe into the e<:onomic problems of the Philippine~
and to recommend a program for economic development. The Joint
PrepAratory Committee on Philippine Affairs ()PC PA) was
Pstahli~hed on April 14, 1937. for over a year, confertnc~s were
held in Wa~hington, San francisco and in Manila. In 1938, tht> JPCPA
rccm:nmcndcd the grant of political ind~<pendence to the Philippines
on Ju ly 4, 1946 and the extension of Philippine-American p referential
trade to December 3 1, 1960.
Growth of agriculture, commerce and indtL~trics .1lso took place
in the economy although this ml!y be attributed to a considerable
number of foreign capitalists who had investmen ts in the coun try.
The C hinese for one, heavily invested in industries which included
rice production, tobacco, he mp, copra, logging and timber,
manufacturing, banking ancl real estate. They also controlled a big
percent of the retail trade. Together with the American5, they
controlled the country's forei&n trade.
Aside from the Chinese, the Japanese also by and large invested
in U1e CO\mtry. Prior to Japanese invasion in the country, the japanese
had already penetrated the Philippines for t!Conomic re~sons. In 1903,
when Baguio was cho~cn as swnmer capital, the Amerkan' hired
one thouscJnd five hundred Japan~<Se workt•rs to build the zigzag
road to that city.
,\ftcr the road was completed, one hundred of them st~yed
and migrated to Davao to work on American hemp and coconut
plantations. By 1907, their leader, Ky()S,)buro S. Ohta had formed
the Oh ta Development ComFlllny. Soon other Japanese corporations
were establi~hed. By 1930, the japa n~e had practically controlled
the d eep-sea fishing ind ustry. Dy 1935, a big percentage of the abaca
production in Davao came from the Japanese corporations. They
likewise invested in mining, logging, manufacturing 11nd extractive
indu~tri~<S, Thu~, prior to the ou tbreak of World War II, DcJvao had a
big popu lolion of Japan(?S<' migrant~.
rn these Japanese enterp~, Fillpinos were often used as fronts
or d ummies. Alarmed by th is situation , the :-Jation~J Assembly
passed the Anti-Dummy Llw in M<~y 1939 which punished Filipinos

209
who w o u ld a ll ow themselves to be used as fronts by alien
bus inessmen a nd investors. The gov e rnment in this manner
attemp ted to secure the utili?.alion of resources by Filipinos.
There was also a growing apprehension aver the politi cal and
social con.~equcnccs of unch.xkcd immigra tion of a big number of
foreigners, especially the ~ and the )apani!Se. Thereupon in
May 1940, the Philippine Immigration Law was enacted. 'lhc law
limited to SOU thenumber ofimmigranlli penniued Mnually to enter
the m untry.
Civic-mind<'d citizens, supportive of the government'~ program
in enabling Filipinos to engage in retail mcrchahdising, ~tablished
the National Economk Protectionism Association (NEPA) and the
Con~umers' Cooperative League of the Philippines. Consequently,
l'ilipino par ticipa tion in retail trade substantially improved.
In accordlln cc to Act No. 184 enacted by the Na tional Assembly
in 1936, the l'.n~titu tc of National Language w as es tablished to make
a stud y of the differen t Philippine languages for the pu rpose. of
evolving and adopting a national language. / \ ftct a comprehensive
study of t he country's la ngu age con d itio n, th e ins ti tu te
Te<'ornmended to Pl"(!!;ident Quezon the adoption of Tagalog as the
basis of the national language.
On Decemher :10, 1937, Quezon p roclaimed Filipino as the
national lanBu~>ge. The teaching of the national language in all
schools in the country began em June 19, 1940. lly virtue of Act No.
570, Filip ino wAs rledared as one of the official languages, effective
july 4, 19 46.
To promote instruction among f'ilipinos, President Quezon
created the National Council of Education in 1936 to serve as advisory
bod}' on matte r~ rega rding education. Dr. Ra fael Pa lma, became it~
first chairman. The council made recommend ations (or the further
enham-ement of the system of ed uca tion in the country. Vocation
and adul t educMion were gi ven emphasis. Two years after, the
National A~embly enacted a law establishing vO<';~tional schools in
various parts of the co11ntry.
In trying to attain an increased number of childien to go
schooling, the :\lational Assembl~l' passed Edu cational Decree of 1940,
which shortened the elementary course from seven years to six. The
minimum age for Grade 1 \"as raised to seven . School calendar was
chanl!~tl from June to March to July to April.

210
 Other accomplishments of the Commonwealth Govenunent
included the creation of the foUowingnewoffictS: Ne~lional Eoonamic
Council. Census Commission, and the Commission of Mindanao
and Sulu. Filipinization of the judiciary from the Supreme Court to
the municipal courts was completed. Woman suffrage was fmally
allowed as sho"'TI in the l\£ay 14, 1935 plebi.qcitc to ratify the 1935
Constitution. Pursuant to the Public Defcndcts Act. appoinhn.ent of
public defenders (governmen t lawyers) was made to extend legal
services to the people. New chartered cities were also established-
Cebu, Iloilo, Bacolod, Davao, Zamboanga, San Pablo, Quezon City,
Cavite and T~g<tylay.
Three amendments to the 1935 Philippine Constitution were
ratified by the nati onal plebiscite on June- J 8, 1940. The amendments
included the tenure of the office of the President and Vice-President
to four years with reelection fur another term. Another l~slative
rcvi5ion is the esti!blishme-nt of a bicameral Congress of the
Philippines, w ith the Senate as Upper House and the Hou!'.c of
Representatives as Lower Hou5e. The creation of an independent
Commission on Ele<tions composed of tlvee members tn supervise
all electiuns wa s also part of the revised provision.

2. DccadeofUnrest
It was in the 1930s when Hitler's troops occupied Austria,
Czechoslovakia and Pvland and i.n vaded Norway, Denmark, Franoe,
the Soviet Union and the resl of Eur ope. Japan occupied Manchuriil
in 1932 and five years later invaded China. In 1940, japan occupied
the northern part of French Indo-China and the following year the
whole French colony. America and Britain c:on5equently imposed
economic sanctions on Japan. America f mzc Japanese a>Ssets in
America to preven t ].1pan from using these to her advantage. Britain
renounced her commercia l treaties wiih Japan.
The imperialistic design of Japan in Southeast A~ia could not
simply b~ ignored. The Commonwealth gvvernment feared that
the country would be the next target; thus it tried to lay its
groundwork for an}' contingency. Compulsory milit.:lry training of
able-bodied Filipino youths under the supervision of General
Douglas MacArthur was made. In July 1941, the Philippine reserve
and regular forces joined forces with the United State5 Army. This
combined military forces known 35 United States Armed Forces in
the Far East {USAFFE) was placed under the command of General
MacArthur.

211
 The Civilian Emcrgr.ncy Administration was likewise
organized. The Philippine National Red Cross conduo::led practice
evan1ation drills in Manila and in other towns. Thlo! first simulated
blackout was conducted in Manila on july 10, 1941. In October of
the same ye ar, the whole archipelago cxpcri<>.nced other sim ulated
blackout.
Notwithstanding the d iversi.ficatiun and growth of agricultura l
production, th~ living conditions of the farmers did not improve.
Exorbitant rental fees, arbitrary ejection Cll'\d o ther .1grarian problems
intem;ified their agony. Though the previo us government a:;..~umed
control of lll.'ny religious estates, still many tracts of land were sold
to private American entrepreneur and big Filipino landown('rs. The
problems of the pe,1sants were <:ompoundcd when Rome infiuP.ntial
landowners resorted to a system of landownership chara<tcri:r.C'd
by fraudulent resurvey oi their estares.
Conscious of their common grievances, the pea:x.nts formed
organization$ to realize their objective~. On~ of thP.S(' organiz<t tions
was the K.trpi~:wuu Panahon Na (The Time Ha!; ComP.), ('Om posed of
hmants in haciendas in D inalupihan, Bata.:~n; San Rafilel, San
lldcfon.<;n, Hig aa, Cltld Polo in Bulacan; San Pedro Tu.n.'\Sall in Lagtma;
and Lian in l!atang(IS. Tht' member:; were concerned with the rei>ale
of the land.~ to the tillers.
Other peasant organiza tions were Dumrrliug Na (l t Has Come),
composed of tenants of Hacienda Ducnavi!;ta in S~n R~fael and Oms
Na (It is Time) in a Jesuit estate at San Pedro, Laguna.
!'rom 1935 to ttle outbreak of war in 1941, the recognized leader
of the peasantry in CentrAl Luzon was Pl!dro Abad Santos, known
as Don Perko. A bar topnotcher and a m ember of the landed
aristocracy, Don Pcrico was clecLP.d io 1917 to thtt Philippine
Assembly. In 1929, he founded his Socialis t !'arty. Regarded as a
traitor by h is h acendcro province-mates, he devoted the >'1!maining
years of his life to the cause of the peasants . Un der h is guidance, the
pea9an ts and rural workers conducted many p rotest actiom, fmm
s trikes to th<' burning of rice and cane fields and the car ting away of
farm produce.

3· Entry of Japanese Imperial Force:r.

The Philippin~ wa.s still getting used to the American colonial
lifestvle when World War!! (1939-1945) broke out. The countrv was
drawn i.nlo this war as an atryofXmerka. The)apinese.ai>sa'ult in
- ·- --... -·· .
212
 the couniTy was mean t to cut America's lines of ~ummunica~in
the Pacific as Japan sought to expand her empire in the region.
While Admiral K. N omura was in Washington to present
Japan's peace propo~als to the American offidals, the Japan~~ forces
on l.)eccmbcr 7, 1~41 .ill-'iishi1t.gtQn time)..QQmbccLPcarl H arbor jn
Hawaii,lhe" main base of the US. Pad/k Hect. This resulted to the
u~ath of 2,8\17 men. The Japanese al~u latlllched offcnsi~:c attacks in
Malaya, Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island, M1dway Island and the
Philippines. On that tragic day, p_r~i.cte!'t Th~dore Rooseyelt a~kcd
the us Congress to declare war, which the latter did with only one
d issenting vote.
"!he general offensive plan of the Jap;tnese was to acquire the
D ntch and llritish possessiom; in Soothea~t Asia, which indude
Malaya and thl' Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). In order to carry
the scheme, lhe Japan~ na vy and air fooces had to destroy the U.S.
Pacific Fleet .
At the dawn of December 8, 1941 (Philippine I ime), the J.,panese
bombers under the command of G!!!_~al Masa haru Homma_
conducted air attacks in various pbces of~ Philipp in~ . They
destroy~ aJt and_navi[ defense~ inQwao, Tu.K\!egarao, B~guio,
"lOa, Tame ~nd Clark Field. C.:nerally, the couniTy had few planes to
":1 ssault ffie enemy fo~-A:merican p lanes on the ground were
caugh t by ~uqlrise.
Davau was .bo~ twice on J~.e.ml!.e~ .8. TheJa!'aroese w ere
able to lan d in Batan Tsland without~!l..Y..!:>P.f!Oli!..l.i.!!!!-: 9n Dece"inber
ll,inc cifYonvt"iiuTa "xperiei-iccd its first wartime air raid.
Capt. Jesus Villamor of the Philippine Air Corps defiantly led a
flight of pursuit planes again~t the Japanese w ho were then raiding
Nichols Field. He was able to d e.-;troy an enemy plane in the aerial
combat, which took place December 10. On the ~arne day, the
Japanese invaders m ad e their firstlandingin Aparri and Vigan. Two
d"~s later.J!L_Lega;;;p•, Albay and on December -w;· they laliifetlin
1:>avao. Two days Iat~, ~mam Japanese forces, under
the command ol Lt. Homma landed in Lingayen, Pangasinan.
At the onset of the attacks, civilian structure~ WNc burned and
crumbled insucceediitg explosio~i Many- were
shock~Oodies
liflereaflie groiiil(f""togeitierwith the wounde.i . Emergency
operations were compound ed by !_he evac\tati.Q!.l__u.!J.b~.d.J<il.ian
casual_ties
.. . Ill nearby hospifttls. · · ·-

213
 On December 14, after th e ;facmy landin~in Lcgazpi, a ll
remaining 14 for tresses were with rawn to Fort Da rwin in Au.~tralia
for repair serv1ce. Some 11 Navy patrol bombers were flown to the
Netherla n<.b E;~st Indies (Indonesia today) to join the Asiallc fleet.
General MacArthur was leil with a Jew fighters and observation planes.
The landing of General Homma's main force, the 48'1' Division
in Lingayen made General MacA.zthur finally decide to u~~ the War
Plan Orang~! .3 (WP0-3). This was the master p lan later renamed
Rambow .'i, w hich ordered the withdrawal of all island forces to Bataan
pcnmsula. Delaying action wa~; to be enfoi"C"ed against the enemy
forces in Bataan until the arrival of the U.S. reinforcement. Tt also
required the evacuation of all civilians within the are3 before tlw
entry of troops. The USAFFE officers and men had in mind the U.S.
aid while on system~ He withdrawal.
In the afternoon of December 24, Presid C'IIt Quezon,~ family
and h is Wilr Cah inet m oved to Corrcgidor. Tho>e chosen to
accompwy him were ~retary of Justice Jose Abad Santos, Vice·
Prcsidf'nl Sefb>io O:;mei\a, General Basilio Valdez, and Col. Manuel
~ieto. J~ P. La urel, forge B. Vargas, and other top officials in Manila
were commanded to stay behind to look after the welfare of the
people during thi-: time o f crisil!. Immediately, Laurel was sw orn in
as Secretary of Ju~tice to tak<! the place of Ahad Santos.
The enem y bombers were hitting Port Area Manila at the time
Quezon arul hi<; g roup were about to leave. Oo board S.S. Mayon
they were able to reach the island fortress. O:n December 30, 1941,
the second i.naugmal ceremonie5 of the Corrunonwealth were held
outside the Corregid or tunnel. i'resident Quezon took his oath of
oflice a!! Presid ent of th e Commonwealth, m ark ing the
conunencement of his second term. Administering the oath of office
to President Quc7.<ln and Vice-President Osmcna w~s Chief justice
Jose Abad Santos.
To ~r.£....!.he_citl: of Manil\0rom fu! t~_e r J!~stl"l!~tion.. on
~_!)cr 26 General Ma0-"hur p~~lai~~t a_!I o~n city, wherein
the cnc~~s ~~r the area.I2!..0!:_i~~~ !!:'ey stop shooting.
Oiiring thilt time, the northern and southern armies o"TillCUS~l'FE
were retreating to Ba t.lan.
Almost everywhere there was pani< and fear. Many people
stayed in air-raid shelters for many days. O thers wen t to the field.s,
hills and fishponds, mindful of the radio broadcast by the Voice of

2 14
America in Corregidor that the Japanese soldiers were committing
atrocities in areas they have occupied.
General MacArthu r ordered all troops must have croSlied
Calumpit Bridge (in Bulaca n) by six in tlw morning of ~~r
!2.-~,.b efore their explosives des troY. the .!iffi•cb"e- This was to
p~y,_cnt theeneiny fiOm c"iOOSii\g Tl. By the time the peop le of the
·province learned about tfie "6'lashng they began to prepare for
cv,,cuation to the outlying fields.
By January 2, 1942, the Japanese forces had already entered
Manila. The people of. nearby areas left hurriedly. £wcU11fion became
the frequent!}' repeated word as families gathered their portable
belongings, stored and preserved food and went into safer places
like the mOtU1tainsides for refuge.
f or many days, the people stClyed in evacuation area~]eo£le
;!_ug underground shelter~.!or th rea t~ing air raids . The bolder ones
ven lured to rchtrn to their respt:ctive home; to get provisions they failed
to take along with them while fleeing hastily from the invading forces.
As thC' Japanese occupied the town5, their immediate ta5k was
to reinstate order in thl' area. To achieve this, the Japane~ t!mployed
<~ustcrc rules to demand obed iencc from the local inhabitants. Once
this was achieved, they work ed for the development and
procutC'ment of war materials lind strategic resources. The Japanese
rushed to deliver the immedia te needs of theit war machinery.
Many Filipinos thought tha t the stay of the Japanese would
only take a month or three. 'J'he American forces made the Filipino
people hope that the invading Japanese forces will~;~;! repulsed
immediately.
With the formation o! the ~taan Defense Fore~ (BDF), the J\"orth
Luzon r:orces wert! deactiva lP.<:I. The BDF established the advance
Comm.md Post at Sit,'llill Hill near Mt. Samat. The first Main Line of
Resis tance (:vilR) ran 20 m ilE-s from Morong to Abucay. Tht> Abucay
line stretch ed across the pen insula to Mauban on the west.
For thret! months, thr. Filipi no-American troops, which
numbered aromul 80,000 (65,000 Filipinos and 15,000 Ame ricans)
held out in Bataan against the .:~ssault of th!! (:>nemy force.~. 'lhousands
of soldier~ and ctvilians peri~ed due to malnutrition, dysentery and
malaria.
Jn tht> midsl of cnem}' attacks u\ the Philippines, President
Roo~velt urgPd Prc>idcnt Quezon to flee to the United States sincl.'

215
the Japanese could inevitably usc him a~ the leader to rally Filipinos
behind Japan. Prc~ident Quezon ~nd his family left Corregidor for
A~tralia on February IS on boorchubmarine Su..,rdfish . From there,
they sailed to Amt!rica. ln Washington,.l'resident Quezon headed
his Commonwealth govcmment·in·exile.
Likewise, Gl!llt!ral MacArthur on orders of the US Pr~ident,
left Corregidor for Australia on the night of March 11, 1942 to assume
com mand of the newly designated Southwest Padtk Area (SWPA).
On this day, the t:SAFFE was deactivated. ,..Constituted was the
L'nited St<~tL"S Army Forces in th11 Philippines_(USAFIP} under the
command of Mdjor General Jonathan Wainwnght. After landing in
Australia on ~arch 17, 1942, General MacArthur made his promise
to the Filipinos, "l came through and I shall return."
Major Gen. Wainwright was promored Lieutenant Gt!nt!ral on
Man:h 21 . He bccame th11 Conun.mder of Filipino-Amerkan troop.~.
the USAfiP (formerly USAFFE}. TI1e U.S. Air Force and other units
in the Wc~tem ~ctor were able to trim down lht! Japanese night
raiders at Lht> b~aches of :\1ariveles.
Gen. Hnmrna's So-day deadline to t.lke th~ Philippines had
ended. Homma failed to conquer the country. in time. He called a
halt to off~nsive action ant.! waited for reinforcement from Tokyo.
The 48'1' Division was pulled out to invade the Netherlands East Indies.
For one and a half month:<., small military action took place in
l\ataan. During this period, th e Japanese ~ent propaganda teams
with leaflets from planes a nd purtab!e speakers, urging the Filipino
fighters to surrender. They 11ven played sentimental m usk and
recordings of pleas from loved ones. Th~y asked the Filipino soldiers
to desert their Arocri<"'on comrades-in-arms, assuring them of safe
pas.~agt> outside the peninsula. Dut the Filipino soldier~ ignored thi~
kind of psychological warfare.
As the battle iJ1 Rata an went on, more and more civilians were
arriv ing in IIagonoy, Bulaca n. Most of the P.\'<lCu~~es ca me from
Abucay. Balanga. Pilar, Orion. Umay, Morong, Bagac and Mariveles.
These to\ol.-ns were totally destroyed by wa r. The exit point from the
Bata.m peninsul" was b~trrio Camachile In O rion and the nearest
point of d eliverance was Hagonoy, the closest bayside town !rom
Batnan to Bulacan.
The POWs who we~ able to escape the [le,,th March, sought
safety in the hands of som.e Filipino families. They hid their unifonn<>
216
to _prevent /a pane~ patrols or sentrie~ from rl'Cognir.ing them as
soldier.:;. Old women pretended to bi! their moth~rs or oldf'r ~i.qtcr.;.
The exodus to Hagonoy resulted to an inm!ase of populntion
from around 25,000 to 90,000 The Religin\IS of the Virgin Mary
(RVM) based in Hagonoy proved to be very helpful in providing for
the needs of the people. This was the only religious congoegation
that open ly assisted the wounded, the hungry ,md th~ orphaned.
Th~y placed a number o f children under their custody. What they
did was not easy, for their selfless service could me3n some thing
else to the Japanese tha t might ens! a number of livL'S among the
religious.
At the end of March, General Ilomma finally got the military
support he needed. The JapcmesP. brought in reinforcemen t from
Singapore. On April3, Good Friday (aftE'r Singapore surrendered to
Japan) the enemy forces lal.lllcllW tht-ir fina l offensive in Ba ta<Ul.
Bombers attacked anything that moved. TI1" main thrust centered
on Mt. Samat where hostilities st~rtcd from 8 A.M. and lasted until
2 l~M. The forest dimmed with smoke and explo~ion.
The capture of :\lit. Sllmat would give the Japanese a k ey
observation post, which ovt>rlookcd the ·whole Bataan penin.sul.:~.
General Homma pressed hard on this arcc1 to deny the Fi lip u'o-
Am~rkan forces the chance to regroup ;md moun t a counterattack.
I Jowever, General Edward P. King managed to pull together the
American 31• Infantry Regiment anJ the PhiJ;ppine Scout units.
Resista nce began to weaken on April 7. TI1e agr.,.essivcn~s o/
the enemy forces, the lung days in the b<1ttlefields and the shortage
of food and medicine claimed lhP. lives of many. The nl!xl day;
conditions worsened and tht' Ba taan defense forces wer"
disintegr<~ting. To prolong the fight would mean the loss of more
men. On April 9, around 78,000 men from Rat aan under General
Edward King surrend~rcd, while the rest head ed by Lt. Gen.
W<~inwright had escapE'd to Corregidor and to surrounding
pro,inces. Ccncta! King sent peace f~ers to the JapaneSE'.
Surrender negotiations were conducted in front of the public
l:lchool in La mao. Sinre G t'neral King was not the ~l.'nior officP.r in
the Philippines, the ]apme~e rP.flt.~cd to recognize the surrender of
the who!~ B.lt;~an force. They accepted the surrender of each unit as
they laid down their arms. (To<lay, a Shrin e of Valor was erected in
Mt. Samat to commemorate the his toric defensE: of Bataan.)

217
 The infamous Death March began in Mariveles and C!tx-.aben
on April 10, 1942. The Filipino-American troops were forced at
g\tnpoint to m;m:h from Bataan to San Fernando, J'ampangil. Some
were kicked and be-aten. Those wound ed hild their legs·or head
wounds bcmdaged with shirt uniforms. Others were carried on anny
wool blanl<ets folded in h.ammockl;, tied In bamboo poles iind carried
by other comrades. Other soldiers limped on crutches. made out of
tree b ranches. Those who were too ~ickly to walk were left to die.
The Japanese army had little provisions for Fil ipino-American
POWs. Arotmd 10,000 lives were claimed by this infamous trail.
The POWs reached San Fernando and w ere billeted in
srhoolliouses, warehouses and vacant lots. The next day, the we-ary
marchers were herded like cattle into the boxca rs. Close to lOOP,OWs
were huddled in every boxCM which was supposed to accommodate
only 50 people. Many of the weak ;~nd exhausted passengers died.
The freight train stopped at Capas, Tarlac. From there, they walked
seven kilometers more to Camp O'Donncl, the prisun camp. Some
56,000 reached the camp alive on April 15, 1942.
The camp contained the barrack• of the Philippine Army before
the Japane~e occupied r.he area. It was actually a group of unfiniqhed
structures made of bamboo and cogon grass and fenced with ba rbed
v..ire. The suffering of the survivors d id not end ~ere. Those w ho
man;~ged to stay alive had to endure the dirty surroundings, hunger
and dis~ases, which further reduced their number.
In Manit~, the people could hear successive bombings directed
against the island o( Corregidot. General MacAr~ur hild establi~hed
USA.FFE headquarters on this island on December 24, 1941, after he
had d eclared War Plan Orange in e(fed After the fall of Bataan, the
Japanese pounded the island daily. The Japanese also raised an
observation balloon daily Lo spot Corregidor's gun positions.
J:::vcn though the en..,my constanlly assaulted Corregidor, the
forces in the island fortress gave downright protection to it. Inside
the Malinta TW\1\eL a radio s tation had been estab lished, called the
Voice of Free.tom. Major Carlos P. Romulo, the prewar editor of the
Philippine Herald, headed this stahon in broadcasting news to men
in Bataan and in occupied areas like Manila. Well-known writers
like Salvador P. Lopez, Leon Ma. Guerrero and including ~ajor
Romulo p.-epared the scripts.
The Japanese were aole to seize a beac:hhead on May 5. The
Americans tried to counterattack but were stopped by Japanese
artill<"ry ftre and the appearance of Japanese tanks in the area. Should
218
 the Japan..se fortts reach Malinta T\ulnet the noncombatants in the
h.um~l and the wounded in the hospital would b~ in great danger.
Cencral Wainwright decided to ~urrender Corregidor and the
harbor forts.ln the morning of May 6, GeneTal Wainwright addressed
a mes~gc to General Homm.a through the Voice of Freedom offering
his surrender with me-n diccctly under him . At noon, the American
flag wns lowered (rom the flagpole and replaced with the flag of
surrender.
Wainwright was taken to Cabcaben, Bataan to meet Hornma.
Upon learning that Wainwright only offered to surrender the h arbor
forts, H omma rejected h is surrender. The American general
explained that he had command only of Conegidor and its satellite
il;lands. He could no longer communicate with Genera! Sharp, w }w
took command of Visayas and Mindanao, because he had no radio
facilities. Realizing the hopelcs.sn('SS of rus position, at midnight uf
the same day, Wainwright signed the su~decd ocumcnts acconh.ng
to .Hom rna's wishes.
On May 7, Wainwright was brought to Milni1a to broadcast a
mcss.1ge to Gener<~l Sharp and the guerrilla leaders in Luzon, saying
that h e was taking <"ommand and ordering them to surrender.
Americ.an comma.l'dem in the Viliavas and ~ind;:roo debated on
whether the orders were genuine ar\d therefore should be followed
or wh~ther they had been forced on Wainwright by the .lap:mcse,
making it unlawful.
Gene ral M.KArthur himself radioed Gt>neral Sh,up that
W.tin wright'~ surre11der w<ts not valid. Genem l MacArthur ordered
Sharp to initiate guerrilla op~;mltions against the enemy forces.
The POWs were brought to Capas. On August 11, 1942, General
Wainwright and ranking officers were sh ipped to Formooa and later
to japan. On Corregidor, the Japanese maintained a reinforced
company with about 300 POWs mostly American technicians to
rL'Store necess.1ry installations.
The battered Filipino a nd American soldiers submitted to the
enemy forces. They recetvt>d orders to lay d own their arms. Life in
the prison camp was a grueling sequel to the agony in Bataan.
:-levertheless, the strength and will of the filipino people d id not
waver even after the sunender of Bataan and Corregidor to the
Japanese. Underground guerrilla movements were put into action
by Filipino and Amerkan sold iers, as well as unyielding ch·ilians in
the countryside.

219
 Chapter Test No. 8

N a m e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - Date: _ _ _ __
Course, Year,andSe<:rion:._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the correl't answer.

Write the letters on the blanks provided. (20p15.)
___ 1. Corrunonwealth A.;t No. 1 is otherwise known as
a. 1\"ational Defense Act
b. Public Uefendcrs Ad
c. Eight-! !our Labor Act
d. Minimum_Wage Law
___ 2. After the zigzag mad was completed around one
hundred Japanese stayed and migrated to
a. Pampanga c. Davao
b. Bulacan d. Lcytc
____ 3. Philippine Immigration l..aw ot 1940 limited the
number of immigrants to
a. 200 c. SOU
b. 50[) d. 1,000
___ 4. The teaching of the national language in schools
began on June 19
a. 1936 c. 1940
b. )939 d. 1941
___ 5. The first ch.airman of the National Coundl for
Education was
a. jose Ahad Santo~ <:. Man·ucll\"icto
b. Rafael Palma d. jorge Vargas
___ 6. L"nder the 1935 Philippine Constitution as amended
in 1940, the tenure of office of the President and
Vice-President was
,,, three years c. five years
b. four years d. six years

220
· -- 7. Practice evacuation drill~ in l\fanila and other towns
were conducted by the
a. Philippine National RE'd Cross
b. t;SAFFF.
c. Civ ilian Em ergency Administration
d. city a nd municipal governments
- · . . 8. One hundred fifty peasants from Bulacan armed
with bolos and paltiks marched to the municipal
hall of
a. San Ra fael c. San Miguel
b. Angat ·d. San Ildefonso
_ _ 9. In 1'129, Pcdm.Abad Santos founded the
a. Communist P.uty of the Philipp ines
b. Kapi»anan Pan,,hon l\"a Socialis t Party
c:. SocialL~t Party
d. ~EPA

10. On Dec. 22, Lt. :\1asaharu Homma's main forcti'S

. landed in
a. Davao c. Manila
b. Panga5inan d. Ta rlac
_ _ 11 . Capt. jesus Villamorde.fiarttl)' led a flight of pursuit
planes again~!' th e Japanese who were then raiding
a. Cla[k Air Base c. Subic ~aval B<Jse
b . Sanglcy Point d. Nichols Fie ld
. ___ 12. The station of Voice of America was in
a.
Pampanga c. Balaan
•
b. Corregi duc d. Manila
_ __ 13. Rainbow 5 <eft!rs to the
a. the formation of a war cabinet
b. Que:>:on and family to leave Australia, for th~
u.s.
c. p roclamation of Manila a s open city
d. withdrawal of USAFFE forces to Bataan
221
 ___ 14. The l:'ilipino-AmE'rican troops w~re {OicE!d al
gWlpoint to walk from Bataan to
a. Capas, Tarlac
b. Guagua, l'ampanga
c. San Fernando, Pampaoga
d. Dagupan, l'angc1sinan
___ 15. Corrcgidor ~urrendewi to I hE' Japanese on
a. May 5, 1941 c. May 6, 1941
b. May 5, 1942 d. May 6, 1942

II. Essay: (10 pts. each)

1. 1-fow did l'resk!ent Manuel 1.. Quezon implemtmt the
Social Justic'e Program wuler his administration?
2. Discuss the gruesome pidme of tht: Philippines du1 ing
World War II.

222
 The Japanese Occupation
1. J apam:se Martial Law
On January 3, 1942<a day after Manila l>ec.u'(le an occupied
city, GcneraD!ifi!_saharu H:~E!.....IT!!.'• commandH-in-chief of the
Tapanese Jmperial Forces issued a proclamation announcin~ the end
of American occupation and the imposition of ma:rlial law in the
country. One of his fi~t orders was the surrender of fitcarm.o;. Those
WhO Were !>1ill caught With W('llp<lllS WCTC dcfainc.'d at the dungeons
of Fort Santiago and in other detention posts.
Detention camp' bc.-camc places of torture. Water cure, pulling
of f!ng~mails and toenails, pouring and burning of extremi ties with
ga"oline and severe beatings werl! ~orne of the abuses committed to
pri!'\Oncrn.
Americans and other foreigners who were allies of America
i\nd Gr..-at Britain were rounded up in Manila and in other parts of
the country as early a~ J;muary 4, 1942. Most uf them were held in
custody at the University of Santo Tomas camp us in Manila, a
twen ty-two hectare university campus. Other internment camps
were established in Los Banos, Lag..u1a and in Cabanatuan, :>Jucva Ecija.
Priest~ ~u~pected of en,;aging in subversion activities were also
impri~oned like Father Rufino S;~ntos who was th~!n a young priest
and later bee am~ the first Filipino Cardinal of the Catholic Church
and Ard•bishop of Manila.
General Ilomma allowed the laws then in force in the
Commonwealth to stay for the moment. He ordered all public
of1icials to continue discharge their duties.
Jorge B. Vargas, who was then the mayor of greater Mani la
!:>.!fore the Jap.;mese occupation of the dty, had been ins trocted by
Presiden t Quezon and General :vla.cArthur to coopera te with the
enemy. This wa$ to avert further <~nguLsh on lhe filipino people.
On the very same day that the dty of Manila wa~ occupieu,
Varga~ met with a reprc~cnt11tive of Imperial Japanese forces to see
to it lhi\1 peac~ and order be maintaint:d and that pubHc utilities
such as w<Jter, e lectricity .:md !Tansportation be restored.

223
 ~weeks later, on Jan uary 23, 1942, Vargas received an order
from Gomeral Homma to assume the position of th e Executive
Com missioner of th e Centra l Administra tive Organi:tation of
Occupied Philippines . He had to coordinate the activities of all
existing central administrative d epartments in the Philippines and
was to sec to it that all commands of the japanese commander-in-
chief w ere carried out.
Movement was registered with the imposition of curfew, fust
from 8:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m., and finally from midnight lu 6:00a.m.
from M ay IS onward$. Alter the fall of Bataan, total b lackout was
lifted on May 4, 1942.
Arbitrary arrests and exenotions were d one by the kem~itai
(military police) any time o f the clay. Tile people were not assured
of their safety in their houses nor in the slra>ts. The must dreaded
jap anese word was lmra, which meant two things depending upon
tilt! movement of the hand. When the word was mentioned with an
inward wave of the hand it meant, '"Come here!" The moment k:um
was uttered with an uutward wave of the hand it m eant, "'Scram!"'
or "'J)Jsmiss!" Fur the ~lighte~t offense, soldiers would Alap the face
of the civilians.
Many W CIC aL'lO execu ted on m P.r<' suspicion of bl!ing with the
resistance movement. Other offen.o;es pu nishable b y death were
arson, murder, robbery, spreading nunor.. against th<- Japanese foro.s,
cuHing military lines of conununication, counterfeiting and $pying
and printing or distributing anti-Japanese leaflets.
· During the initi~l perioJ uf the Jap;~nese occupation, no one
could travel withoul a pe~ss from its army. Thi~ prohibition in travel
was lifted a month and a half aftP.r the fall of Corregid or. ln Manila,
the s treetcar was still opera tional. Many p<-ople rode bicycles an,d
dokars (wartime carriages pulled by horses). The co> co, a large banea,
p ulled by mototboats transported goods an d foods tuffs from Manila
to GVllgua, Pampanga. Most of the p~ngcr coadu:s and freight
cars of the :vi anile~ Railroad Company were destroyed at the on.Gel of
the Japanese invasion.
TolifJo, I..n Vnnguardia, Tribune and Liwaywny were a llowed to
continu e publication bt•t under rigid censorship by the gvvemment.
Some o ld Hollywood films were shown in movie houses. Many
theater!! !:Witched from movi~ to stage shows.
Knowing that the Church had pl~ yed an important role in
shaping Filipino minds for centuries, the Japanese d id not wish to

224
incur open hostility with the ChUJ"ch. A~ early as January 14, 1942,
Colonel Murosawa, head of the Religious Section of the Japan~
Anny, issued a Dedamtiorr to Chnstians in the Philippines in which he
expressed the vK>w of the japanese army to assure freedom of
religion . By 1943, parish priests were being re<Jl.lired to use !heir
pulpits to convince the people that itw~useles.sto resist Japanese rule.
Conci liatory mo ves were also done to the Philippine
Independent Church. The Japanese also sh<Jwed leniency towards
the Muslims. In contra~!, the American Protestant min~ters were
detained at the Santo Tomas lnlemment Camp.
}a pane~ Premier Hideld "lojo said on January 21, 1942 before
the Japanese Diet, Japan's legi~lature, that the Philippines would be
granted independence provided it recogni7.es Japan'~ program of
establishing "the Philippines for the Filipinos" as a mem ber of the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. He vi::;ited Manila on M<>y
6, 1942. He noted that the Hlipinos desire to cooperate with the
)ilpa ncse government.

2. Life During the Wartime Yean>

Neighbomood and district associations were organi.zed b01sed
in an executive order issued by Vargas on August 8, I 942. " for the
purpose o f p rov idi ng mea ns for protection under joint
respon:oibility." They were s upposed to cooperate with the Japant'Se
Army to keep the residents within the area of jurisdiction from anti·
J ~panese activities.
each neighborhood association was to he composed of at least
ten farrtilic:<>, their leader ol which was to be appointed by their
respective to'''TI or city mayor. Then they, in tum grouped into district
associations. The p resident of the district association " 'as appoi.nted
by the mayor with the approval of the directors of the local branch
of the military adminis tration.
The head of each family h ad to report to the Constabulary
officers, the leaders of the ne ighborhood association, or other
compete nt 01uthorities any movmtent of bandits or othe r s uspicious
personR in their place. He was al.so to report changes within his
farruly; such as birth or death of any family member.
The Sendmbu, the propaganda section of the Japanese army,
and later the Hodobu, or Department of Information did its best to
con vince the people to collaborate with them. They sought t<•

225
promote the cultural ide.:~.<; of the New Order and the policy of the
Greater East A;;ia (o-l'msperily Sphere.
Violation of Japane~c ordct$ and laws were com;idr.1-cd hostile
acts. whkh meant death penalty. Also puni~hable with dt>~lh was
tht> injuring of 11 Japant>st' soldier. If the .-ssailant could not be S€'en.
some Filipino,; were helc.l hootage by the Japane~ military.
'fhc Japanese military authorities instituted vutright
<'on fiscal ion and ditt'Cl milnag.-ment of banl<.ing in»titutmns ant!
public utilities, including transportation. They also sup~!rviseu the
production and distributivn of agncultural yieldli for systematic
extraction.
In differ=t par-ts of the country, the Japan<.'se refloated inter·
island ships they themselves sunk for revival of transport 5()rvice.
Trucks and automobiles were shipped to Jap.m in huge volumes.
Oil companies were forced to. sell their stocks to the army. Thi~ led
the l'ilipinos to usc their improvistd charcoal-fed transportation
facilities. They assumed direct managcmcnl of railroad, ~lt'Ctrical,
telephone and other facilil:ic.~ from different companies.
The schools were again m,tde open to the public. llooks us(!<i
before the war were ag,,in utili2L>d, except the ones with pkturP.s
and stories about the Americans. To get thc.l'ilipinos lo the Japanese
side, the l,;nitcd States and Hogland were projected as l~nl on worlu
power. Japanese language anrl culture wett> taught 11nd disS€'mi.nat~l.
Variou~ contests with attractiv~ l'ash priz~s wer~ hdd to enc~,>urage
further the study ol the language.
Tight restrictions on the movement of mmmoditics by tht>
Japanese had made the supply of rke, sugar, and other crops ~cdrccr.
Pric£'s of commodities had increased to the- point wh~n must people
could no longer afford lo buy. As months passed hy, very few families
could afford to enjoy thr~e meals in one day.
The worsening food uisis reached a point where the populace
~tarted eating plain lugaw (xice porridg~). At times they ,;ubsisted
on biltatog or boiled grains of driec.l cum with grated coconut and
pinches of salt. Toa~ted rice was brewed itS coffee but even these
lowly mertls could hardly be available regularly.
In spite of the government's ardent call for national food
production, thE' people suffered from deprivation and r;tarvation.
Several wdl-to-cto fa_milies had to dig up the canned good~ they
had placed under the groo~d ~t the start of the w<~r.

22n
 The Japanese soldiers confiscated palay :;tocks stored in the
Tiu~y ra.nsacked private backyard
kJimalig (warehouse) of the fanners.
loading their trucks with chicken and hogs. These frequent food
forays virtually stopped land production causing immimmt food
scc~rcity and ~alating prkes of primecommodilil's. A cavan of rice
sold clandestinely in Japanese money cost thousand~ of pesos.
Currency and banks were also closely monitored. The
Department of Finance of the Japanese Military Administration
controlled all existing banks. One of the first acts that the Japanese
did was to circulate military money, also known as military pass
money or war notes. It wa!\ in peso and centavo denominlltions.
These bill~ had been prepared before the war.
The peso was decreed equal to the Japanese yen in its monetary
value. Since the peso was equivalent to two yens before the war,
this order favorably served the pwpose of the Japanese. They folllld
everything cheap in the Philippines. Bales of Japanese war notes,
without any foreign exchange value, \...-ere forced on the people. In
local transactions, the Filipinos used this Japanese money for the
payment of commodities, which befpre would cost a few in
Philippine pesos.
The new pe~o bills looked like play money. They lacked seriill
nwnbers. They were not backed bysilveror gold reserves. Filipinos
were doubtful to accept tht!m. The Japanese, howevt>r, threatened
punishment ro anyone who refused the war notes. The threats
convinced the Filipin()S to use them but they haughtily called it
Mickey Mouse money. Others called it gttrami, a small fish so
plentiful and cheap and apo, the s.weet wafer for ice' cream cones,
implying flimsiness. Pn!warbillsand coins im1nediately disappeared
as people chose to k~p them fur future use.
The Japanese re-alized the Filipinos were apath~tic about the
military money. In 1942, the Southern Uevelopm~nt Ban:k was
e~tabl~hed to finar:~ce projects in occupied territories in Southeast
A:;ia. The bank printed war notes and produced a modified Ilo
note, which started circulating in 1943. The new notes in
dt'nominations of 1, 5, and 10 pesos h.ad serial ntunbers this time.
The Ri?.al Mnmuncnt was printed at the front side.
Since the highest denomination was ten pesos, more bills were
required to buy basic necessities as prices soared high. Salaries w~re
paid in bundles. /3ayonss (woven buribags) of smaU bills were carried
to market.

227
 Severe inflation !l<!l in as supplies ran low. Fuel shortag~,
confiscation, and deteriorating pea<"e and ordE'r ha mpered food
production. [n March 1942, in order to meet the rice shortage, the
Japanese MUitary Administration introduced a fa5t-maturing grain
from Ta iwan called ltomi rice. Experimental farms directly lll1der
tru.> Japanese arrny control were developed to test the new grain
Th~ con trolled media proclaimed t hat this would make the
Philippines sell-sufficient aft.-r a year. However, due to hea~·y rains
in 1942, many of these experimental crops were destroyed. Pests hit
other crops.
The cotton industry likewise did not fair well. Tt was readily
affected by unfavorable weather and soil conditions. Moreover, the-
abundance of pests as well as the reluctance of the t'ilipino fanners
to plant a crop that was hard to tend and yet dC$IiMd for Japanese
war factories contributed to this adverse situation.
The exorbitant prke of meat resulted lu the slaughtering ofcows
and carabaos in large numbers. Farms were running out of work
animals . The administration had to restrict the number of anirn;~ ls
to be kille-d. Only those certi fied to be no longer useful in the fields
were to be butchered. To save on m;~tches, some families lighted dry
"cakP$" of carabao manure, w hich bum out slowly and serve as light
at night.
Although factories arid stores for prime commodities were soon
reopened, tru.>y were not as free to operate. In order to assure steady
supply and affordable prices, a Japanese-conttolled economy put
into effect. This involved price contr:ol mea~ures, registration and
issuance uf permits, and a ration system for ba~ic commodities like
rice, sugar, matdtes, laundry soap and cloth.
H oarding and profiteering were bann ed. Re tailers and
suppliers were ordered to follcw.• price li~ts issued hy the government.
Price tagll had to be d i.~pla yed prominently. Ren 15 were also fixed.
Life had become harder for most people. The residents having
no land to cultivate had to gather items of val ue hom their cabinets
or drawers. Thing,. like clothes, jt-welry. and kilchenwares were
d isposed in buy and sell in Manila's downtown. Th.ey spent the
prot'l!eds to buy food, which they would be consuming for a lew days.
Many families were forced to sell th~ir furniture and other
personal belongings. Pushcarts loaded with furniture traveling along
the highway. was a common sight. c~scos (local boats) were also
used in transporting these items.

228
 The railroad train bec.:unc a conunon vehide of smuggling rice
to th~! city at the Tutuban station, where the Japanese sentries lay in
wait for the viajeros (passengers). Among the:o;e viaje.ms were children
as young as 12 ye~rs old. They fought for every available space on
ttu, train, even on the rooftops.
To evade arrest, those carrying half a cavan or more would jump
off somewhcr~ at Solis, Tondn aher their rneTchandise had been
pushed off the freight or passenger car!; by their romJlanions. They
usually did trus at night However, train jumpers began to be plagued
by nocturnal hijackers wailing lor viajeros to drop their goods. They
would then run off with the sacks of rice before their owners had
the timt> to j<Unp off the speeding train.
Aside from the rice busin~q, people became preoccupied with
cigarette making. Steady toba.cco s upply came from the t-;orth.
Someti mes th~ gen uine tob.J.CCO !~aves were blended with dried
papaya leaves.
Another trade that prospered d uring the era was the making
of fake.-; and forgeries . Some doctors made adulterated medicines,
while some lawyers made fake docwnents. Fake Lucky St:r:ilce. Camel,
and Chesterfield cigare ttt>s became part of consumers' goods. Clever
counterfeiters produc~d fake passes, IDs. ration tickets and cv~
:Mickey Mouse money.
Due to scar<:ity of food, medicine and basic scrvice!l, thousands
died of malari~, malnutriti<.~n, tuberculosis and other diseases.
Sulfathiltzot.~, the wonder drug of the period, was sold at a very hish
price. :Many died on the sidewalks. Such de50latc condition brought
about the mcrease of crime rate, which inchtded burglary and hold-
up. Oth~r~: even tried to kill in orde r to survive in a highly
competitive and hostile environment.
Disheartened by their dismal situation in the coW1try, a number
of Filipinos did anything .qimply to survive in the wartime years.
Some had lost their social balance and m oral strength in these most
trying limes. Others collaborated w ith the enl'my. In the midst of
turmoil, still th~rc were rilipinos who kept their faith in God and
waited for the liberation of the country.

3. Reforming the Pliilippine Govenunent

On December 2, _1942, the Japanese Military Administration
announced that politiC<~ I parties hdd b el!n d~olved "of their own
free will." The Kapisnnan sa Paglilingkod sa l:Jagong Pilipflfll'
(KAUBAPI). a non-political organization, w as established.

229
 KALIBAPI's aim wall tu bring about the rapid reconstruction
of the Philippines and the rehabilitation of the Filipino people. This
organization was de~ib'l1ed to coordinate all activities and services
of associations and individuals concerned with the promotion of
the total well-being of every person and to foster a st~bldoundation
for the New Philippines by inculcating the Asian virtues of hard
work, faith, self-reliance, loyalty, bravery, discipline and self-sacrifice.
jorge Vargas became the ex-officio president of the KALIBAPI.
Benigno Aquino was appoin ted di rec tor-genera l of the s ai d
organiution.
At their June 18, 1943 cottvention in Manila, the KAUBAPl
members <~ppointed a committee to nominate the members of the
-'Prepara tory Commission for Philippine independen ce (PCP!). Four
months after the ~tablishrnent of the PCPI, the fir~t draft of the new
Philippine Constitution was completed. Written in Tagalog and in
English, the Constitution had a preamhle and twelve articles. The
Constitution wa~ quite similar to the Commonwealth Con.qtitution
however, several modifications were mad e in keeping with the
requirements of the Japanese Occupation. nus body of laws w as
not submitted to the Filipino people for ratification.
With lhe approval of the Constitution by the membcrs of the
.KAUBAPI and the election of L.lurcl as President of the Republic,
Laurel, Aquino and Vargas flew to Tokyo on September 29, w here
they me t with high-ranking Japanese officials to disC\Iss Philippine
independence. They m ade an official can on the emperor on October
2. Then on October 5, the~e ~ Filipino leaders returned. to :Manila.
Two d ays lat~r, the govemment announced the inaugl)ration of the
Repub lic of the Ph ilippines would he on October 14.
The Jap.mcse worked for the enlistment of the Philippines into
thc.,Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphe~a long-range economic
plan for Japanese-conquered territories. The pool of raw materials
from these territories would be a source for Japan's industries as
weU as outlets for its export products.

4· The Second Republic of the Philippines

• On October.14, 1943. Manila was in a holiday mood, de~ite
the ~Tac;e;or"-:ii'f.".Five hu nd red It> eight h undn!d. thousand _£eo.e_l~
.,&!..~~}~red in f"_2nt of the L~qla!;!.o.:e. B_uil~!!,thDt-moming t~ witne~~
the p roclamation of Philippine Indcpcncc~cc '!'d the in.auguration
·~~-~c;, 0Tth!_Pf1EiP:Pmes~In El\e afternoon. a ~act ofAUfance
~tween the l'hilippmes ana:japan was s igned by the Philippine

230
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, Claro ~ . Recto, and the ].!Panese
-·- · - - -··-- ·-
M.Tia<>sador, Sho:r.o- Murala. --·
. -.!'hen on October 1~ Laurel announced the appointment of his
-

cabinet: Claro M. Recto, minister of foreign a ffairs; Antonio de las

Alas, minister of finance; Teofilo Slson, minister of justice; Quintin
Paredes, minister of agriculture and commerce; Jose Yulo, chiefjustiie
of the Supreme Court, and Jo:se Villa, acting executive secretary:·
l)'tc .Pr~d~mt o!_~e Republic, ~lt'Ct~d by the m ajority of all
members of the National As..~embly, was g!,•en !he hi~esteli_ecuti~e
powerj:>y t~Q>~ti~· · He was to serve a single term for six
years. Being the commander-in -chief of all armed forces of the
country, he could place the Philippines or any part of the nation
under martial law, when p ublic sa fety required il. He coul d also
declare war and make peace with the concurrence of two-thirds of
all members o f the National Assembly. And with the agreement of
the majority of all members of the Assembly, he could make treaties
with other nations.
) The Constitution did n ot provide for a vice-pre5ident, howevet
the ranking minister in the order of precedence established by bw
could assume presidency in the event of a permanent disabiuty of
the President. The power to make lnw~ wa.<o vested in the unicameral
National Assembly, which was composed of provincial govemor-
~nt!rals and city mayors as ex-officio members and of delegates to
be elected every three years. one from each province and charrered
city. The Assembly was to meet in regular session once every year.
Judicial power was veRLed in a Supreme Court, comp1.1sed of a
chief justice and six associate justices who were appointed by the
President with the advice of the Cabin~t. The President with the
advice of the Supreme Court appointed judges in the lower court.
A governor ran the provincial civil government. The governors
and city mayors, in an ex-officio capacity became member.~ of the
I 08-man National Assembly. Civil administration was operating
under t·he supervis ion of a japanese gurison commander
headquartered at the provincial capitol.
! lowever, civil adntini.~tration was ineffectual. The Japanese
continued to maltreat the local inhabitants. The garrison was tolerant
of the abu~s committed by the Japanese military stationed in the
provinces. The supply requisitions were never cottCICd to the local
a dmmi stration. The extended Japanese occupation caused
wide..pread anxiety among the p eople in the islands.

231
 With the. inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic,
_I>rcsidcmt· L~-'!! .-reated the.Nat;onal Educ~tion ~ to study
curnculum ch~nges and to develop a more suitable educational
p rogram for the country. Tht- board advoc~ted enhancement of the
Filipino identity by g:ivin~; emphasis to the study of the n.1tional
languag e and history. It aJso recommended the teaching of Asian
history e~nd culture.
The board also adopted the semestral system,. with a vacatioo
long enotignfor thestutl mts iu r..Sf;andm·ttifli!Thr the rainy season
to le.~sen disruption of classes. (&!fore the outbreak of war, in 1940,
school ca lendar held been changed to four terrru; with only one week
between tem\S. This exhausted both students and teachers.)
1'o direct the educational thrust mo re thoroughly, the
government was given more powers to sup~rviSe all schools, both
public and private. !'resident Laurel saw schools as complementary
In the family and church in shaping morals and character.
The government also .~cnt selected young men to Japan as
pm>iMados to study at Japanese schools, Members of the fap<tnese
-constabulary taught them Japanese methods of discipline. These
pcusionndos had to be cleansed of anyth ing anti-JapanesE' to operate
inthcncwcnvirornnenl. - -· - - ·--
SimultMeous with the restructuring of the educational system,
control over media and culture was al~o empha~ized by the Hodobu.
Movies, s tage ~;hows, radio programs and even letters itt the p081
office were checked.
Under the Laurcl.:tdministration, the media wa~ used to spread
more Filipino propaganda line. Posters and leaflets called for the
support of the republic. New periodicals such as FillpitJa,'a monthly
rru~gazine were also read not only in Manila but al~oin the pmvincet<.
On the anniversary of the Japancse·sponsorcd rC?public, a new
~wasbom(Tht'Repub/ic). Bothperiodicalstrlcdtoportray
a more Filipino perspective rather than oth!'r publications.
:-Jew slam$ were also printed for the republic. showing the
govet.nm.~,!l.~tionalist orien ta~ One s tamp issued to
commemorate th e""ll)<I3Jfidep~ndem:e showed a Filipina in
ITaditional co~tume, "-ith the Philippine flag .md the Rizal monwrumt
in the backgrulmd.
In publicahons, the flag wa~ highlighted. The Philippine
national anthem was ITanslated into TagaJog. It replaced the Japanes!'

232
national anthem and "Awit sa Paglikha ng Bagong Pilipinas." Even
cigarette boxes were used for th~ propaganda. One box bore the
sl<>gan. "A Frl!e Philippines in United Asia." Another had ''Freedom
Implies Responsibility" written on the box. The brand was called
.!!ll!!l''"dencid agatettes
President Laurel went his way to Filipinize the Catholic Church.
He wrote the Pope:' explaining\that filipinos would understand the
Church better if they rm the pa'rishes and religious schools. He met
with religious leaders to explain his views. Th~ gov~mment tried to
keep the Church under some degree of control.
The ]i!pant'se Military Administration did closely supervise the
affairs of the Church. The Bureau of Religious Affairs was created
a:; an ag~ncy under the Executive Conunil'Sion to control the activities
of tht! l't!ligious orde rs like the issuance of permi ts for special
collections, me...tings. and religious parade~. The Church wa~
ord ered to report the amoun t of money it had received as donations .
.Its fi nand aI status wa~ obliged to be d i~ losed. All p ri~ts, minL~tcrs,
and other religiou~; officials h ad to 5ec urc perm1t from the
government in so lemnizing marriages.
The Board of InfQLroatioo. which replaced the Bureau of
Information and Public Security of the Executive Conunission, was
created. This prevented the printing of reports that were not in
keeping with the republic's ideals.
Following the govenunent'~ pro-Filipino line, the KnbatiUlng
Pang11r11p ni Rim/ (The Yout_h ~LRiz!l:$ Dreatns) and RpvtrufilniSm
(Revive True Filipin·ism), w~re organized according to some
histonans. Both tivlc organiz~tions aimed at developing nationalism
consciousness. This cultural campaign wa~ launched somehow to
make the Filipinos aware of Japanese and Filipino native traditions.
Somehow, prolonged exposure to Asi<m spirit could win Filipino
cooperation and sympathy.
Pre·war American film;;, p~iou.sly <::tmsored, were still shown
in some movie theaters. Japanese films glorifying the Japanese war
rruchine and way of life were also shown in between presentations
of American films as part of the cultural propaganda.
The Japanese d iscouraged the Filipinos from writing in English.
In a wa}'• these Asian colonizers contributed to the promotion of the
Tagalog language. They bolstered the enth usiasm of local writers to
redio;cover the richness of the country's mother tongue. LiwllyuNly,
the only T.1galog weekly was allowed to con tinue publication.
 A numb~r of writei'S began to create short stories and ver~e:>
similar to tlu! Japanese haiku. Tv.·o maga2ines that became popular
during tho~e days were the Philippine Rt•view and Pil/nrs. However,
freedom of expression was suppt:esst'd during the occupation period.
Th.e writer:> who were limited to thcir subject matter had the rural
scene as the popular theme. Moreover, the writers were not wt>ll
rornpet\Silted. 1hcir income was good enough to buy them a kilo of
<"ofiee-<"om.
In 1943, the Dramatic Philippines, lnc. was formrd to stage
pop'tl:r plays in English, adapted in Tagalog. These plays were
performed at the <Jld Mehupolitan Theater. Under lh P. management
of a group <Jf college actors,. the organiza tion prc!>Cntcd highly
acclaimed pla)'!i translated in Tagalog such as Passion Play, Julius
Cn(ollr, Gulden B~y. a11d ApJ'Ie>auce. Sa Pula, Sa Puti, an <~daptation of
Julian Cnu Balmaseda's lsang Kuwaltang Abn.kn became a crowd
favorite. Musical Philippines, Inc., a sister organization of Dramatic
Philippines, In c., enabled classical musicians to present their
performance~ at the theater.

D.c spitc Laurel's attempts to make ind~pt'ntlence real, many

clcmmts of the Japanese policy wer~ still there. Censorship of the
media continued as before. Nippt>ng<J clasS<!S were still mandatory.
Listening to foreign short wave s tations {except Radio Tokyo)
remained restricted.
At the forefront of ]apclnese aliempl to esl~blish the New Order
was the kemptilai. Being iii separate army organi?.ll lion, it reported
directly to the Japanese commander-in-chief in thP. l'hilippincs, and
from the re on to the kempeitni headquarter!! in Tnkyo. It had
establishP.d branches throughout the Philippines. Anywhcre in the
count'); they ~truck terror and fear.
The Japanese occupation in just about a few year:> had relatively
changed the Filipino outlook. Because of the grim consequences of
the war, they b ecame more pragmatic, or rather mat.erialistic. The
people had c<Jme face to face with violence. They had learned to
use weapons to kill the opponents, obvi<Jusly the ]apar1est> and those
who work for them, to the detriment <Jf th..ir own safety and security.
For want of doing something, some men, both ymU\g and old
learned to indulge in many fonn.<; of vices. Smoking, coc kfighting,
dice games, mahjong, jueteng, monte and other c.1rd games became
common pa5 time:;. However, there were also other forms of recreation
like stage shows (mostly of the hometown variety) and fist bou~.

234
 Ptoplt- kept leaving and returning, d epending upon the
situation. Tho~ who could not stand the condition any longer had
to tvacuate to otlwr barrios. Some opted to live with relatives in far
provinces. With thE.' enemy occupation, the old ~ocial elite, the
wealthy land-owning families, no longer held the monopoly of the
social ci rclt>. The rushing in of the new rich led to the rise of a new
oourgeoi!lie.
Everywhere in the Land, people lived in fear. Mm did fear the
spies (like the Ganaps and Makapili~) as well as the dreaded kt•mpeitai
and their zona system, whereby the local males were herded in one
place, usuaUy a public one, to pluck out the guerrilla~.

· 5· Resistance and Restoration

What strongly nullified the Japanese policy of attraction was
the series of atrocities ranging from confisca tion of personal goods
to wanton killing of people. There wa~ the imposition of severe
penalties for slight violations of the law. l'e~ons caught violating
t he curfew were pwU.shed with water cure. Afterwards, nothing
'" ould be heanl about them. Pedestrians who refused to bow to the
Japanese m ilitar y we-re slapped on the ir faces or hit with closed fists.
1he l'ilipinoslooked at this gesture as a grave pe.r sonal assault
Hec1lth and living conditions deteriorated throughout the
Japanese occupa tion. Tuberculosis, malaria, and nutrition ailments
became common illnes..~es. Many people died of slan:ation.
The war years witnessed the mass contact of Filipino:; and
Japanese, characterized by mutual suspicion. The Filipinos could
not simply trust the motives of the Japanese in promoting the national
culture. The Japanese show~d un~asonable harassment and
cxccution,q of Filipinos deemed dangerous to l:tle nl!w order of the
society.
There we~ o thers who thought that th e war was about'
democracy and against fascism. The unprovoked attack of the
Japanese in the Philippint'S led many Filipinos to resist in defense of
the country.
Thoughts in having n!cognition and a cha llenging experience
did help in encouraging more volunteer:,; for the army. Others joined
the struggle for freedom because it seemed to be the natural thing to
do. Classes had been suspended for quite a time. When the
enlistment of re<.ruits for the army took place, many young men
signed up.

235
 If the s urrender of Bataan and Corregidor and tht? irrunediate
retreat o f Genera l MacArthur to Australia marked the ,end of
American assistance to the country, these event:; were unly perceived
as temporary. Moved br their sense of nationalism. others felt that
it was glorious to fight for the country's f~om. They had red!ized
tha t it was their duty to their fellow Filipmos to ddend the <.UUittry
from foreign a~ion. G uerrilla fightt>rs allover the country kt>pt
their fa ith in democracy. :Vtany wa iled for the ret um nf the American~.
The t.:nited States Army Forces in the Ph ilippines (USAH P).
1\'orth Luzon, was one of the earliest guerrilla units to be organized
after the fall o f Bataan and Corregidor. The USAl'fE soldiers of
1>/orthem Luzon who had been unable to join the American and
filipino forces in Bataan banded together under two Filipino
captains. G uillermo 1\'akar and Manuel P. Enriquez.. This was
recognized as the First G~!errilla Regiment by USAF FE headquarters.
Walter Cushing. an American mine operator in the Mountain
Province lt-d the first ambush against the Japanese. Cushing
organi7.erl ~ome two hundred l'il ipino gut>rrillas shortly after lh~
enemy invasion. (Unfortunatcly. on September 1'1, 1942, Cushing
.mel two of his men were killed instanldncotL~ly by )opancsc oold icrs
at Jones, Isabel.:~ whi le on a mission to contact a large gucrriU.:1 outfit.)
American soldiers in Northern Luzon who d id not surrender
with General Jon<~ than M. Wainwright placed themselves under the
command (.1{ Cap ta in Nakar and Captain George Barnett, an
American Engineer.
O ther American ofiicers who manage<.! to eS<.ap"' from Bataan
like Major Russell Vnlckm~tUl (a W~t Point Cradua te) orr;ani:r.ed
th~ir own guerrilla units. Volckmann set up 5ecrct training camps
for his guerrillas. The North Luzon guerrillas were consolidated
under his overall comma.nd./\mong the prominent guerrilla leaders
under his dirt'ction were Governor Roque 1\blan of !locos and Bado
Dang'o'' a in Baguio. l ie ,,lso established a communication and
intelligence network, which reported the movements of the enemy.
Report s from this network were transmitted to MacArthur' s
h~atlquarters in Australia. ·
Vokkmann's ~orthe m Luzon guerrilla army was resporurible
for driving Gencrallomoyuki Yamashita's troop~ from the Mountain
Province in the last days of the war in the Philippines.
Marcos V. Agusti n, a bus driver before the w~r. formed a
glterrilla unit centered in A11tipolo. This cvcntu.11ly became one of

236
 the largest in Luzon owi.ng to its membership from different sectors.
In its ranks were soldiers, tcachers,lav.-ycrs, writ~>!"$. laborers, drivers,
young inmates of a rdonnat-ory S(hoorand a few reforlll.l!d convicts.
Some ChineJ;e and Americans joined Agustin's group.
'Jhe Hunters ROTC (Reserv.. Officers' Training Corps) guenilla
grou p, he.aded by two young cad~ts of the r h ilippine Military
Academy, Eleu~rio Adevoso (better known as Terry Mag tanggol,
during the war) and Miguel V~r. was formed al Vcr's house in San
Juan, Mani l~. After the surrender of l.lataan, the group moved to
Antipolo.
During the latter stagc5 of the war, the Huni P.rn ROTC guerrillas
cut Japanc~c communication line$, blew up roads aroc.i bridges and
destroyed convoys passing through their territory. 1'lwir n11wspa~r.
Thmzderrlap, which cam11 out in 194.3, oft~ times changed its place
of publication to confuse the enemy forces.
Other guerrilla units were established in Central Luzon. In
Bulacan. Captain AlejoS. Santos, "C" Comp~ny. 31" Infantry of the
L'SAFFE, who escaped the Death ~arch fmm Bataan at Betis,
Pampanga, organ i?.ed the Philippine Legion a l h is hometown Rust~.
Captain Santos and his comrades wanted to c:ontinue the battle
against the enemy forces. !'io longer did they want to ~offer silen tly
in pain.
The Philippine Legion was initially envisioned as a force of
small combat units with prim,uy mission of destroying enemy
intelligence groups. It al~o aimed to gather infonnation on military
installations as well as political at\d P.conomk ll~livit ies sponsored
by the Japane~ government. The f'.IOUp member:; Wel'l:' also dired"d
to eliminate Filipino traitors.
In August, 1943, Captain Bernard 1.. Anderson, a U.S. Airforce
officer, took comma.ncl of the "LSAFFE Lu""on GuiiTrilla Army Forces
and appoint~d Cap tain Santu~ as his personal representative in the
area. On October 12, 1943, Captain Anderson issued a directive
confirming Captain Santos' command over the Bulacan Military Area
(B.MA).
BMA had four regiments at the start. By the middle of 1944, iL
had a force over 11!,000. The BMA was rcgrou~d into ten regiments
as follows: Valel\7.ue la Regiment (Meycauayan, Marilao, Hocilue, Polo
and Obando); Republic Regiment (Malo los ~nd Paombong); Del Pilar
Regiment (Hagonoy ;md Cah•mpit); Kakarong Regiment (l'laridel,

237
 Guiguinto and Bigaa); M. Ponce Regiment (Baliuag, Pulilan and
Bustos); Buen avista Regiment (San lldefonso and San Rafael);
Natividad Regiment (:'lorthern San ~igud); Biak·na· Bato ~giment
(Southern San Miguel); Mountain Regiment (Angat and Non:agaray)
and the Flatute Regiment (San Jooeand Sta. Maria). These regiments
were named after famous personages and places in the provina; of
Bulacan.
Procurement groups were organized lo collect arms and
ammunitions. Some Bul.acan guerrillas went back to Bataan to look
for weapoll$ buried prior to the surrender of the Filipino-American
!Toops in Aprill'J42. In the latter part of 1943, the guerrillas rn idcd
some municipal buildings to get the arms and ammunitions.
Daring aS5aults we~ mounted by the BMA tighten; agaU'ISt the
Japanese garrison in Malolos and in the other towns in Hulacan .
.Military intelligence reports continuously nP.eded by General
Headquarters Southwest Pacific Area (GHQ-SWPA) ~·ere supplied
by theBMA .
In August 1944, the submarine Nau.oarhnl landed arms and
anununition, signal equipment and other supplies at the Kalayaan
Headquarter~ of Major Anderson in W anta, Tayab~s. Salanga Point,
just off the mouth of Masanga River bec:a.rne the surface point of the
Nmt'arhal submarine. Some officers and rnen of the BMA, together
w ith some loyal Dumag"t:> of tht> mountain.~ jottmcyed. acros~ the
Sierra M3dre Mountains to bring the military supplie,; to Bulacan.
Together with the group of Americans was C;~ptain Bartolome
Cabangbang. lie marmed the Philippine Islands Detachment of the
Allied l!ltelligence Bure-a u. A graduate of Philippine Military
Academy, Capt. Cabangbang fought in Bataan and Corregidor. He
was releal'.ed from Capas Concentration Camp to be l!aincd at the
l'hilipplne Constabulary School. He was able to escape in October
1942 and later joined Capt. Villamor in Negros Occidental. He
boarded submarine Gnbn'rln to Australia and thereon was trained in
comm lmkations and jungle warfare.
Airstrips were also constntcted hy the BMA guerrillas for the
emergency landing of American airtm!n like the on~ found al Akle
in San II d efonso, at Alla g, Ma lolos and Bustos. F.ach of thl!llC a irslrips
had a runway of about 600 yards right for L-5s, which required 200
yards to get airborne.
These airstrips dld facilitate the transPQrt of supplies and men
from the army posts in Lingayen and Dagupan to llulacan ~;;ue rrilla
h eadquartt-rs and vice versa. All units of the BMAwere alerted for

238
any ill-fated plane that would need help. They were set ro rescue
these pilots before they could faU into the hands of the Japanp_<;e.
Their othu concern was retrieving whatever equipment remained
int<lct in the damaged planes.
. On November 16, 1944, three men from Admiral William
Habey's Third Fl~et belonging to the Carrier USS Essex were rescued
by the Republic Regiment (Halsey's J1leet had undertaken air ~trikes
in the VL-;ayas prior to General MacArthur's landing in I .eyte.) They
were later on escorted It> BMA headquarters. Among tho~ ferried
hom Akle (home base of BMA) to San jose, Mindoro were Colonel
Gwen G. Atkinson, Lts. Floyd Fulkerson, Yates Hicky, Ru.s!;el Reed
and Landry.
On January 4, 1945 at Camp Jeru5alcm, the first air drop~ in
Luzon were done by giant 5-25s of the US Air Force. Crattd TNT
(trinitrotoluene), arms and ammunitioru., medicines, ration." and
rad ios for the BMA were dropped. On the evening of j<tnuary 9,
1945, the Sixth Army, under Gen. Walter Krueger, landed 68.000
combat troops. Some army units rolled eastward tu Nueva F.<:ija
and tun1ed toPozorcubio-Rosario-Aringay Line. Others penetrated
the Pampa.nga and Pangasinan areas- all of them, including the 37"'
Division entered through Bulacan towll!l.
In Southern Luzon , the f'QOG (President Que7.on'!l Own
Guerrillas) engaged in guerrilla warfa re again~t the Japanese in
Clvite. Laguna, Batangas,and Quezon Province. In the Bicol region,
former Assemblyman and Governor Wenceslao VIJlZons, headed the
guerrilla activities in the area.
The guerrilla movement in Samar and Leytc was Jed by C olonel
RupertoKangleon; while Colonel Maca rio Peralta ofTarlac headed
in P<tnav Island with Govemor Toml\li Confessor as the Civilian
leader. ht Mindanao. Tomas Cabili, Salipada Pendatun and Wendell
Fc.rtig organized the I,'Uerrilla.<; in the region.
Another guerrilla unit that confronted the Japanese forces was
the communist-led Hukbo ng Bayan Lamn !111 Hapon known as the
Hukbalahap. The orgimization was founded on March 29, 1942 in a
forest near the boundaries of Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Tarl<~c.
Luis Taruc was cho.;cn chairman of the committee. Casto Alejandrino
(GY), bccilll'le second in command.
Other Huk leaders were Bernardo Poblete (Banal) from Minalin,
Eusebio Aquino from Magalang, and Felipa Culala {Dayang-Dapng)
from Candaba. Other Partido Komunista ng PilipinCIS iPKP)
members who became leaders of the I rukbalahap aside from Taruc
and Alejandrino were Lope de Ia RO¢a and Mariano Franco. "Anti·
}~p11nese Above All" became the battlecry of this underground
movement, mootly consi!lting of pca~ant~ and workers.
The guiding principles of the Hul<s were found in this
document, The Fundamrnllll Spirit. The duties and privile~s of a Huk
soldier were discussed in another document, Th~ l.ro.n Di~cipli'le. The
kind of discipline imposed on its members was quite tough.
Members found deviating from the rules of the organization were
reportedly liquidated in the name of unity. For instance, Day11ng·
Dayang was ~xecuted by her own men.
Katubustm ug Bayan (Redemption of the People) was the
principal Huk publication, which started in mid-1942. It was i.5sued
weekly with between 3,000 to 5,000 copies. mimeographed. I-ts editors
included pea~nt leaders, trade unionist$ from Manila and university
people. They chronicled the Huk victories against the Japanese.
The Huks fought guerrilla battle:;; with the enemy forces. In
mid-January, 1945 they liberated muchofT,,rlac and Pampanga. By
the time the Americans were already in Cabanatuan, there they found
the Huks had already secured the town for them. Muni.dpal
governments attacked by their squadrons were placed onder Huk
auspices. The Huk<: occupied a number of town.<; in Central Luzon.
There were some Filipino~ who <:hose to cooperate with the
Japanese and aided them in apprehending the guerrillas and their
supporters. These fanatical pro-Japanese included the Gauap.~, the
Pulahanes, Palaaks, the United Nippon, the Pampars, and the
MAKAP!Lls.
The Ganaps were the former pro-Japanese Sakdalistas who
served as s.pies for the Japanese military authorities while the
Pulahanes (from Samar, "pula" means red) acted as guides for the
Japanese in their efforts h>arrest people who supported the guerrilla
cause.
The Palaaks, armed with bamboo spears, worked as guards for
tht Japanese army while the United Nippoll (U.N.), armed with rifles,
wore army uniform.<; a~ part of the Japanese military. The members
were recruited from the Ganap Party.
The Pampars (Pambansang Pag·asa ng inga Anak ni Rizal) were
also anned with rifles. The japanese military authorities in Pililla,
Rizal Province organized the b'TOup in 1943. The group members
wore blue denim \mifomtl5 with 5hort pants.

240
 The most dreadful one, the MAKAPILI (Makabayan: Katipunan
ng mga Pilipino) was headed by General Artemio Ricarte, Benigno
Ramos, and Pic Duran. This group was crgani:>:ed after the American
liberation forces had already tm lt>red t he Philippine territory.
MAKAPIU was formally launched in Manila on Dc<:ember 8, 1944,
amidst a gala ceremony attended by General Yamashita. President
Lal.ll'el, Ricarte, Ramos, Duran and other high officials.
ES<:a lated guerrilla opemtions pressed the Japanese <mny to
offer amnesty. Such offer was given throughout the land but
eventually no guerrilla fighter accepted such dubious propo.~al. The
fapanese continued their propaganda to secure the cooperation of
the people in various ways like the sponsorship of the Japanese Youth
Leadership Program. Young Bias Ople had already left the program
and joined the ranks of the SMA
Since August 9, 1944, the American fighter planes began their
devastating raids on Japanese military installations in Mindanao,
Vhsayas cmd Manila. On September 21, 1944, President taurel
proclaimed martial law in the country by virnte of Proclamation
No. 29.
:'~ews about General MacArthur's Pacific Fon:es nearing the
Philippines tluough the newspaper, 11te Tribune and short wave radio
broadcasts made the Japanese fiercer and more d istrustful. Japanese
raiding fotet'S swooped into barrios and assembled aD men i.n the
barrio chapels to be warned against s ubversive acts. :vlore zonas
were conducted. The male residents were detained for da}'ll.
On October 20, 1944, the Lt>yte beaches were severely
bombarded by American bombers and fighter planes. The new P-38
fighter planes had proven its prowess in air battles. With faster
velocity to go up at a higher altitude, the planes pounded the
Japanest' planes below with bullets from the 30/50 caliber machine
guns. Tht! Americans once again dominated the Philippine skies.
The path to leyte wa.~ cleared on the 5ame day, p aving the way for
General MacArthur's return together with his allied armed forces,
landing at Palo Beach. Warships formed a line of defen.~e to protect
the Aml?rican forces in the island.
Consequently, the American flag was raised at I llill20 i.nJ)ula.&._
_.l..e)de. In desperation, Japanese suicide pilots known as kamikaze
crashed their planes on the 1\merican warships at Leyte Gulf. The
Battle of l.eyte Gulf, the greatest naval battle in history was fought
from October 24 to 26. Simultaneous with th~• naval warfare were

241
the following battles: the Battle ofSurigao Strait, the B~ ttlc of Samar
and the Battle of Cape Engano.
On ~mber21, 1944, President l..lurel and his Cabinl:.'t moved
tQ Bagui o. The Japanese fore~ retTeated to the "Yamashita [..11\e~, a
battlefront stretching along thejungleofSierra Mad re fmmAnlipolo
to Ap;mi. \Nhile retreating, the J~panese took some provision~ fmm
the Filipino civilians, massacred innocent people and burned towns
and viUage:~.
On January 9, 1945, thl' Americans landed in Lingayen Gulf.
Other American troops land ed in Zambales, Tagaytay and Batangas.
The U.S. Sixth Army, with ilq headquarters in Dagupan City, had
io;.sued on February 2, a letter of instruction calling for coordination
of all guerrilla units in Central l uzon in combat opcration~ against
the enemy forces. The units of thto Sixth Army were seen riding in a
new type of vehicle, which w as later Jparned to be jc!!pS. Others
boarded armored cars and half trucks.
On February 3, an American cavalry division ~ntered G~ac~
Park in the northemou~kirt:s of Manila. With Filipino gur.rrillas as
guides, they rescued the sufftoring prisoners at the Santo ·rom.as
Internment Camp.
The Japanese made th eir la st stand in the historit: city of
Intramuros. By March 3. 1945 the Americans had won the war in
Manil.l. Baguio was captured from thE" Japanese on April2o. lJy July
4, the America:ns had officially completed liberating Luzon.
The US 6"' Infantry entered Kiangan, Mt. f>rovince and engaged
in series of dosl! fighting. The .so-called "Million nollar Hill"
shdtered t.he 14'" Area Army uru:ler the overall command of ( ;eneral
Tomoyuki Yamashita known as the "Tiger of Malaya" and his elite
officers.
There w Pre three infantry d ivision.~ to entrap the enemitos -the
USAHP N L, the 6th Division and the32 .. Division. 'The Buena vista
boys. detailed with the 6"' Oivision and 32"' Division. w ere lhc first
ones to come ncar the mouth of Ihe hill. The major ob~tacle in blasting
the place was the japanese woodpecker machine gun.
Alter four month:; in its Northern Luzon drive, the l;luenavista
Regiment's task finally ended. Japliil formally aMounccd through
radio broadca~t it~ final surrender on August 14 after the bombing
of H iroshima and later ~agasaki on August 6 and August 9
respectively. Two days later, frontline units of t he USAFIP 1'\L
received Volckmann' s order to cease firing.

242
 Negotiations for the surrender of Gen. Yamashita and his troops
began after a Filipino officer 2"" Lt. ~a<:ario A. Abarillo, leading a
patrol of the 15'~ Infantry Combat Company had penetrared into
enemy lines north west of Kiangan.
From l<.iangan, th~ Japanese offiCers and their res~ctive staff
were brought down by trucks to Bagabag, Nueva VrS<:aya and flown
to Luna, La Union and finally brought up in jeeps to the Atnerican
High Commissioner's Residence at Camp John Hay, Baguio City
for the formal surrender.
From Bagwo, Yamashita and his staff were brought to the
National Bilibid Pnson in Muntinlupa. Yamashita went on trial in
October 1945before U.S. War Crimes Commission and wa~mnvicted
of war atrocities on December 7.
On the early morning of February 23, 194.6, Yamashita was
hang~d on a tree on top of a hill overlooking the U.P. College of
Agriculture in Los Banos, Laguna.L:.S. Army police unit headed by
Col. Charles Haldennann carried the execution order.
rt was on September 2, 1945, that Japan formally accepted defeat
upon signing a tl"t'. aty on board USS Misstmri a t Tokyo Bay. Ten d ays
after the fonnal surrender, Laurel was .1rrested by the U.S. Army.
He was confined in Sugamo Prison for almos t a year and retum~d
to Manila in July 1946.
President O.:mct'la tackled the task of rehabilitating th~ land,
whkh had been cmclly damaged by war. Three da)'l' after thE> Leytf'
landing, Osmena wafi already given the power to govern all
territories liberated by the U.S. forces. This took place at a pubiU:
ceremony headed by General MacArthur.
On March 7, 1945, Presidmt Osmei\a signed an Executive Order
providing for the restoration of the executive deparlments of the
government as tht>y existed prior to Japanese occupation. The Order,
dared February 27, aLc;o created the department of information as
part of the Department of Public Instruction. ·
On March 8, the President sworn into office the new members
of the Cabinet. He alS() ou tlined the principle:~ of his government.
These included the adhe rence to the principles of freedom and
democracy and the establishment of a social and politkill system
wherein the government officials and employees are servants of the
people. The govenuncnt reaffirmed the principle of Filipino·
American collaboration.

243
 The Philippines at that time was practically without funds.
PToduclion ,tt the onset was ~·ery slow owing to lack of capital to
fmance the rehabilitation of destroyed machinery and other
equipmCT1t. ln the eMly months of ~occupation. the united States
attended to the needs of the local. populace. The Philippine Civil
Affairs Unit of the United StatesAnny (PCAU) became the principal
agency for relief distribution in Manila and the province~. It a lso
proceeded to remove mtmicipal officials elected by the Huks and
replaced them with USAFFE guerrillas (ideologically different from
the Huks).
General MacArthur known to be a man of act·ion, at that time
made important decisions for the Pr~.sidl'flt. He advised President
Osrneiia to immediate!y convoke the Congress, for it w;~s part of the
policy of the American government to res tore constitutional
government in the Philippine.~ as soon as law and order had been
established.
Osmei\a was reluctant at fir.<;!, believing that the govemment
might f<'ll into the hands of collaborators whom the American
government su.<;pcctcd of twason. Nt-vertheless on June 9, 1945, the
First Congress of the Philippin~ convened for the first time since
the election of its member~ on November 11, 1941 with Senator
Manuel A. Roxa~ chosen as President of the Senate. By July { 1945,
the Commonwealth was reestablished in Manil a.
Presid~ nt Osmena offer"d Roxas beforeh a nd to go to
Washington as Philippine Resident Commissione r but the latter
refused . Roxas a t that tim" was having in mind his candidacy Jor
prcsidCT~cy. Two days later, on May 26, 1945 he instructed tus men to
launch his bid for the po~ition. The worsening relations between
Osmcft., and Roxas reached its climax when Roxas left the
Kacionalista Party and organized hi> own party. the Liberal Party.
He took m any 1\acionalistas with him.
The e lection of April 23, 1946 resulted in the victory of the
Liberal Party with l'l.oxas and Quirino as the elected President and
Vice-President respectively. Their party won nine out of 16contested
senatorial seats.
On May 6, 1946, Roxas was inaugurated as the last President of
the Philippine Commonwealth. The inaugu.ral ceremonies were held
on the )?,TOunds of the Legislative BuUdir.g. In his inaugural address
as the last President of the Commonwealth, he cited the groUJldwork
of hi~ adminl~tration - to ·rebuild the economy from the ruins of
war. He also ad vocated the establishment of politicill and econoJnk
tics with America, to help in the rehabilitation of the islands.

244
 Chapter Test No.9
Date: _ __ __
Name: _ _ _ - - - - - -- - -
Course, Year, and Secti on:._ _ _ _ _ __

I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the m rrect answer.

Write the Miers on the blanks provided. (30 pts.)
, _ _ 1. President Que7.on and General Ma<:Arthur
im;tructed Mayor Jorge Vargas of Gre~rer .:vlanila to
a. cooperate w ith tht> japanese authorities
b. organize resi~tancc group5 in the wuntry
c. sum.'Ilder the fill!anns oi the officials
d. join them in Co rrcgidor
_ __ 2. '!he Japmese term which means "Com e here'" or
"Scram!" depending upon the movement vf tht-
hand refers to
a. Kcmpeitai c. Sendenbu
b . H odobu •d. -Kura
___ 3. By an execu tive order is>;uro by Varga.~ in August
1942, neighborhood and d ist rict a!>Soci alions were
organized for the pu rpose of
a. promoting the c;ultural ideas of the >Jew Order
b. convindng the people to follow the policy of
the G reater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
c. providin~; means for protection undt7 joint
responsibility
d . fighting <~gainst the Japanese military forces
4. ~ woru ~low that dOL'S not refer tu the Jap anese
military pa~s money is
a. gurami c. Mickey Mouse money
b. apa d. apulid
..- - 5. In 1942, the Japa11ese Military Administration intro-
duced a fa~t-maturing grain calll!d horni riC'e from
a. Bomeo c. Japan
b. Tdiwan d. Vietnam

24~
 _ _ 6. The appointed directol"-gcncral of the KALIBAPI
was
a. SenignoAquino c. Jorge B. Vargas
b. Jo..<;e P. l.aurel d.
Oilro M. Recto
7. In the 1943 Philippine Constitution, in the event of
a peonanent d isability of the President, the one
who could a~~ume prc5idency was the
a. Chid Justice of the Supreme Court
b. Vice-President
c. Ranking minister 'in the ordl'T of precedence
establillhed by law
d. Japanese Amba.-;sador
_ __ 8. During the Japanese period, ~nswnados were sent
to study at
a. guverrune nt camps
b. city colleges
c. government center~
d . J~pape~ schools
_ _ 9. The Nationall::ducatiun Board during the Japanese
period recommended the teaching of
a. Philippine history and cultul't!
b. Japanese history md culture
c. &ian history and culture
d. World history and culture
_ _ 10. Sa Pula, Sa Pu li, a popular stag e play, is an
adaptation of
a. Applesauce c. P~ssion Play
b. Golden Boy tl. !sang KuwaltangAbaka
11. The American mine operator who led the first
ambush against the Japanese was
a. Ru~~ell Volckmann
b William Halsey
c. Berna rd Anderson
d . Wa lter Cushing

246
 12. Among the prominent guerrilla leaders under
Major Volckmann's command were Governor
Roque Ablan of (locos and Bado Dangwa of
a . Abra c. Cagayan
b. Baguio d. lsabela
_ _ 13. Captain Alejo Santos of the 31" infantry of th~
USAFFE, organized tht! Philippine Legion at his
hometown in
a. Angat c. San lldcfonso
b. Busto~ d. San Migl•el
_ _ 14. Moutain Regiment of the BMA refl!rrl!d to
guerrilla<; in
a. Angat and Nonagaray
b. San lldl!funso and San Rafael
c. San Jose and Sta. Maria
d. Southem San Miguel
_ _ 15. In August 1944, the S"Ubmarinc 1'\awarhal landed
arms and ammunitions at the Kalayaan
Headquarters of Major Anderson in
a. Bataan c Leyte
b. Cav ite d. Tayabas
16. This PMA graduate who escaped the Philippines
to AustraliD and manned the Philippine Islands
Detachml!nt of the Allied Intelligence Bureau was
a. Sebastian Tomacru7.
b. Bartolome Cabangbang
c. Enriq ue Viudez
d . Alejo Santos
17. Ai rstrips far em~rgen<y landings were constructed
in Atlag, Malolos; Bustos; and Aide,
a. San Rafael c. San Bdefonso
b. San Miguel d. 8aliwa~
_ _ 18. Prior to General MacArthur'~ landing in Leyte, air
strikes in the Visayas were taken by the forces under
a. Bemard Anderson
b. Walter Krueger
247
 c. Ch<lrles H~ldennann
d. William I !alsey
19. The duties and p rivileges of a IIuk soldil!r were
d isculi.Sed in
a. The Fundam('ntal Sp irit
.,.-b. "!he Iron Discipline
c. Katubusan ng Bay an
d. Thunderclap
_ _ 20. The local guerrillas in Sa ma r and Leyte were
h<:adcd by
~·· l\. Ruperto Kangleon
b. Tomas Cabili
c. S<Jiipllda Pendatun
d. Maca rio Peralta
_ _ 2'1. f.omcr Sakdalis tas who s~rved as Wormers and
spie:; for the Japanese were called
a. Palaaks c. Pampars
,- b. Gana ps d. Pulahanes
22. The Pulahancs who aligned them.sdves with th e
Japane<oe came from
a. Cavite c. !locos
b. Tarlac ··"tt. Samar
2::!. TI1e one who did not join the MAl< A PILl from the
following was
a. A rtemio Ricarte c. lllas Ople
..-·b . Benigno Ramo;; d. Pio Duran
_ _ U . Simultaneous with the Battle of Lcyte Gulf were
the Battle of Samar. the l:lallle of Cape Engano and
the Battle of
a. Agusan c. S.tn Berna rdino Slr.lit
b. Cebu ~-<t Surigao StrJ it
_ _ 25. The Japanese fon:e:~ retreated to the "Yamash i ta
Line" a battlefront strelching fro m Antipolo to
a. Ap<~rri c. Kalinga
/ b. Benguet d. lsabela

248
 _ _ 26. In 1945, the U.S.Sixth Army established in Luzon
its headquarters in
a. MiiDila c. Mt. Province
b . Dagtlpan City d. Tarlac
~

2'7. Joining the American infantry divisions to entrap

Yamashita and other officials w ere BMAguerriflas
from the
a. Buenavista ~giment
b. Republic regiment
c. Motmtain ~iment
d. J("ka mng regiment
_ _ 28. Yamashitaand~ staffformallysurrendered tothe
American High Commissioner at
a. Luna, L1 Union
b. Camp John Hay, Baguio
c. Bagabag, Nueva Viscaya
d . Los BailO><, Laguna
_ _ 29. japan formally accepted defeat upon signing a
treaty on board USS Missouri at
a. Hiroshima c. Atlantic City
b. 1-lorid,, d . 1okyoBay
_ _ 3(1. Manuel Roxas ran for presidency under the
a. Nacionalista Party
b. Federal party
c. Liberal party
d. Democratic party

11. Essay: (10 pts. each)

1. How did the Japanese nu1itary rule the country before and
after the inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic?
....2. Why did a number of Filipinos join the guerrilla movement
aga ins! the Japanese?
3. How did the war in the Pacific end?

249
 The Republic
1. Roxas Administration (1946-48}
Two months after the last Commonwealth ~<lection, Philippine
sovereignty was finally recognized with Manuel Roxas as the
President of the Third Republic of the Philippines. On July 4; 1946,
at exactly 9:15 a.m., High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt read
President Hany S. Truman's proclamation announ<ing to the world
the withdrawal of Ameticill\ sovereignty and the re<ogrution of the
independenct of the f'hilippine~.
To the accompaniment of the American l'<ational Anthem,
Commissioner Mcl\"utt low ered the American flag. Thereafter,
President Roxas hcristed the FiliJ.>~!!!IJLt;Lthe accompaniment of
_!he PhiliQEine ~ational An.t.!JW. He took his oath of otfire before
QUef I!!itice}.'f_!nuel V, Morjln of the.l'h.iliEpiDe.Supreme Court. In
his inaugural address, President Roxas thanked the coming of the
United States in 1898 and urged the people to have faith In the
good ness of America.
follow ing the President's inaugural address was the public
signing of the US-Philippine Treaty of General Relations. Based on
this treaty, the United States withdrew and surrendered all rights of
supervision, control or sovereignty over tlw Philippines. Likewise,
the United Statts would represent the i~>tere~ts of the Phili~i!les in
countries wh~re there is no Philippine representaiicii\;·pei-ldlng the
establishment of Philippine d iplomatic !!l!rvice abroad .
In Ihe final part of the inaugural rites, a chorus of 1,000 voices
sang lhf! Philippine Independence Hymn. Closing the ~rcmonies
was the Invocation Prayer by Mo.~t Rev. Gabriel M. Reyes, the
Archb ishop of Cebu.
When Roxas assumed his post, _!!esolvedJhe coll_aboration_L.~e
by proclaiming iUlU~sty to all political priso_n~. Senator Claro M.
Recto refused to be amnestied. He fought hi~ legal battles with the
People's Courl and was 11cquitted.
The Philippines as seen by the administration could not
rehabilitate its economy without American aid a nd inves tment.

250
Subsequently it adopted two laws legislated by the United States
Congi'E'-~" to grow and industria lize. On April 30, 1946, the U.S.
Congress passed two laws tha t were intended to help the economic
recovery of the coW\try.
The Philipp ine Trade Act, also known as the Bell Trade Act,
provided for the (On tinuation of free trade wi th the Philippines and
the United States from 1946 to 1954. for the next 20years from 1954
to 1974, Philippine exports to the U.S. will pay a graduillly increased
tariff rate. The valueof thep<So w a-; fixcd at half an American d ollar.
The Plulippine Rehabilitation Act on the other har.d, abo known
as the Tydings Act resulted to the creation .of the Philippine War
Damage Commission to take charge of war damage paymtmts.
President Roxas rea lly wanted to rebuild the Phil ippi ne
~onomy even if it meant sacrificing national patrimony. In return
fur Ame rican support, the government went its way to amend ~
1935 Philippine Constitution to give parity rights tu lLo:: Americans.
This obliged the country to grant U.S. ci tizens and rorpo rations the
same rights as N-l ipinos in the util i7.a tion and exploitation of
Philippine natttra l :resources. In addition, American citizens and
corporations enjoyed !he right to acquire la nd of the p ublic dcmain .
right to acquire gra l i.ng. fishing and mining rights, and the Tight to
11ngage in the ownership and operation of public utilities. Th!! people
approv11d the parity amendml!nt issue in the plebi,cue or 1 ':147.
l uis Thruc and his collt"agues in the Democratic Alliance were
agains t tht' parity righ ts amendmmt because they perceived it as
more d islldva.ntageous to the filipino people. The Huk:; toget.itcr
with a new patty, the Democratic: Allianct'. composed of intellectuals
and peas.mts, suCC(.><tded in electing Taruc and their other members
to Congress in I 946. Upon the alleged instigation of f>re!;ident Roxas,
the Cong ress passed a resolution ejecting T<1ruc and his six feUow
party ml!mbers from Cong~s on the groW\d of alleged electoral
frauds and terrori.<;m committed by the Huks in l'ampanga ari'd
Nueva ccija. Th11 removal from office of Taruc and his companions
paved the way to the amendment of the Constitution.
Al'other government action that also generared varied opinions
was the military bast'S issue:lhc Miiitory BIZS<'S Agrtemmt signed on
~larch 14, 1947, gave the U.S. free use of 2.3 base site!; for 99 years
(shortened to25 years in 1959) renewable on expiration of this treaty.
The largest active bases were the Clark Field Air Base in Pampanga

251
and Subic NBval Base and the L'S Seventh Flt:et base in Zamba leG. A
provision of the Military B.~ :\ grcement granted American military
authorities an exclusive juri.>diction over all oUcnses or crimes
committ~d by Americ;~n personnel within the b;~sc~ or outside while
in the performance.
Taruc retuml'd to his peupl~.! and thereafter cooperated with
President Roxas in thr pacification campaign in the countryside. It
w<~s dwing the pacirication c<~mpaign that Taruc and Mateo Cas tillo
got an inte lligence report that they would be killed by their
l)dversa ries, among whom were allegedly government official!~. The
two Huk leaders took precaut ions as forewarned. Where"~' Juan
Feleo the peasant JcadN of 1\uev·a I!cija who d id not r~-ceive the
warning on time, was kidnapped <1nd murd ered while in the
company o f MPs who we rt S\tpposcd to provide him security in his
paci fic.; tion campaign from barrio to b~ rrio. Following this tr~gic
incident was the killing of jose j oveo, a labor leader.
Helieving that the Roxas administr~tion was bowed onchK king
the movement of the ma1;~es by liyuidating its lc;~dcrs, T~ruc wrote
a letter to President Rox~s reminding the l<1ttcr of their demands,
w hich wer e ment ioned in t hree prior conferences with the
government. These included the following: Ihe temporary right of
the people to keep th~ir fireann.<: due to present in~ecurity, protP<'l ion
of cor~stitutional rights, removal ~1f some government offidals like
Governor (Pablo Angeles) LJavi.;l of Pampanga 11nd the c:rt>cotiun of
soda ! welfare project<; and agrarian reform.
The Huks also demanded the cullectivization of f<1rml~nds and
the abolition of tenant farming. They were .lblc to organile a new
rebel government wiUl its own milita ry and adrninistr~ tiv~< procedure.
The government military and the H u ks were plunged into
hostilities. The civilians, caught in the crossli re, lived in fear and
hunger as agricultural production decreased due to const~nt
skirmishes between the contend ing forces. The government had
spent millions of pesos to apprehen d Taruc and his men. For two
years the Roxa5 admini~tr~tion hit!d to pacify the local dissiden ts
but failed .
_JQ ~-Q\.£.£C!I~e!!!.d order sih1alion, President Roxas i~sued
a proclamation on Marc-h 6, 1948 <.ledaring the Hukba Ia hap "'!~!h~
Pamli4nsanK Kutslllmn ng-_lf!gii lvfag&.iiliukzd T!'1< M ), wfil~oL'!
as
roorga.ni7.e0cilte~war oyMateOCfeTCmt~to, illegal associ.1Ho~
--- -- -· ·---- - --.....~- · -·- --- - --·-
252
Q!JL~!! ~nd m_~,~-ta.inc(j~mmit acts of ~diti~ People having
affiliation with these group~ wereconsiaered as enemies of the State
and thus, liable to t>c arrested .md imprisoned. This proclamation
outlawing the Huh and PKMs in effect resulted ttrindiscriminate
arrests and det~ntion of people suspected to b~ ai ding the rebels.
As early as July 29. 1946, Pre5ident Roxas had already issued
RepubHc Act No.4 that called for the surrender of fircanns not later
than Augu.~t31. The Iluks upheld the principle ofthc people's right
to bear fiream\s. There was this~ntimenl among the H uks that their
physical survival depended o.o their keeping their arms and
ammW\itions.
There were wealthy landlords who hired civilian guard~ to
n5-'k'\U llu k rt>gions. Willful disrcg;u d for civil rights was shown in
the Masico Affair in Laguna, in which a group of old and young
men were IThKhine-gunncd . The same transgrt'Ssion was committed
in Maliwalu, 'Barolor in Pampang a wh~re a group of men and women
were fired upon while they were having a party at n ight. Those who
committed these act~ were not penalizt:'d for their crimes. Internal
strife en~ued as local dissiden ts continued to defy the duly
constituted authorities.
The peasants and workers were socially and economkally
d islodged due to societal const raints. lh<m> were instances wherein
the lan dlords backed by their civil ian guards, coerced th~ir tenants
into signi~g SQ-50 agreements, with crop expenses pa id by the
tenants. 'This was inconsisten t w ith Republic Act ~o. 34 (approved
em September 30, 19·16} which gave the tenants a better share in the
rice harvc5ts, with 70% for tenants and 30% for the landlord.
Fr11udu lcnt practires lil<e lnkipa11, which consisted in paying 100%
interc~r; talinduwa, consisted in paying SO% interest on a loan; and
7Hwmod, where the p easan t was forced to borrow from hi~ landlord
whether he liked it or not, continued to oppress the ma~;.o;cs.
Post-war unionism became active. In J941l, the Committee on
Labor Organ i;o:ation (C LO) unions led strikes in such large
corporations as the Philippine Refi ning Company, Beng uet
Conl>olidated Mines, Manila Trading Compan y. the l.uT.on
Stevedonog Company, and Franklin Baker in Laguna.
AfK-r the CLO's initial successes, the Partido Komunista ng
Pilipinas (P.KP) members in the organizing committee began to invite
non-affiliated labor leaders to join. Cipriano Cid who was then the
first CLO president was succeeded in 1947 by .b.Jnado Hcmandc~..

253
 Presid en t Roxas _inc~§S~tly und ertook .Qt':!_er a<:tivities to
E~?tP. the people)_we~are. On April15. 1948, PTCSident R~~;
~~e....a~·blic statement ohlhe reaffirmation of Filipino loval.!i'_ to
the United St~~ at tbc Kelly·n~r in Clark Air Base, P~an~.
The audienre enthusiasticcllly recewed hlS speech. At that time, he
was no longer feeling well By evening, hi~ co ndition became worse.
At armmd 9:30p.m., he died of heart failure at the residence of Major
General E.l~ Eubank at Clark Field.
'lwo days later, Vice-President Elpidiu Quirino took hiq oat h of
office as President of the Philippines, serving the unexpired term of
the late Piesident Roxas. His ((rst official act was the proclamation
of a sta te of mourning th roughout the country for the former Chief
Executive.

2. Quirino Administration (1948-53}

President Elpidio Quirino took the task of r~solvi.ng the peace
and order situation of the coun try so that economic mobili7.ation
could be achieved. To rcali>:e this ob~ctive, the President sent hi5
brother. former Judge Antonio Quirino to have 3 dialogut- with Taruc
and his men to know what the Huks wanted.
Through thP. representa tives of the Ma11ila Chro11icle, I.J'.
Soliongco and a phoh:Jgrapher, the m«-ting with Taruc was set on
June 6 in a b~mo between the towns of San Miguel and Baliwag,
Bulacan. Tht- negotiations were n ot readily disclosed to the public.
Tame allegedly entered into an agreement with Judge Qurino, which
led to his jubilant entry to Manila.
On }1me 21, Taruc went to Matacarumg and in his p~ence,
President Qurino issued a p roclama lion granting amnesty to all H uk
a.n d PKM lead ers and mernt>ers. The a mnesty given was absolute·
and covered c-rimes of rebellion, sedition, illega I assodation, assault,
resistance and disobedien<:e to persons in authority.
The Huks agreed to surrender.thcir arms .md ammunitions to
duly constltu ted authorities within a period of fifty days following
the amnesty gran t. Taruc rcswncd hlo;seat in Congress and collected
h•s threl' years' back salaries.
Thret- hour~ after the fifty-day period, a clash between the 507'"
MP Company a nd a band of fifty Huks oc<:urred in a barrio of
Cabanatuan. fighting bNween the military and the Huks ensued.
Tame accused the Qui rino ad m inistra lion of bad faith when it refused

254
to give the peasants on-the-spot permits for possessing fireanns,
w hich they need tor sdf-c:lefen~e. H e denounced the non-compliance
of the government to the agre-ement, which was ap1uovcd by Judge
Quirino. According to him it induded the following: scrapping of
the Bell Trade Act; no resumption of trade with Japan; division of
large e.~tates for distribution to tenants; relea!.e of ~U Huk p risonei"S;
industrialization; and no milita ry bases agreement with the Unired
States. Judge Quirino disproved T<1ruc's allegations.
The Huk rehctlion bcc3me more intense in 1949 to 1950. 'Iht>
H uks continu<.'d terrori7.ing Central Luzon and the provinces around
Manila. They believ<.'d that programs regarding land reform were
not instituted. There was no break-up of vast landed estates. The
government Jid not release more thM 600 imprisoned Huksand PKMs.
The PartiJr Konnmlsta ng PilipiM$ (PKP) decided to place their
main emphasi~ on "'' armed struggle. The PX.P worked out a
systematic expansion program and changed the Hukbalah~p to
H11kbong Mn pagl'alayn ng Baynn (HMfl) or Army of National
Liberation.
The peace and order contingency reached its climax when on
Ap ril 28, 1949,. Mrs. Aurora Aragon Quezon, the la te r•residcnt
Quezon's w ife, her daughb!r, Baby and ten others w<.'r<.' ambushed
in Bongabon, l':ucva Ecija. Tame denied any Huk involvement in
the indtlen t.
In·the pri!Sidcntial electioro uf 1\"ovembcr 8, 1949. President
Quirino was <.'lected, bes ting Jose P. Laurel (NadonalL~ta P,lfty) and
iormer Senate President Jose Avelino (rebel Liberal). He promi..~cd
to reston~ the people's faith in the government. ·
PI'I.'Sident Quirino created the President's Action Committee on
Social Ame liora lion (PACSA} to aid the needy families, the Labor
Managem<.'nt Advisory Board. to advi>e hirn on labor matters and
the Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing Administration
(ACCFA ) to help the farmers market their crops . Rural banks were
also established in the r ural areas to facilitate credit facilities.
President Quirino also launched his "Total Economic Mobili.;.:ation
Program" to employ na rural resotll'Ct!~, manpower and technical
knowledge for econou'lk progress.
Nongovernment"! orgaruzations were also given approval
from the ,,dministrati{m. In 1949, the Philippi.n<.' Jaycees (funior
Chamber of Comrnercl') was organized. It is best known for the

255
 selection of the TOYM (Ten 0ub;tanding YoW'Ig Men) in various
fields of endeavor. ln promoting news and information, the
PhilipJ?ine News Service, the fust news agency in the coWltry was
es tablished in 1950.
In 1951, Fort Santiago was decla~ a national shrine. During
the Sp anish 1!1'.1, thio; served as a d etention cell whee<: many Filipinos
suspected of rebellion died. It served the same purpose d ur ing the
Japanese occupation.
In the realm ofd iplmnacy, President Quirino imprcsscl foreign
heads of s tates and world statesmen by his in te lligence. He
represented the Republic in his official travels to the United States,
Europe and Southeast Asi<~.
The Bell Mission WM ~ent· by the United Sta tes to survey all
aspects of Philippine economy. Jt found out that the coi.Ultry had
low income, excessive volume of imports, mh!directed investment,
moi.Ulting deficits and corruption in the government.
The Bell Report recommended the following: improvement of
p roduction, higher taxes, a more efficient coiJ~ction of government
revenues, a minimum wage law, a tax on the salt> of foreign exchange,
re!onns in public administration an d land refOtm.
1lu! principal item of the Bell Report was the re<ommendation
that the United States grant $230 million in economic aid provided
thto Philipp ine Government would imp lement t h e Mission's
suggested p rograms. To $CCure !his aid, President Quirino had to
accept the recommcnda lions of his American ad visers. Thw; on
:'>!ovemb~r 14, 1950, the Quirino-Fosler Agreement was ~>igned
wherein the Americans would decide on how Philippine money
would be sp ent. Under the provision of tt>ehnical coop eration, lhe
Philippine~ h ad to accept American overseer s in various
department~. especially those dealing with military, economic and
educational mat ters.
The U.S. Pcnt.1gon-State Department sent the Melby Mission
to the Philipp ines to look into the milita ry equipment needs of the
Philippine Anned f<lrces and to se t op a prog:ram for improving its
co un ter-ins urgency capability. The joint U.S. Mili tary Assi5tance
Group (JUSM AC) was as.signcd the task o f implemen ting the Melby
Miss ion's recommendations, especially on it8 antH fuk campaign.
Strict secu rity measures were implemented to check rebel
activities. HMB suspects were arrested and taken to Camp Murphy.

256
Ramon :\iagsaysay, the Secretary of National Defense based his
activities on the government's objective in eliminating the HMB
threat. Secretary Magsaysay urged !'resident Quirino to susp~md th<>
Wl'it of habea.s corpus to be able to detain the Communist suspects
beyond the six-hour limit pending the filing of charges.
Pre.sident Q uirino sent Magsaysay tu rn~~t ~ rebd l~ader,
Comm~ndE'I Arthu r or Tadano Ri7<\l who wanted to surrender. Ri:lal
told Mag, ay,ay about certain high ranking n!hel oifl<:ers who were
opera ti ng in Manila. '!he Military lntelligP.nce ~rvir.P ('.1115) o f the
Armed .Forces of the Philippines (Af1>) work!!d to hun I down the
nerve center of the HMB Politburo, the adminiq tra tivc hody of the
HMB Central ComnUttcc.
Before dawn of October 18.1950. twenty-two units of the Ann~d
Forces, .1idcd by the Manila Police raided s everal places
simultaneously. Among those a~sted were Atty. Jose lava. Federico
Bautista, Simeon Rodriguez. Salome Cruz, Ramon I!spiritl.t, Angel
Baking and others. lmpo:rtant rebel documen ls were taken and
presenred as evidence in court. The Manila Court of Fir~t Instance,
presided by Judge Oscar Castelo prono\tneed them b'llilty of the crime
of rebellion. They were sentenced to life imprisonment. Thi:; resu1t~d
to the demorali zation of a numbe r o( HM B members. Many
surrendered ancl were brought to Mindanao for rehabilitation.
ln Seprember 1951, the Philippine government signed a peace
treaty with Japan. However in early 1952, the ae ree mP.nt was
suspended u~ause- the Philippines demanded $8 billion in war
damages. Pt'lldi.ng the conclusion of talks on the- Issue, the l'hilippinc
le-gislai:\Jre refused to ratify the peace treaty.
ln the ID.~t davs of the Quirino adrrrinistcation. Moires Padilla,
a Nadona lista Party candidat(' for town mayor was maul••d and
m urdered . After a painstaking investigation. Magsaysay ordered the
arrest of Ncgros Governor Rafael Lacson, allegedly involved in the
crime. As a result, M..gsaysay ·Lmquestionably turned out to be the
hero of the people or ~man of the masses" for his crusad e for pellce
ancl justice.
Magsay~ay was able to project his imagP. to the public as a
simple and dedicated man. When the proper opportuni ty carn~e,
Magsaysa y resigned from his cabine t pos ition and joined thl•
opposition, the Nadonali5ta Party, which subS!!qucntly nominotC!t.l
him as the prcsidcnti1l standard bearer. This time, he would run
against the Chief EKccutive.

257
 Magsaysay's presidential campaign was characterized by his
emphasis on both the barrio and the mas.<;es. He muv~ from barrio
to banio and listened to the grievances of the common people. He
shared w ith lhcm his humble meals and projected himself as a friend
of the people. He became more popular with his slogan, "land fur
the landless."
To ensun! peaceful, cleJn and honest eledions thraus hout the
country; the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL) was
formally inaugurated i.n August 1951 with jaime Fel'l"l!r, as the
Director. Throughout the Philippi.n~s, :-.!AM I'RF.L chapters were
organized. Rallies were held and leaflets were distributed to urge
citizens to vote freely and~ vigilant against possible fraud . In the
1953 pccs idcntial elec1ions, the Liberal Party lost Nacionalisla Party's
bet Ramon Mag5a)=y won a d~..:isive victory over the incumbent
president.

3· Magsaysay Administration (1953·57)

On Deceml>er30, 1953, Ramon Magsay.~ay and Carlos P. Garcia
were inducted into office at the Luneta amidst a milllon ~pectators.
Both of them were dressed in />;~ rong tagalog. £residcn1-~S!l_Y
open~.d ~~~ S'!!£~_o.fJhe. ~I!C«~ang Palac~ to the ma sses. He tL~ed
an
"lf{e &isl; !lok.l nO drink, instead Of the cu:;tomary tore1gn liquor to
exchange toasts with foreign diplomats. He banned nepotism.
~ore~YI,!t; _tlq>.robil!ite:d .the o..uning of towns, pla~as. b.rkJ~ -~!!
~yeo!.U!S.aital:.AiR:I..- ·-
To implement Magsaysay's land reform, three lcgi~lalions were
made. 111J! Agricultural Tenancy Act of 1954 resulted to the shift of
share tenancy system to leasehold system. nus la w also provided
the reduction of land rental~ as well as the prohibition of ejection of
tenants t>xcept for just cause. The Court of Agrarian Relations was
also created to determine if th ere was a just cause in the ejection of
tenan t. The Land Refunn Act of 1955 was al<;a pMSed to improve
landlord·tcnant relations.
The Presidential Assistant for Community Development
(PACD) was also established to ensure rural development. The PACD
was created for increa!Sed productivity, building of feeder roads and
improve ment of govenunent services in the barrios in the field of
health and educi\tion.
Community roads and irrigation projects were expanded.
Agricultura l experl~ were sent to the barrios to instruct fanners in

258
 irnprovl;!d ;~gricultural production. Loans were extended to fanners
through the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing
Administration (ACCFA). Marketing associations, known as
Farmers Cooperative and Marketing Associations (FACOMAs) were
org<mized throughout the country. The lcgi~lation approved by the
Congress on August 11, 1955 empowered the I>residenl to break up
large landed estates. Lands were to be distributed to tenC~nt farmers.
Some public land:; were also distributed to qualified settlers.
During ~he first year of the administration 28,000 land patents,
covering 241,000 hectares were issued. The following year, the
number of land patents was increased to33,075. In 1955, the National
Resettlemenl and RP.hahilitation Administration (NARRA) resettled
wme 8,800 families in twenty-two settlement projects.
I!J_v_as_5!uring Mat;:~s~ty'~..!!!:Q} that Japan agreed to pay war_ _
a:para_tion:;brought about bv World Wcir II amoun!Ut~'$800'milli0n
to the Philippines over a 20-yea-r penOd. · · --
kfitigation of pea~ant U!'l.(est bec~~e the most !':lee;~~~
achicv~ent of the Magsaysay admini~trati~: Early in 1954,
President ~~~y__?.ecretly_s!_~nigno "N~()y" S. Aquin!J,Jr., .
<l journalist of the D11ily Mirror and known Filipino war corres·
~ent ii; Korea, to conter'With T~ruc. - ·
After four months !linegoli.<t.!i.ans.. 'Th.ru1: .an MaY- 17. 1954
~u~_1;onditiu_nally sum:ndered to~:. goverru:n.entand ~~~~o~ed
_f:hc ~~tl'ionty of Pres1dent Ma_!?.ays,ay. Taruc was tncd tn court and
sentenced to twelve years in Jall. Many of his rnen likewise
surrendered or were ar.rcsted, except Dr. Jesus L;~v a (later became
the chid of the Communi~t Party of the Philippin~~). who was
captured in May 1964 in a house on P. Lcondo St.. Manila. The back
of rc~llion fell int() government custody.
To counteract the commwtist activities in the Philippines and
the rest of neighboring countries in the Southeast Asian region the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organi7.ation (SEATO) w.:ts established in
Manila. On September 8, 1954, the SEATO, patterned after the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) wa>~ (ounded with the
following member-states: Australia, France, Great Britain, New
Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and the United States.
Senator Claro M. Recto had been lukewarm to the idea of
SEATO, for such organization might unnecessarily provoke liome
A>ian neighbors. He was also .lgainst the commitment of Filipino

259
troops in foreign wars particularly in Indochina. On th~Senate floor,
Recto mentioned that President Magsaysay had wmmilted tht-
Philippines in· excess of his cono;tilutional etuthority.
Recto opposed Magsaysay on several issues. This included the
Fo1eign Investment Bill, which allowed private U.S. investment in
the Philippines, labeling it as another American scheme to impede
the <ountry's ~conumic dt!vt!lopmenl.
Another issue thai Recto crilid:r.ed was about the signing of the
I.aurel-l..angley Agreement that took place on 0e<"ember 15, 1954,
signed by Senator Jose L.mrel and James Langley in WaMington
D.C. Th:i~ agreement provided for the gradual abolition of free trade
between the U.S. and the Philippines from January 1, 1956 to July 3,
1974. According to him, such agr'f;!cment wo\tld perpetu;~te the status
of the Philippines as an economic satellite.
R~do's Ri7.al Bill, which proposed lo make Ri:r.al's Noli Me
T.mgere and F./ Filibu~terisrtzo compulsory in all universities and
colleges was oppo~d in the Senate by DccorMo Rol';alcs, brother of
Archbishop Ro~alcs; Mariano Cucnco, brother of ArchbiMop
Cu1mco; and Francisco Rodrigo, former president of Catholic Action.
Their contention was that the measur~ would violate freedom of
consdcncc and religion.
On May 12, 1956 the controversial biiJ was finally approved by
a sub:;titute measure authored by Se11ator Laure-l and b<~sed'on the
proposals of ~nators Roseller T. Lim and Emmanuel 1-'elaez.lt was
now possible for sludents to be exempted from using the
unexpurgated edition of the Noli and Fili on grOlU\ds of rcligiou.~
beliefs. By virtue of Republic Act No. 1425, the Rizal Bill was signed
as ,, Jaw on August 26, 1956.
President Ma~aysay, who was hoping for redechon died in a
fatal airplane crash at Mt. Manunggal in Cebu on March 17, 1957.
The· next day, March 18':\ Vice-President Carlos P. Garda was
inducted into office to complete the la~t eight month~ of .M.agsaysay
in office.
In the preoidential elec:tions of l\'ovember 12, 1957, G;~rcia ran
lU\d~r th~ ::--Jadonalista Party with Jose Laurel, Jr. as his running mate.
jose Yulo and Congressman Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal
Party; \llanucl Manahan and Vicente Araneta of the l'mgressive
l'arty; and Senator Claro M. Recto and Lorenzo Tanada of the l.Apian!?
MaknbatiSII (1\ationali.st Citizens f'artv) ran for rr~sident and Vice·
!'resident rcsp<>ctivel y. '
260
 Tile eJection of 1957 was recorded in historv as one of the noisiest
ami most expensive. Garcia won his four-ye~f term as president,
but his Liberal Party rival deft>ated his running mate. Voters were
allowed to ~phi their votes for pre:>ident Md vice-president.

4· Garcia Administration (1957- 61)

On De~mber 30, 1957. President Carlos P. Garcia illld Vice-
President Diosdado M acapagal were inducted into office.
Underscoring the socioeconomic problems that confronted the
count')~ Presid~nt Garcia anchl)red his program of government in
austerity, which invok es templ'fare ~nding:. less imports and less
extravah-ant consumption.
Pre-sident Garcia ~xpressed him:oeU as against alien domination
in the national economy. On August28, 1958. the :"lational Economic
Council pas~d Resolution 1\'o. 204. officially promulgating the
filipino first policy of the administra tion. The resolution called for
the adoption of guidelines givi ng preferenti<JI treatment to Filipino
busincs.<;mcn.
Not surprisingly, Ga rciA's nationalistic policie5 caused
di-;approval from foreign busine~s quarter~. The American Chamber
of Commerce vehemently opposed the measure. A. V.ll.llartendorp,
editor of the American Chamber of Commerce Journal, mentioned
that the passagt:- of the NEC reRolution would willfully destroy
cxi~ting industry. '!b e Filipino Chamber of Commerce resigned from
the International Chamber of Commerce be~:ause of the latter's
opposition to the policy.
On 1\:ovemher 16. 1958, a coup d' etaI plan of a group of military
men was revealed by Bartolome Cabangbang, Congressman from
Garcia's home province of Bohol. According to Cabangbang, the
initial steps consisted of a propaganda campaign to brand Garcia as
a communist supporter and to build up Defense Secretary Jesus
Vargas.a!> the heroic defender of the Philippint> democracy in the
19.51. 1953, 1955 and 1957 el~tions.
Garda's administra tion was also criticized for graft and
com1plion. Cdbangbang claimed that the coup planners h.ld not gone
beyond the first stage of their schemes becau~ they could not get
the support of the armed forces.
As a result of the publications of Cabangbang' s revelations, a
libel so it was ftled against him by Colonel 1\'icanor Jimenez, one of

261
 those alleged to have been involved. Cabangbang won the case.
Secretary Vargils and the Chief of Staff, General Alfonso Arellano
later resigned.
Nevertheless, a ronsiderable nwnber of ilcromplishmcnt~ may
be attributed to the Garcia administration. There was the revival of
Filipino cuI tune. Filip ino folk dance groups like the Bayanlhan Dance
Troupe were encouraged. The government sponsored the annual
Republic Culhtral Heritage Awards for Filipino scientists, artists,
musicians, fiction writers, and historians. The Dr. jose Rizal
Centennial Commission was created to supervi!;e the compilation
of writings of Dr. Rizal. £ntematiooal goodwill by state visits to Japan,
the United States, South Vietnam and Malaysia were .Jiso made
stronger.
£n the presidential election of ~ovember 14, 1961, the results
showed lhat Garcia's zealous campaign had not garnered adequate
electoral support. Graft and corruption in the bureaucracy continued
to plague the so.:iety. The administration failed to stop inflation,
smuggling, and criminality. !'residenl Garcia lost his bid for
reelection . The Uber<ll Party once again mounted into power.

5· Macapap.IAdministration (1961-65)
On December30, 1961, Diosdodo Macapagal with his running
mate J::mmanuel Felaez were inducted into o(fice. In addressing the
Congress on january 22, 1962, President Mac~pagal targeted the
following area~ for hi~ admini~tration: Aelf-,;ufficiency in the staple
food of l:h~ people, conditions that will provide more income and a
well-fommlatcd sociocconomicprogr.1m. He promised to ~trcngthen
the sen$e of morality of government by instituting modes of reform
and set the example of honest and simple living.
On the eve of the turnover of Malacailang to him. Garcia
appointed more than 200 of his followers to some importanl posi!ions
in the government. One of Jhese was that of the Central Bank
Governor. It was given to former 5e('retary of Finan~ Dominador
Aytona by ou tgoing President Garcia. Macapagal appointed Andres
Castillo to the said po!!ition. Both appointees held offke at the same
building. On January 2, 1962, the Philippine Conslabulary Ranger~,
called in by Castillo through Defense Secretary Macario Peralta,
besiegt>d the building to throw out Aytona.
Aytona then filed with the Supreme Court an appeal for the
issuance of a writ of prohibition and mandamus with preliminary

262
 injunction to pull out Castillo from the. Central Bilnk Governor's
chair. The Supreme Court in its decision. upheld Castillo as the
legilima te Governor of the Central Bank.
When Macapagal occupied Malacanang, he vowed that hr
would root out graft and corruption in the government. lligh
government offiCials, from cabinet to congressman were constantly
the focus of public attention owing to rumors o f illega l transactions
involving mill ion of pesos.
On March 3, 1962, Secretary of Justice Jo,;e W. Diokno ordered
the National Bur~au of Inve~tigation (NBI) agents to r.1id the offices
of the Industxialand Busin~sManagem~mt Corporali()]'l on San Luis
Street (now Teodoro M. Kalaw St.). Arrested were Harry S. Stonehill
and his assodates John L. and Rob~rt P. Brooks. The NBI raided some
forty widely scal.'tered busines::; establhhrnents owned by Stonehill.
Seized during the raids were huge amount~ o( cash, Plectronic
devices, which included telephone-tapping instruments <HH.l
telt,phone-jamming device, and most importantly. the so-called RltN
Book, a small orange book containing the names of ptrsons in and
outside the gov~mment, who allegedly re<:eived vi\rioos soms from
St()]'leh.ill.
During the congressional inve..~tigat ion of thP. Stonehill case,
President Ma capagalorclered the immediatedeportalion ofStooehi lJ
and Robert 1'. Rrooks since their pw$•mcc con~;titutcs a mcna('e to
the welfare and sewrity of the country. The or<ier WilS severe ly
criticized by many. Senator Arturo M. Tolentino, cl Nacionalislil called
the presidential order a dangerous precedent.
Six months af!er his dcction, Prc!lid~nt Macupagal i~sucd an
executive order shifting l'hilippinc Independence Day fmm the
traditional July 4 to june 12, the day, when in U\98, Philippine
Independence was proclcl imed at Kawit, Ca,•iLe. july 4 was then
declared Philippine-American Friendship Oay.
In continuing his camp aign for na tiona lism, President
Macapa gal encour<~ged th e us~ of t he Filipino Lunguagc in
diplomatic passports, diplomaticcrcdcnti.lls,school diplomas, traffic
signs and stamps as well as naming of typhoons. rt wa s during his
term that the PhlHppines officially filed her claim over North Bomco
(Sabah) on June 22., 1962.
President ~1acapagal, who loved to call himself the "poor boy
from Lubao," saw the need of beneficial changes in the COWltryside.

263
On A\lf,\>St 8, 1963, Republic Act No. 3844 or the Agricultural Land
Rdorm Ctx.l~ was signed into a law after stormy debates in the
Congress. Und er the Code, share ten~ncy system in agriculture had
to be replaced wi th agricultural leasehold system. It provided for
the purch.:~sc of p rivate fa rmlands and di..~tribution of lots to landless
tenants on ea:o;y tcnns of payment. Experiment in lea.-rehold system
was conducted in twelve towns in Cent!ill J.u7.on, declared as land
reform areas by President Macapagal. Plaridel, Bulacan became the
first land reform area . The new system had reportedly improved
the living conditions in the land reform areas.
The President also sponsored notable projects like the
construction of the 1\:orlh and South Expre;sway, housing for soldi.cts
and government employees, beautification or Kl7.al Park and the
establishment o f the Philippine Veterans Bank.
In external affairs, the Philippines had been cu ltivating do~er
relations with Asian countries. President Macapagal proposed a
conference a mong the leaders of the Philippirles, Indonesia and
Ma laya. The conference held in Manila. from June 7 to 11. 1963
res ulted to a 16-point agreement known as the Mmrila Accord
app roved on July 31 and WliS signed by President Macapaga l,
Pre5ident Sukamo of Indonesia and Prime Ministt.r Tun ku Abdul
Rahman of the Federation of Malaya. Then on Au1,rt1St 6, the three
national leaders issued the Manila Declaration, wh:ich laid down
the principles that would direct their countries known as
MAPHILINOO (Malaya, Philippines, and Indonesia).
In p reparation for the creation of the Federation of Malaya,
which would include Malaya, Singaporc,S3bah (North Borneo) and
Sarawak, Presiden t Macapagal refused to recognize the
establishlnmt of Malaysia to force the latter to rllCOgni?.e the country's
territorial claim to Sabah.
In the 17"' century, Sa bah was given IIJ the Philippines as a part
of the agreement between the sultan of Sulu and sultan of Brunei
until it was leased in 1878 to British North Bomeo Company w hich
had no authority to besto"' Sabah to Malaysia. The contract of lease
of 1878 used the wOYd "padja,k" which means "lease" according to
Dutch, American and Spanish scholars. The Briti.~h had translated
it to "cession."
The Philippines, in an attempt to resolve the Sahah issue
5ugge~l"ed that the question be elevated to World Court for decision,

264
but the Malaysian leaders refused. On September 16, 1963, the
Philippines severed diplomatic ties with Malaysia. Malaysia d09ed
its embassy in Manila as well. MAPIIILINDO ceased to operate.
The President's intt>grity and impressive record of
acromplishmenls made it possible for him to lead his people and
with..;tand th~ pressing needs of the nation. Despite government's
concern to solve the problem of pt>ace and wder, graft and corruption
as well as inflation, lhe Nacionalista Party took advantage of public
displeasure on !lOme issues Iike the administration's dt>Control policy
which favored foreign investors and the floating rate- of the peso.
Instead ofP2 to $1, the pe.'\o devaluated to the dollar at a P3.90.
Many hopeful candidates exercised various politicalllche~
in upcoming elections. Senate President Ferdinand E. Marcos had
his film biography shown titlt!d lginulul ngTadhmra (Written by Fate).
lt did a lot to project a good image of the leading character in the
movie. People came to know the life story of Marcos.
Senate President ~arco.s was born in Sarrat, lloco.s Norte in
1917. While he was still a law student he was incrin'linated in a
politiciilly motivated murder. Released on bail, he graduated at the
University of the Philippines (U.P), topped the bar, appealed his own
case and won acquittal. During World War n, he served as an
intelligence officer of the liberation forces. In 1949 hewas elected to
the House of Representatives and to the Senate in 1959 under the
Liberal !'arty. In 1964 he joined the Nadonalista Party and became
the party's presidential bet. His wife Imelda and her circle of "Blue
Ladies" gave him full support. His popular maxim, "This nation
can be great again," won the heart~ of the Filipino people.
In the pre.sidt>ntial election of November 9, 1965, the Liberal
Party lost. The- 1\acionalista. Party once more became the party in
power. Marcos won a big majority.

6. MareosAdminfstratlon (1965-1986)
For more than 40 million Filipinos, what they wanted to see at
that time was whether or not the present government can provide
the- leadership neces~ary II.> !:e$lore peace and harmony in the society.
During the first term of his adminCitration (1965-1969), President
Ferdinand E. Marcos met the enormous task of restmcturing the
countty's social and economic conditions.
Prior to his term of office, the nation,ll treasury was primarily
empty due to heavy government spending. The government-owned

265
bankit~~!I, the Philippine National Bank (PNB) was nearly insolvent,
due to unpaid loans to goverrummt corporations, which amounted
to more than P400 million. P~!dent Marco~as ab~~ ~tahilb:.f
the gowmrn!!nt finances by means of cffe<tive collection of taxes
cond gettinglO'M\sTromforeign bank~ and governments. ~
To achieve self· sufficiency in rice and com, financial aid and
technological assistance were extended to farmers. More aid to
agriculture W<l.~ offered hy the government through the construction
of more irrigation systems, cultivation of a rice variety called IRS
belter known as Miracle Rice and other fast growing rice S<:Cd5. This
Mirac/~ Rice propelled the Green Revolution in rice production in
many Third World countries. ·
Building of more roads, bridges, schoolhouMs and otner
structures like thcCultuml Center of the Philippines (CCP) complex
in 1969, which coMist~ of a theater for the performing arts, mu.:;eum,
and an art library were likew~ dor\e to best serve the needs of a
growing population.
Vigorous campaign against smuggling, kidnapping, drug
trafficking and other crime ~yndi.cat~s was also given emphasis, !\ince
the peace and order situation was quite alarming owing to the rising
incidene of criminality.
~id development and economic l'rogress ..cha~:&:~i:.:e,S!
President Marcos' fi:ffit tenn. lri general, iJ1e people were satisfied
fix_ the J>~eni·s-perroriTiiiiiee;'"ffiUnesulltttg to t~~rnon in
1969. He was th~ only l'r~:;tdrnf of the l'hlltppmes to be reelected
for a second term. On December 30, 1969, he took his oath of offic.e
in the native language, the first ever for a Philippine president.
President Marcos also met opposing ''icws during hi~fil'st term
in office. The people were surpri<;.cd when he allowed the Philippines
to give military support to the United States in the Vtetnam War.
Late in 1964, when Marcos was still the Senate PresidE'IIt, h"' opposed
the bill providing for the sending of a military ~ngineering battalion
to Vi"'t;n.l.m. He made dear that the sending of Philippine combat
troops to war is unconstitutional. Based on the 1935 Philippine
Constitution, the country renounces war as an instmment of ni\tional
policy.
~.Jo less than 3,000 members of the youth sector demoru;I:Tated
on the first dav of the Manila Summit scheduled from October 24 to
25, 1966: They rallied n~;ar the American Embali~Y and the Manila

266
 Hotel, where(.;.~. President Lyndon B. Johnson was billeted. They
denount•ed the participation of the country in the Vietnam War as
well as t'Ond~I'IUU!d the abuses and brutality of the police who lost
their temper at the height of the political prote~t.
The police reacted by filing charges again~t forty-Qne students
for bre.1ch of peace .md assoul t. Presid ent Marcos ordered the
dropping of the charges against the st udents to pu t the situation in
orde r.
The Summit was held regarding the settlement of th~ war in
ViP.U1am. Delegates from the United States, Thailand, Australia,!\'~
Zealand, South Vietnam and South Korea were · invited. The
cuni~rencll resulted to the preparation of three documents: a joint
communique; a declaration of peace and progress in Asia and the
Pacific; .md the goals of freedom.
The joint communique pertained to the summary of the
discussions of the scv.m nations, with empha~i.~ on conditions in
South Vietnam, the ~rch for peace, economic stability and p rogress.
ll1e d eclaration of peace and progress included tht' following ideals:
that aggression must not sua~; that the bonds of poverty, illiteracy
and di:sea~~~ be brokom; that the economic, socia l, and cult ura l
cooperation within the Asian and Pacific region be strengthened;
and tha t the-re be reconciliation and peace throughou t Asia. The third
document, "The Coals of Freedom" contained a commitment to
achieve the idea ls contained in the second docu ment.
President Marcossucc€'eded.'in including In the commtmiqtn?
that aid to South Vi11tnam refer$ not to miJitary but economic and
social assistance. Any Philippine effort to increalie her aid to South
Vietnam s haU be subjected to constitutional and congressional ethics.
Be that as it may, Marcos was reelected for a second term. He
based his campaign on h is achievements w hich include the increase
of gross domestic product, expansion of infrastructure and the
breakthrough in rke production in which made u~ an exporter of
the p roduct.
With the- global economic crisi.~ brough t about by the rising oil
p rice, the Philippin e economy was adversely affec ted in the 1970s.
Aside hom l'('Onomic recession, ci v it unrest ca used by the ascendancy
of dirty po litics, graft illld corruption continued to afflict the nation.
There was also the upsurge of communism and subve rsion. Tite
increasing gap between the rich and the poor became more evident.

267
.The 1935 PhilippineCon.o;tilutinnwas seen by the Man;o:;~tlministmtion
as unable to cope w1th the new sociOf!COnomic p11>l>l~n1S of the country.
Due to the deplorable ccmditions of the country, stutl~nt
militarism became intense. Reali?ing thr. need for unification itrtd
the importM1CC of kno-...'ing the issues, student o~aninllions, l'QUtl(.i)s,
and fr,,tc:mltics were formed.
Among the militant groups were the:" Kaootan".'? l•,fakPbayau (KM)
and the National Union of Students of the Philippin~ (NIJ~ P).
Professors and other intellechtals played a major role in proviJi••g
support. Some had formed and headed their own org~ni7.ations ;md
provided some radical ideas through lecturE's, meetings, sympusia
,,nd cJ,~sroom discussion-~. /\side from thP.m, various li:lbor groups
closely associated themselves with student-movements.
In January 1970, President :vlarcos met NUS!' l'rcsid~nl Edgnr
"Edjop" Jopson of the Ateneo de Manila and other sludr.nt-leaders
~in a dialogue at Malacanang. This took place four days after 11 riot
took place following the State of the Nation Addrc!<.~ of Lhe !'reside-nt
on Janu.ll'y '!6.
These youth leaders we re calling for a nonpart isan
Constitu tiona l Convention. Thev wanted an assurance that th e
president would not run for a third tenn for this lS$anctioned by th~
present constitution. However, the dialogue ..,·as unproductive.
Anoth~r cun frontatiun occurred between riot police and about
2,000 d~on~trators outside the Palace. The demonstrators were
attempting to ram a fire tr\lck thrOugh Gate 4 of ~vfalacanang. This
is now known as the ''Battle of Mendiola." By d:.wn, six students
had already b~n killed. The press dubbed lhl!se events as the
beginning of the Firs/ Quarter Storm.
Protests and riots continued. After holdmg a People's Congress
in Pla7.a Miranda, around 3,000 youths and militant groups attacked
the U.S. embassy in Manila iJ'I Febmary. They were accu.~ing the
United States w ith being a fascist irnperi~list power supporting the
:vlarcos administration. Y<1rious schools i" M11rula ~came nurse ries
of student activism. ·
The following month, the Movement for a Ot>mocra tic
Philippines organi7.ed a l'eoplc's Ma rch, a 23-kilometer m<1rch from
Que.7.on City- Manila Rotonda along the streets of Manila and ~nding
at the PoM Office building (Plaza Lawton) in Manila. Thr. marchers
were prevented from entering the U.S. cmba,;~:•·

268
 By the eaiiy 1970s two separatl<t groups, the Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLFj and the .-ommun i~t NC'w People's Anny
(NPA) waged guerrilla warfare again•t the Marcos administration.
Nur Misu~ri, a. respected i.ntdlcch.tal and campus radical at the
University o f tht: Philippine~ (in thcrnid-1960s) fonnally established
the M:-JLF in an island off the coast of Perak, Malaysia in 1971.
Mu:ilim ~-..ssionist movement in :.iin<Llnao was gC~iiling groW\d.
Misuari was among the firs t group of 90 trainees who worked for
the independence of the Moro nation (Bangsa Moro). founded two
yean> th!!n'after was the !\,,tiona! Democratic Front (NOF), ~;erving
as tlwpoliticalarmof thcConununi5t Party of the l'hilippincs (CPP).
It was given th.e duty to make strategic alliance.~ with militant,
government, and other opposition groups. The NPA bC'came the
military force (Hukbo) of the CPP.
The pnlitical dis~m;ion re .. ched its peak l.n the so-call!!d "Pla7.a
Miranda Massacre" on the evening nf Augttst 21, 1971 during the
proclamation rally of th~ Ubera( !'arty (LP) candidates for the local
elections scheduled on Novt>mhrr 8, 1971.
Unidentified men nn the platform hurled two fragmentation
grenades and kille-d 8 persons and injured 120, including most of
the OJ?P?:Sition s~natorial candidate~. Among those injured werl!
Jovito Salonga. john O<;mcfta, Eddie llarde, Ramon Mitra. and Eva
Estrada Kalaw. (1ncCPP-l\PA W\derthedirP.Ctiono/ Jose Maria Sison
ad~~dc.s after that they had Glu5ed the bombing. Sison
had anticipated 'that the split ul political leadership in a rl!volutionary
sit'uation would lcJ.d to a conunu.nist takeover.)
!'resident Marcos blamed the communilits for the bombing
incidcnt.lJe vowed to irnpo!;c martial law if th~: communi~ I attacks
per5ist. On the same day, P~ident l'.fai'COS issued Proclamation No.
8!:!0, suspending th~ privilege of the writ of h11~s corpu.< Ln order to
maintain peac~ and order and preserve the authority of th~ State.
However on Janua ry 12, 1972, the President restored thi~
constitutional right, except for tho~ who were a lready in d etention.
Terrori~t bombings o f public and private ·property and
residi!Dces ensued. On ~pt~ber 11, two explrn;ions hi t the main
office of the Manila Electn c Company. Assa!ISI.nation attempts on
Pre~ident Marcos, Congressman Eduardo Cojuangco, Senator Jo5C
Rny and Defense s~ret;uy juan Ponce Enrile were aUeg~ly to be
carried out by the !'E'bel.~. These destabilization efforts would
ostensibly warrant the impo.~ition of martial law in the country.

269
 Senator Ninoy Aquino who became the most outspoken critic
of the M~rcos adminiqtration in various issues, mentioned in his
privileged speech, that sou~es in the Armed Fore~ had revealed to
rum plans for Oplon Sagittarius, which would plae<:! Manila and i~
environs utld~r martial l,lw. Soon this revel,ltion bec.ame a dismal
reality.
On Septemb~r23, 1972, at 7:.10 p.m., President Marcos appeared
on natioJ•wlde radio and telcvi~ion to formally announce that he
had placed t ht> entire Philippines under marti<tllaw as of 9 p .m. of
the previous day.
The implementation of m<trtiallaw in the country was pursuant
to Proclamation 1\'o. 1081, which he hild signed oo September 21,
1972. This l.lw was declared by the President "to save the Republic"
from lawlessness and civil ~trite. The con.~titution was suspended.
The Congress was dissol ved and President Marcos governed by
issuing presidential decrees, letters of instruction and other roles
deemed favorable lo the society.
Under martial law, President Marcos being the Chief Executive
had emergency powers. The President suspended the writ of halvJJ,<
corpus and curtailed the frf.'.edom of ~peedl. press and as.~mbly. He
also imposed strict implementation of curfew.
Political opponents 11nd detractors were arrested and detained.
Among them were Senators Ninoy Aquino, Jose Diokno and Ramon
Mitra, Teofislo Guingona, Jose Kollcdo, last> Mari· Velez (radio-
television commentator) and journalist Maximo Soliven.
Mass media were closed a11d placed under military control.
Some of them were late r permitted to reopen b u t under stric t
censorship. Even public utilities and industries were sei7.ed at~d
placed ~mder government control. These included the Manila F.ledric
Compat~y (Meralco). Philippine Long Distance Tel~hone Company,
and the Digan Integrated Stcel.\-lill.
Student demonstrations, public pol itical me~ lings and labor
strikes were ~trictly pruhibited. All school~ were dOo>etl for one week.
Curfew was imposed from midnight to 4 a.m. Travel ban w11s
imposed on Filipinos who wanted to go abroad, exci!pt on official
missions. The ban was lifted on August 22, 1977, together with the
cw(ew.
A forre of nearly 1,000 men attacked Marawi City on October
2 1, 1972. The assailants called themselves the Mindanao

270
Revolutionary Council for IndC"pcndence, led by a former police chief
of Marawi City. After the incident, Nur Misuari and his Bangsa Moro
Army (BMA) likewise initiated armed struggle in Sulu, Cotabato,
and Zamboanga.
Amidst confusion i.n the cmmtry, President Marcos outlined
his land reform program in accordan.c e to Presidential Decree No.
27. nus li\w provide5 that all tenants whose landlords own more
lb,m seven hectares of rice and com land~ are to be sold at a price
tw~rand·a·half times the average annual produchun. The eligible
tenant would receive a Certificate of Land Transfer (CLT) Identifying
his cultivated area and promising him the right to purchase tht- land .
President tvfarcoo took forceful steps agaiJist the heigh tening
illegal drug trade. On January 3, 1973, he ordered the inunediate
execution of Lim Sengby firizlg squad for drug trafficking. The highly
publkized execution. shown on national televiRion was meant to
~ervc as a warning for drug dealers.
A new constitution was promulgated. The 1973 Constitution
established a modified parliamentaryform ofgovernment with the Prime
Mini~ter as the head of the government and the President as
ceremonial head of state. Both were to be elected by the unicameral
National Assembly.
In the plebi.5eite of January 10-15,1973, the citizen assemblies.
composed of voters (including the 15-year old.~) were reported to
have ratified thto constitution by 95% po:~itive majority, in open and
group voting by raising their hands .. (The ass~rnbly could declare a
quorum with 20 percent attendance.) At noon of January 17, 1973,
President Marco;; signed the constitution and thus such body of laws
was put into effect.
Mr. Marcos ruled as President and Prime Minister under martial
law powers until1981. The transitory provision.~ of the constitution
legal~d all decrees, proclamations and o:rders of the President, and
extended his term of office beyond 1973.
President Marco~ s ought popul ar sanct ion of his acts by
r~ferendums. A referendum held onJuly27·28, 1973, asked the people
to decide whether they wanted President Marcos to continue beyond.
1973. According to the official results. 90% of the voters voted yes.
President Marcos, moreover, continued exercising his emergency
power.:; under martial law as approved by 92% voters in a third
referendum held on February 27-28, 197.'5.

271
 Aside &om saving the Republic, President Marcos aimed to
fonn the New Society. His proposed refo= for the building of this
New Society are based on the acronym PLF.DGES.
.1:' Peace and Order
L Land Reform
E Economic Development
D Development of Moral ValueR
G Government Reforms
E Educational Reforms
S Social Services
To check the abu<;eS ol the m ilitary men, President Marro...;
established the military tribuna Is to try military officers and men
who commit crimes.
T he citi:r.en assemblies used to ratify the mnstihttion and
amendments subsequently became the barangays. The Kabataang
BarilJ\gay (Youth Council) was later added at local, provincia l and
nation al level~ of government, headed b~· lmec Marcos, the
pres ident's eldest daughter. At the end of 1975, the Sangguniang
Bayan was created in every tow n council. The National Legislative
Advisory Council (&ta.sang Sayan) was Cf<'ated in September 1976.
Be lore condncting the fust national election under Martial Law,
President Marcos implemented a new Election Code of 1978. Marcos
formed the Kilu.sang flagong Lipunan (KBL or New Society
Movement) which fielded candidate& in all regions. headed by Mrs.
Imelda Romualdcz Marcos in Metro Manila.
The opposition parties of the past, such as the Uberal Party
boycotted the ele<:tions. However, takas ng Bayan.(Laban or People's.
Power) led by former Sena tor Benigno Aquino Jr. bec~me the
p rincipal con tending party of th~ KBLfor the national elections. This
ele<:tion b rought about a landslide victory for the KBL.
In 1975, the Metro Manila Commission was organized through
Presidential Decree No. 824 to supervise community development
and services in the 1\'ational Capital Region. lis first governor was
Mrs. Marcos, the First Lildy.
Mrs. Marcos sought for the cons tntction of edifices for the
Filipino people. In 1975, the Manila Planetarium, a dome-shaped
structure was inaugura ted. It was primarily built for students to
ponder on lessons about celestial bodies while seated.

272
 The Philippine International Convention Center {l'lCC) w as
m ad e operational in 1976. The structure was regarded as Lhe most
m odem in:ititution m As1a on world conferences and meetings.
To provide low-<OS1 shelter facilities to Uiban families, the BLISS
p rogram (Bagong I .ipunan Impro•·crncnt of Sites and Services) was
established on Jum- 11, 197!1.
Jn 1976, Pre~ident Marcos disclosed to the public rel:arding the
cotmtry's policy of c5t.lblishing relations with communi~t co untries
such as the People's Republic o f China Uune 9, 1975) and the Soviet
Union Qune 2, 1976).
Relations w ith the t:nited States continued, this timcwithoomc
amendments to the RI'-U.S. Military Sa..~ Agreement in 1947, where
the U.S. acknowledged the sov~reignty of the "Ph ilippines over the
American military bases. The contract also provided that the U.S.
would p ay rentals to the Philippines for the lL'lC of the bases.
ln 1979, through th e joint coopcr.ltion of the Phil ippine
go-vernment and the United :\a tirm5 High Commission of Refugees
(UNC R), the Philippine Refugee Processing Center (PRPC) was
established in Morong, Bataan for the w ar refuge~ from Vietnam,
Kampuchea and Laos. In 1980, the light Rail Transit Authnrlly was
orpni.zed to construct the first light railway transit (I.RT) sys~m in
the country. This was to case the problem of traffic ~ nd con~estion
from Monum~.nto to Badara n.
Several opposit ion groups inclu d ing the church hier archy
sought for the end of martial Ia w. l:rbcm insurgents carril!d out series
of bombings in Manila in dd iam·e to military mlc.
Finally on January 17, 1981, President M a rcos s igned
Proclamation :'Jo. 2045 ending martial law in the country. Changes
in 1981 gave birth to the "New Republic" historically spl!aking, the
Fourth Philippine Republic.
On run~ 16, 1981, the first presid~ntial election after the lifting
of m a rtia l law was held . Presid ent Ma rcos (I< Ill. p res idential
cand idatt.-) w on a n ew six·y ~a r term, He p revail ed over other
cand idat~s-.Aiejo Santos of Nadonalista Party and Ba rto lome
Cabangb<lng of the Federal Party. Santos was a former guerrilla leader
and defense secretary while Cabangbang was then the l'residcnt of
the Statehood USA m ovement.
Op position to t he Marcos adm inistr ation persisted as the
conditions d uring the martial law ensued. Protestations again5t the

'273
administra tion continu~d to b~ restricted under the provision• of
the !'residential C ommitment Order (PCO) and arrest anti seizure
,·llhout wa rrant orders (ASSO). These laws allowed th~ p re:sident
tu order the detel\tion of anyone suspected of s ubversion or rt>bellioo.
Aft~r a three-year exile in the t:nited States, former Senator
:'\linoy Aquino, the leading oppositior' spokesman, returned v ia
China Airlines (CAL) on Augu..'•t 21, 1983 at around 'I :00 p.m. When
he decided to come be~ck in 1983. the government tried to ~lop him,
noting that some people want~d to !<ill him. Yet he wa,; ablE' to fly
back to the Philippines.
Ninoy Aquino, born in 19.32 entered politics at the age of 22
and became the youngest mayor, then governor and finally a senator
of the Philippines. lle was married tn Corazon Cojuangco in 1954.
Hewas imprisoned in 1972 after martial Jaw was declared. I !e spent
nearly eigh t years in a military detention Ct'll a t rort Bonifacio.
President Marcos allowt'd him to l~ave the country in 19!l0 and to
move his family to th~ UnitOO. States to undergo a heart hYJ>IlSS sucgery.
Upon Aquino's arrival at the Manila International Airport, he
was shot dead while going down the plane. He wa:; in the custody
of th~ guards from the Aviation Security CommC~nd (AVSECOM).
Government reports placed th e blame on Rolando Galma n, the
alleged lone gunman. They laid th~ body of the assassin ncar Aquino
on the airport tarmac.
The assassination led t he country into the forefront of
international news. T housands o f !'ilipinos s yrnpath i:>:ed with
Aqu ino's bereaved family. Many join(•d hi5 funera l march. His
assassinatioo was reported to have instigated the Filipinos to fight
the evils of dictatorship.
The battlecry •Ninoy. hindi Ira nag·iisa" and oth<!r simila r slogans
were heard in various demon.~ITation..<: tha t had erupted in .Metro
Manil.:1 and other areas in the country. Many militant and cause-
oriented groups were org6ni7.ed. They called for an end to Marcos
reglme. These groups indutied the following: August Twenty-One
Movement (ATOM). Justice foe Aquino, Justice for All UAJA), and
Bagong 11/yansl!ng Makalmyan (BAYAN).
The opposition members of the Batasan took th e step in filing a
case for the impeachment of the President for gra ft anti corruption,
culpable violence of the Constitution, gross violation of his oath of
office, and other high crimes. On August 13, 1985. the impeachment
274
 signatories filed the resolution . On the same date, the pre-
government KBL, with the majority vote of 105 (over 55 oppo~ition
members) decided to reject the resolution to impeach the President.
Investigation of Aquino's death and that of his alleged killer,
was assigned to a five-man independent body created pul!>'Uant to
Presidential Oecrt'e 1\"o. 1886 issued by President Marroson October
14, 1983. The body known ;~s Agrava Fa ct-finding Board (AFFB)
was headed by Mrs. Corat.on Juliano Agrava, a retired C<JUrt of
App~als Justice. The four other members were J?u.sinessmao Dante
Santos, labor leader limes to Ilerrera, lawyer Luciano Salazar, and
educator Amado Dizon.
After almost two years of investiga tion, AFFB submitted two
reports to Pre~i<.lent Marco~ the Minority and Majority Reporlll. The
:\iinority Report, written by the Chairman alone, submitted on
October 23, 1984. stated that th!.' Aquino Murder was a military
conspiracy. It implicated tha t only Brig. Gen. Luther Custod io
(commander of the AVSECOM) and six other soldiers. Chairman
Agrava cleared Geneml Fabian Ver and Major General Prospero
Olivas of the crime.
The Majority Report signed by all the fourmt'mbers of the board
confirmed that Aquino's murder wa~ a military conspiracy with ;~
soldier as an assas!tin but it implicated 26 men in the crime, including
General Yer, Maj. Gen. Olivas, Brig. Gen. Custodio and others.
President Marcos referred the two reports lo the Sandiganbayan
for trial of the 26 accused people (iJICluding one civilian). The trial
of the Aqu.ino-Galman double murder case, known as the "Trial of
the Century.'' began in February 1985 and Jasted for seven months.
On December 2, 1'185, the thret>·member Sandiganbayan presided
over by Justice fl,fanuel Parruuan, releMed its verdict unanimously
acquit tin g all the 26 accused. The people were 5keptical on the
outcome of the prosee1.1tion.
ln 1985, the Philippine political and economic scenario
worsened. "Then~ was a slow down of economic activities largely
brought about by t:rn- increase of oil p rice in the world market. In
contrast, the country's traditional exports ~uch as sugar and coconut
oil were experiencing price decline. The government's recovery
scheme, which started in 1984 through SMiling Sikap livelihood
program suffered a setback due to graft and corruption in the
bureau<racy. foreign investors were apprehensive to cxp•nd
resources beca use of political instability. Furthermore, the anti·
Marcos demonstrations affected th~ tourism industry.

275
 To have enough supply of foreign e><change and to restructure
the country':; foreign dcbll;, Fresident 11an:os negotiated with foreign
creditors which include the World Bank, Intcm,\tional Bank for
Recon:;truction and Development. and the mtemational Monetary
Fund (IMFJ. The country's foreign debt has reached $26 billion.
The country's foreign creditors pressured President Marcos to
institute rdonns as a condition for the grant of additional economic
and financial help. Since the President needed a new mandate from
the people to carry out a national economic recovery program, the
Batasang Parnbansa enacted a Jaw scheduling a speci!'l presidential
election on February 7,1986. 1hiswas to prove that 1\fr. :Marcos was
still in conl.rol of the situation.
There were several opposition leaders who would like to run
ior presidency and one of them was former Senator Salvador "Doy"
Laurel, son of th<.> late Presidtmt Jose P. Laurel who was nominated
in June 1985 by th~ United Nationalist Democratic Organization
(UNIDO).
Majority of the opposition and other anti-Marcos groups
proposed Mrs. Cora7.on "Cory" Aquino, wife of the 15lain oppositon
leader, be the p:resid<.>ntial standard bearer. Mrs. Aquino agreed to
run if at least one milllion people would sign a petition urging her
to run for that position. Joaquin "Chino" Rocc~;, who organized.thc
Cory Aquino for Presid~nt Movement (CAI'M). was able to obtain
more than a million signatures nationwide.
The snap presidential election of February 7, 1986, witnessed
for the fu~t time, a woman candidate under thto jQint UNIDO-PDP·
Laban Party (United Nationalist Dt!mocratkOrganization·People's
Democratic Party-Lakas ng Bayan). Doy LaureL upon the advice of
Archbhihop Jaime Cardinal Sin decided to sacrifice his presidential
ambition for the sake of a united opposition. He became the vice-
presidential candidate.
In the official tallies made by the Commission on Elections
(COMELEC), as certified by lhe Hatasang Pambansa, the Ma:n;os-
Tolentino ticket won. But as tabulated by the National Movement
for Free Elections (t<:amfrel), with their Operation Quick·Count,
Aquino and Laurel had a margin of around 800,000 votes to win
against the KBL candidates.
There wert reports of fraud, ballot box snatching, vote buying,
and intimidation durin~ the snap elections. Thirty comput~ workers

276
walkro out of the COMELF.C tabul.ltioo center al the Philippine
lnt~roationnl Conven tion Center (PlCC), protesting that the results
w ere hcing manipulated.
On February l .i, 1986. the Catholic: llishops' Conferenre of the
Philippines issued a pastoralldtertohc read in all Catholicdmrches,
saying that the government had lost its moral ba:;is due to pieces of
evidence of electoral fraud.
The following day, Cory Aquino lro a rally called Tn[!,'1mtpily ng
Baym1 (Victory of the l'eoplc) at the Lvneta Grandstand. Over 2
m illion people attended the asseml>IJ: She prodai.rru>d a vktnry for
thP. people de~pite t he proclamation of Marcos as the winner. She
vowed to lead a civil disobf:.'dience campaign against Marcos. She
also allowed the boycott of cnmy-Qwncd companies and products.
She p resented an initialli~t o f ('rony cnterp ri~es that would be the
target of consumer boycotts. These included the three major
new~paper.o:, the San Miguel commercial empire (which was then
controlled by Edua rdo Cojuangco, her cousin but a strong Marcos
~upporler) and a number of banks r~:portF.dly managed by Marcos
cronie.c;.
While the anti-M;m:o:; St'll timcnt in the country was becoming
more intenst', a group of young officers in th,e Armed Forces of the
Phi.lippine~ (AFP) was planning to overthrow the Marcos
dictatorship. Th~ group wa~ known as Reform the AFP Movement
(RAM). This movement started in March 1985.
This gruup of officers who graduated from the Philippine
Milita ry Academy w.mted the restoration of profcssional~m in the
military and to regain it:; hor~or and pride. Mir~iMerof Defense Juan
Ponce Enrile secretly sympathized with the RAM. The RAM soldiers
were also known as reformists.
Colonel Gregorio "Gringo" Hon:~san, chief security officer vi
Enrile, together with the reformist~ decided to stage a coup d' eta!
after President Marcos and A FP Chief of Staff Fabian C. Ver faltered
to consider RAM's pleadings. Non~theless, the President d~covered
the coup plot. Many vf the reformists w ere ar rested.
Consequently, the RA~1 soldi~s 5ought rduge at the Minis try
of :'llational Defense building at C11mp Aguina ldo in Q uezon C ity.
General Fidel V. Ramos, the AFJ> vice-chief of $tdif and Philippine
Constabulary Chief, sided with the refo rmists. He took control or
the Philippine I leadquarters at Camp Crame, lcx·oted ncroos Epifanio
de los Santos Avenue (HDSA) from C<tmp Aguinaldo.

277
 On February22, 1986, at 6 p .m., Minister Juan Pon<"e Enrile and
D<?puty Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. Fidel Ramos, gave a press conference
an.rooundng their withdrawal of s upport for the President. MiniSter
Enri lc admitted that it was Mr;. Aquino who won the elections.
Marcos had won through fraud. He called on Marcos to step uQWl"l
from his office. He also asked the people to support the military
defectors. Imm ediately, Jaime Cilrdinal Sin through the Radio
Veritas, appealed for public support.
Thousan ds of people went to Epifanio de los Santos Avenue
(EDSA) to form a human barricade. On February 23, the Marcos
loyalist troops under General Ver p repared to attack. At about 8 p.m.,
of the same d ay, armored tanks and carriers under the command of
Brig. Gen. A rtcmio Tadiar, arrived at f.OSA in front of Camp Cr.lme
to .1S5ault the camp.
The soldiers were not able to carry out the plan because of the
people blocking the way. Guns and tanks were met with rosa des,
flowers, S<lndw•ches and e''en hot coffee frum demonstrators.
At dav.'n, marines captured the Logi~lics Command inside
Camp Aguinaldo. The 15'11 Air Force Strike Wing with seven
helicopter gunships led by Colonel Antonio Sotelo decided to defect
to the rebels' side. Reformist soldiers led by Colonel Mariano
San tiago took ov~r Channel 4, the government tdevislon ~tation.
At Villamo r Air llase, rebel h elicopters had already assaulted.
Malacanang was being fired upon.
Mr. Marcos. by that time was advised by U.S. SeJllltor Paul
Laxalt to "cut now and cut cleanly" meaning tha t, h~ shouW now
step down and leave. Senator Laxalt, a dos~ confidan te of U.S.
l'rE.'Sident Ronald Reagan, was called up by Marcos earlier that day
to get an indica lion ot mood in Wa.:lhington. President Ronald Reagan
was said to h<we offered political asylum in tl>e L'nited States.
On the morning of February 25, Ferdinand Marcos took his oath
of office at the :vtalacafiang Palace grounds. Befo re the end of the
ceremoni es, some television channels went off t he air after the rebels
destroyed their transmission lines. By 9:00 p.m., of the sam~ day,
Marcos and his family and some friend~ fled Malao:ailang Palace
a nd were taken by four U. S. helicopters to Clark Air Ba s~ in
Pampangot, then to Guam and finally to Honolulu, Hawaii by U.S.
military pJ,1nes.
Within minutes after the Marcoses had fl~d, the palace gttards
left the ir posts. The people in front of the Palace gate ~tormcd into

278
lh<! bui.lding . M.my Filipinos rell.'brated the d ownfall of despotism
after the four-d~y T'eoplt- Power :vlovcmenl that prompted !'resident
Marcos to seck refuge in Amerka. (Mr. Marc::os died on &>ptcmbcr
28. 1989 in Honolulu. I lis body was returned to the Philippines in
1992.)

7· Aquino Administration (1986- l992)

On February 25, 1986. M!s. Corazon C. Aquino took her oa th
of office at Club filipino in San )u~n, Metro Manilil simultaneous
with the oath-taking ceremonies taking place at th~ Malacai'lang
Pal ace for Mr. Marcos . After the Marcoscs had left the p 11lace,
Frc~idcnt Aquino immediately workd for.the reorgan ization of the
government. At the onset of her administration, she formed a
provisional government, restored the freed urn of speech and pres~,
relealled politica l det.1inees, dis.~olvcd the· Batasa ng l'ambansa,
appointed new Supreme Court ju~liccs and ordered the resignation
of incumbent government officials. She established the Presidential
Commission on Government Reorgani7.a tion (PCGR) undt'r Luis
Villafuerte. The t>:residential Commission on Human RJghts (PCHR}
was a lso created undt"T the leadership of former Senator Jo~e W.
Diokno.
On May 5, 1987, the Corrunisslon on Human Righ ts replaced
the PCHR pur.<>uant to Executive Order No.163. A~idc from its
primo rdial tas k to investigate cases of human rights violations
committed during the previous adminis1ration, the Human Rights
Commission has the power to examine the adminis tration and
conditions of jails, prisons or detention l~dlitics. The commission
!ihall also inves tjgate the violations committed by the p r.,sent
government, a s well as p rivate parties.
The Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG)
WclS also created to nocover the ill-gotten wea lth taken by corrupt
government officials. Th is was ch aired by former Scn.1 tor Jovi to
Salonga.
The Constitutional Commission, pursuant to Article V of
Procla mation No. 3 (issued on March 25, 1986) was ass•gned to draft
the 1987 Philipp ine Cons titution. With 48 me mbers. under the
chai.rmanship of Justice Cecilia Muiioz-Palma, the Constitutional
Com mission convened on June 2, 1986 a t the Batasang Pamb ansa
Building in Diliman.. Quezon City.

279
 The prop05ed con.~titutian was approved by the Constitutional
Commission on the night of October 12. 1986, by a vote of 44-2.
Deleg3te Decoroso Rosales ~igned sub~quently by affixing his
thuml>-markat his sickbed on October 14,1986, in favor of the draft.
IJelegatt! Uno Brocka had resigned earlier.
The plebiscite held on February 2, 1987 led to the ratification of
the propo~d constitution after the people voted in favor of it. This
body of laws superst!ded the Freedom Constitution, which had
repealt'd !he 1973Charterofthe Marcos regime. Th.e 1987 Philippine
Constitution included a provision limiting the presidency to a single
six·ynr term.
On May 11, 1987, the fir~t election W1der the new Constitution
took place. It was /or the Members o£ the Congres:i. The election of
all members of the cily or municipal council wa~ held subsequently
to that of the Congress. The barangay elections were held on M11rch
28,1989.
To improve the living standards in the rural areas, President
Aquino launched the Community and Employment an d
D~vtllopment Program (CEDP). Infrastructure projects as wcU as job
opportunities were made possible through tl\is program.
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) pur.;uant
to Rep\•blic Act No. 6657 was implemented on June 10, 1988. '!his
was d~igned to include aU agricultu ral lands not only to lands
devoted to rkc and com. This law instituted the Comprehcn.~ive
Ab"Ta rian Reform Program (CARP) to promote justice 11 nd
industri~lization.
From 1988-1989, the Program for Decentralized Educa tional
Development (PRODEO) was instituted in all p uboc elementary
schools to enhance the quality .standard of C!ducation in the said level.
In secondary education, the Secondary Education Development
Program (SEDP) was likewise adopted.
The launching of a five-year program by the Department of
Tourism (DOT) known as ''Philippines: Fiesta Islands of A~ia"
improved the tourism industry. Festive celebrations were made in
different parts of the archipelago to attract mare loumts and generate
incotru! not only lor the town/ol.ks but for the government as well.
Tht> Aquino administra lion intensified the privatization of the
business sector. The 1987 Constitution does not favor an economy
man.aged or controlled by the state. Regarding the justice system,

280
 death p E'lla lty was abol~ne'd to g ive the criminab a chance to
rehabilitate. Fo r cap ital off~s, the penalty imposed was reclu.~ ion
perpelw1 or life imprisonment.
In 1988, !>resident Aqumo made foreign trips to strength en
friend ly rela tions wit h o the r co on l rie!l which inclu d e Chin a,
Switzerland, Italy, Hong Kong and Vietnam.
On September 13 of the s~one year, President Aquino .Gigncd
Republic" Act (RA) t-:o. 6675 known as the Generic Act. It prov ided
for the prescription and production oi drug!~ and med icines identified
by their gen~tic names to promote drug safety and ensure the
adequate supply of d n.tgs at the lowest p rice. The Department of
Health pursu~ nt to r.xec utive O rder No. 119 adop ted the u se or
gene rics. Conununity Hea lth S~rvice was also establish(?d in every
loc~Iity to promote th~ phy~ical s tate of ey ery community.

Despite th~ government's po pular support, opposition wi thin

the military a!> well as Communist insur~;ency continued. Slow puce
of economic d evelopment in the countzy aroused discontent. In
Decem ber 1989, a cou p attempt was staged against the Aquino
adminir<tration. The U.S. Ai r Force jets assisted the Ph ilippine
govemment forces in suppressing the mutiny.
In I:>eccmber 1990, 16 military men were convicted in the
Aquino-Galman double mu rder ca~e. 1[owever, the ma~termind of
tlu~ mil itary conspiracy wc1s still unascertained. The is~uc was
reop ened and investigated after \he Sup reme Court had declared a
mistrial of the rnsc .
It was al~o d uring the Aqui no adminis tration thot the review
of the Military Bases Agreement (MBA) between the U.S. and the
Ph il ippines took plare. Thi> review was reported to h ave led to an
agree ment increas ing to $1 .2 bill ion, th e tota l amount o f U.S.
economic and rnilit11ry aid to the Philippines during the last two
years of the RP-US Military Bases Agreement.
On Sep tember 16, 1991, the Ph ili pp ine Sena te, by a vote of 12-
11, n'jected the RP-US Trea ty of Friendship, Coop<:'ration and Security,
which will take the place of the RP-L"S Military Bases A!;,'Teement
upon its expiration. The e leven votes in favor of the trea ty 's
ratifica tion wert below the two-thlrd votes needed to ratify a trea ty,
as prescribed by the Cons titution.
Those who voted for the l"l!tention of these bases were Senators
Ilehe rscm Alvarez, Edgardo Angara, 1\:eptali Gonzales, Ern esto

281
Herrera, Joey Lina, John Osmena, Vicente Paterno, San tan ina Rasul,
Alberto Romulo. Leticia Shahani and Mamintal Tamano.
Tho~ who voted Hno" to basel: were Senators Jovita Salonga
Juan Ponce F.nrile, Agapito Aquino, Joseph Estrada, Teofisto
Guingona, Sotero Laurel, Ernesto Maceda, Orlando Merrado,
Aquilino Pim£-ntel, Rene Saguisag. Wigberto Tai\adll, and Victor Ziga.
The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, which spewed lahar to nearby
pmvinc~:s in Luzon affected the po.<;sihle extension of the bases
agreement With the Clark Air Base in Pampmga covered with heavy
tons of volcanic t~shes, the U.S. government decided to move its
servicemen and their families ou t of the country. Not far from Clark
Air Base, the Subic Bay .\laval station was also closed in 1'192.
The series of volcanit'~ruptions caused by Mount Pinatubo took
place from July 12 to 15, 19\11. Its a~hfaUs reached as far as Metro
Manila, Mind oro and Pala wiU\ to the South and Cambod ia to the
east. Considered as the world's worst volcanic eruption in the 20"'
century, the Mt. Pinatubo eruption has caused great loss of lives and
properties.
lhc country was once again visited by an environmental disaster
aftt>r it had a dreadful one a year earlier, which took place on July
16,1990 at 4:26 in the afternoon (DST), w here two ~trong e.uthquake.~
struck tuzon.
Typhoons and floods had caused the wear and tear of many
roads and highways. Due to deforestation and illegal logging
practices, which had ~tarted in the past admini:;trations, even mild
typhoons caused some flash floods and devastation such as typhoon
ul.'ring" in Ormoc, Leyte an Jl.:ovember 5, 1991.
The Philippines likcwio;e suffered economic losses from El Nii\o
in 1990 - 1992, P4.1 B ($158 :..1) in dama~ was recorded m ostly in
agriculture. A~ expected, the El Nino phenomenon extended a long
dry SJ)t'll which has resulted in the drying up of water sources,
reduction of water s-upply, the consequent damage to livestock and
agricultural crops nationwide and the rise of various diseaS@s
agg•avatcd by the long drought.
In the midst of the::;e natural disasters, the government
managed to mobilize its regional, provincial, urban and municipal
sub·unil~ to conrdin~te operations in badly affected areas.

282
 8. ll:Jmos Adminis tration (II;I':J2 - 1998)
Pre~idcnt CorJ 7.0!l Aquino. prohibited by the Constitu tion to
run for <l se<:ond term, eodo~~d Dt>fensc Minister Fidel V. Ramos in
the 1992 presidentiai P.lcctions. R;~mos won under a new politic;al
party, the Ptlrfi.Io L1kils ·r.w, ba.<;cd on hi:; long-hdd political doctrine
of people empowerment. Many of its members called themselve..~
nun-traditional politicians like their le ad er. Elected Vice-Preside nt
was former movie star, San juan M.tyor anc:lscn,,tor, joseph " Erap''
Estrada. '
Upon his assumption of offic.!, he worked on an Agenda for
Re forms to ma ke the Philippines a New Indt>SIYillli:ted Coun try (NIC)
by the year 2000. five days after l'm;ident Ramo~ assumed office.
he announced the creation of a "Malaou'\~ng of the South," to "bring
l\.falacanang closer to the people."
·At the onset, PrE'.~ident Ramo~ had encountered p roblems
which, were remnants of the previous tv-·o administr;>>i0ns and these
were as follows: mass poverty, ;~iling e<:onomy, power crisis. high
crime rate, graft and corruption, ~ovironmcntal problem~ and
insurgency. These difficulties triggen.'lj !_'resi,Pel')l~mos ~ formulate
his a~nda for reforms to achieve progr ess an d stabilitv. To scnlre ··
the economy.J'i~si~~nt ·i~am~s order~a ..t_Ei.c i.lE~ant~ ing of_
monopq.]l~ and c.ute1s; Legislative measurE's were abo app roved
to incr~ase domes tic and for11ign investments, impW\i~< hu m an
rcsoun=es an d enhdn<:e the conn try's links w ith other nations in the
g lobal econom y.
In 1992, around 781,000 new jobs became available in Lhc
co~~ rTI!j"Thenillonanwmr,Toyrrtenrrat(.' from !fa percei>i il'fl996
was reduCPCI tn 8.4 pcrcent as of 1997. i'rom 1992 to 1997, the country's
per capita income increased from$800 to $ 1,2-'<1:.9Yerseas Fi~ip_~~
Workers {OFWs) were ~bl<?. to rcre1v~ protection wi th the enas:bnent
-of t!-i~J91l~orJ<ers ActH~f }995. Te~ ·additiona"f lab~r at~chc;
'W;rE' deployed in coMtrieswhere ,r,erc arc large Clmcentrations of
OF\'\Is.
On July 8, 1992, Prcs(.dfnt Ramo~ created the P@ idential Anti-
_9:!!lle Commission (PACC) and appointed the Yice:~t as its -
head~ After a year Oi"i'tS operations, the PACC had encountered
-various crime synd icates, a rresting over 150 of their suspe<:tcd
members and forcing 58 others Lo voluntarily surrender.

283
 On hc<~lth ca re se.rvices. the government pu rsl!ed ~y~ntiv~
Jlea~th-~_:!"r~~ p~~ograms, which have gainP.d~pular re£9_8nition,
D~livcry o ( n\ec1ical servtces toaislan t are~s was made possible
through the •·doctors to the barrio progran\. " The average life
expectancy gained a new ceiling from 67.5 years in 1992 lo 69.1 years
in 1995. •
While the Ramos adminis tration has ~en pro moting artificial
mcthods of birth control, th e Catholic C'.hu rch continues to promote
abstinen<.:e or natural birth control m'd hods among couples. The
Catholic Bishops' Confcocnct' of the Philippines (CBCP) in a pastoral
letter read in churches nal iunwide said tha t the govemm~nt's birth
control program would d<!stroy family ti($, lt also virtually endorses
abortion.
pe~~nt R.lmos !a.~ch~_ti')~_SQ.Q.41Jkfgr!!! ~-~end~ (SRA)
on June 17;199:J. " to nclp th~ poo~st of the poor help themselves~"
1Wenty·pro\'iiice~Tmm llle niust d~>ressed ,,,tcgoryn;w~ b een t1w
beneficia ric~ of poverty -alleviation measures tha t include housing
projects, agrarian n;form p rograms, employm ent opportunities and
health c.~r~ initiatives.
1 he Smokey Mountain, onc.e the ct>nter of abject poverty. was
transformed into a model, af£ordable and clean arc.1 for n;sidential
and corrunerci.1 l puo-poses. In terms of public infr11slructure, from
1992 to ] 998, lh" government has complctP.d the construction and
upgrading (I( 36))50 !Olomctcrs o f mads ~nd 45,464lilleal meters of
bridges .
The Philippin<' >Jationa l Railways. (rNR) main south line
(Aibay) was rehabilitated . It used to be nonopcrational since 1986.
The Pasig River Ferry servic~ was also rev ived to promote the use of
inland waterways as an alternative means of transport .
In :'vfctrn Manila, more infrastructurP. '"ere also b~ilt - the
circumferentia l road known as C-5, twomon; Light Rail Transit (LRT)
~ystems. the Manil.l Skyw.<y,nnd the New l\'inoy Aquino lnteon<~tional
Aiipo rt Terminal (NAlA II). In other parts of the country. additional
international ;llrpo riS '"ere opened like Subic, Clark, General Santos
and Zamboanga.
The admini~tration started the interlinking of the major isl..lnd
grids into one M lional power grid with the completion of the Leyte
Ccbu inlPt<"OIHlo::<:tion in 1997 and Levte-Lu~on interconnection in
1998. •

284
 Programs and p rojects were al~o implemented to protect the
country's environment and cooserve II!; natural reso\U'CE5. Critical
areas su~h as the Tubbataha and Apo reefs, Boracay, and the lfugao
rice terraces wert protected and rehabilitated under the National
Integrated Protected Are::~s System (NIPAS).
The government embarked on an intensive foreign relation
campaign based on economic diplomacy. ~ident Ramos expanded
global linkage~ by building ;md strengthening partnen;h.ips through
foreign trips which h ave been much criticized.
The United States continued to be the country's top trading
partner, accounting for 26.78 perrenl of the total in 1990 and 26.66
percent in 1991. The country'~ trade with japan had been on an
uptrend, w1th 1\I.H4 percent of the country's total trade during the year.
The Pe-<>ple's Republic of China (PROC) continued to be the
coun try's leading communist tTad ing partner. The increase of
Philippine exports to !'HOC in 1991 wa:; ~ttribu ted to the huge
demand Cor manufactured fertilizers.
In th<' pursuit of p eace and in nation building, the Ramos
administration was able to forge a just and honor•ble peace with
th e Repormang Alya ns<Jng Makaban~a (RAM) and the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF) by inilia!'ing dialogues and
agreements. This won the rt'spect of the world <IS evidenced by the
1 ~97 United Ndtions Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organi2ation (UNESCO) peace prize awarded to the country. Peace
t~l.ks wel'l! also held with th~e \!!oro Isla mic Libera tion Front (MlLF),
Communist Party of the Philippines (Cl'l') and 1\'ational Democratic
Front (NDF) ~;o that they may "~oin the mainstream of civilsocU!ty."
It was on September 15,-1993 when President Fidel V. RAmos
sign ed Executive Order :--Jo. 125, Dt>fin ing the App roach and
Adminis trativ~ Structure for the Government's Comprchcnsive
Fcacc Efforts. It directed tne govcrnment to pun;ueil comprehensive
peace proct'ss along the Six Pilths to Pt'acc as recommended by the
National Unifica tion Commission (:-IUC). The :--JUC tecoiiUllended
the creation of the Office of the Presidential Ad vi.ser on the Peace
Process (OP:\PP), which managed and implemcntcd the mandate
of the government.
The l'hiJippines once regarded as "the sick man of Asia" has
tra i\S formed into a nation tow<ird s the path of peace and sustainable
developme11 t. Under his man~gemen t, President Ramos d evised a

2B5
new plan whkh he called "Philippines 2000," h~ blueprint for
.national economic recovery to transfomt it into 11 tiger economy by
the next millennium.
Tite program intended to have economic development that will
be propelled and sustained through th~ promotion o£ efficiency in
the marketplace and the advancement of social equity in tenns of
asset reforms. It also included just sharing of the benefits of growth
and effective ~ople participation in the pulitical and economic
maint>tream.
Despite the reversal of economic interests inA~ia ~ince lat~ 1996
and 1997, the Ramos administration managed to keep the local
economy stable. 'lhc large number of overseas Filipino workers
(OF\oVs) and Filipinos who do bwiness abroad pruvided a steady
supply of dollar remittances supporting the local currency against
the exchange rate shifts.
During the early 1990s, militant 3ctivities by Muslim separatist
forces continued in Mindanao. In 1996 the government finally
reached a peaceful settlement with one of the largest rebel groups in.
the country, the Moro National Liberation Front (IV!NLF). The signing
of the GRP-MNLF Peace Agreement on September 2, 1996 in
rvt.,laeaii.ang Palace formally ended the armed conflict in Mindanao.
The GRP-M:--JI.F peace accord specifically provided for the
e~tablishmcnt of a Spe<:ial Zone of Peace and Development in
Southern Philippines (SZOPAD), consisting of 14 provinces; the
South~m Philippines Cuundl for Peace and Development (SPCPD);
and a Consultative Assembly. It also (<!lied for the integration of
MNLF forces into the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and
the Philippine National Police (PNP). Tht- peace a~;Tt!ement also
included e<:onomic; al'sistance to the region.
In 1997 Ramos's supporters ~ought to amend the con~titution;
however such Charter Change (Cha-Ch~) movement was denovnced
by different sectors including the Catholic Church. It was viewed
a~ a scheme to allow the president a st>eond tenn, which the 1987
Philippine Consl'itution had forbidden.
At the end uf President Ramos's term, the observance of the
first Centennial of Philippine Independence was carried out through
the :-.Jational Centennial Commission (NCC) and other non-
government organizatioelS (NGO~). Th~ :'IICC through a five-year
plan, assigned themes for every year for five years from 1994 to 1998,
c,\ch one laying the foundation for the success of the major
cdebrations on June 12, 1998 \Inti! January.23, 1999.

286
 The Centennial Pmgram.q had the following objectives: revive
love of country, rt>store appreciation for the true filipino identity,
rclc~m the valu~ uf the country's historic struggle for independence
and U$C th<.>se for developml!n t uf the fu ture; and genera te grc.l ter
acti,·e participation in the centennia l commem orative celebration to
accelerate n~tion-building. The desired effects of the Philippine
Centennial g<wP. birth to its slogan. "Knlayaan, Kn!J(lmn>um 11.8 Flf1Ya11."
In the May 1998 presidential electiuns, President Ramos and
the ruling coalition supported Jose de Veneda, the Huu~e Speal<er.
. Ho.w cver, it turned out that the oprosition had the popular ~upport
lor the presidency. Joseph Estrada, vice-president under the Ramos
administration b<.'Came the next head of the state.

9. E~trada Administration (1998 -2001)

Pr~ident Joseph "E rap" Estrada frum the I11pilm 11g Masang
Pi!ipio10 (LAMPi took his oath of otficeon June 30, 1998 at the historic
t:lara~oain Church in Malolos, Bul.1can. On the same date, he gavP.
h is inaugural address at the QuirinoGrandstand where he promised
to bring pean~ lo the people and harmony to the society. He also
pledged to fight corruption within the government and continue
the economic reforms of the past administra lion. Elected Vice·
l're!lidcnt was Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo from the LAKA5-NUCD.
''Erap pnra ,;.1 mahirap" b l!carne the campaign slogan uf furmer
Vice·Pre~idff\l E.~trada. He druv~ his election campaign vehicle JEEP,
which cont~ins his pro-poor program of government. It meant
Justice, Economy, Environment and J>cacc. JEEP covered Mr.
Estrada 's visior. of goverrunent. It revE>aiP.d hL"\ ten "s teps" towarJ a
dynamk and pmgrcssivc Philippines, n~mcly:
Hficicnt bureaucracy to generate more inoome with less
expen<;es
Economic recovery through fiscal ref orms
Ched all formG of crimina lit}:, parti<:u larly kidnapping,
bank robberies, drug trafficking and other heinous crimes
Stronger infr.1structure to unify the ncltirm
Encourage privatt- !rusiness as government's partner in
nation building
Delivery of basic social services to the people
Food ~urity through better agricultura l t-echnology

287
 Providing education to every Filipino
Harnessing Filipino talents in Kience and technology
Sustainable development through a comprehensive
environmental program
(Source: MagNcgosyo, May 1999)
It was Mr. Estrada's identity with the masses that launch~d him
to the presidency in the :May 1998 elections. lie won over his
opponents that included fonncr Speaker Jose de Vcnecia, former
~rense Secretary Kenato de Villa, former Manila Mayor Alfredo
Lim, Senators Raul .Roco and Miriam Defensor-Santiago.
In the midst of economic turbulence in the Asia-Pacific region,
President Estrada 5tirrcd high hopes to institute refonns aimed at
the development of the rountry'5 social economic and political well-
being. Government support were given.J!L~RAP (Enhanced Retail
Access for the J>a.qr)jq!)-sari$tQ,ij$:indU11gap ill Mqhjmp s•..;;:;;.uri9..!'1'.
the National F~.~utho.~ty {NF{\l ~Pli'~nl. These retail stores
pn.>vided livelihood as-•istancc to indigent families especia lly in
remote barangi\ys, in view ofthc administration's goal to weed out
poverty.
In Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, J~rcsiden~ E~Nda received
assurances of ec!:!n<,?};l'li.c..aid .amoiul.ti.ng to $5 billionJlQ.!J\ th(!
~tance to be extend~d ,4..dey~lOf1e<L E!£ono~c5 ~«;?11,!,J_hc Asia
Pad.fu: Economic Cooperation (APEC) fOI'UJ!l-.
- - ·- P;~~lde~_i-Ilstrada -wil$ ~~s~at;~~s~fue.spok.esll,lan.oJ 'lhird
Woria countries in the Sixth APEC me~ting in Mal.1y~ia. He vo iced
"the concernsOfdevelopingeoononues. AfiEC-~aden; later appruvt'd
the proposal of President Estrada calling for greater multilateral aid
to crisi~-hit Asian economic~
Tw~nty-one APEC member sta tes include Austra lia. Brunei
Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Chinese TJipei, 1 long Kong,
Indonesia, Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua
New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, United
States of America and Vi~tnam. Many of the Southeast Asian
countries facing the challenge of how ~u economies of the APEC
member states can benefit from the oppommities preStonted by
globa lization.
The Philippine and U.S. gov~rnmenrs had sib'Yled on Octob er
9, 1998 the counterpart agreement on the Visiting Fon;es Agreement

288
(VFA) which sought to define the legal treatment of FiUpino troop~
visiting the United Statt-s. Domingo Siazon and Thomas Hubbard
sign ed the US.RP Visiting For.:es Agreement. The Philippine
government lobbied for Senite concurrence hy m~ntioning military
and economic benefits from d oing so. The VFA was submitted to
the Philippine Senate on October 6, 1998.
1'1\e VFA in the eyes of the Philippine gowm.ment provided
lor the mechanism for regulating the circumstances and w:nditions
of US armed force~ and defense personnl'l in the Philippines. Tile
government also stressed that much could be gained from the
military technology and equipment that will be given to the AFP.
Joint exercises w ere perceived to help improve the skiJlq of Filipino
troop.~ in nlilitary oper ations.

US Defen<;;! Secretary William Cohen emphasized that the VFA

was not directed againqt any country, particularly China, which has
an existing territorial confl ict with the Philippines over the Sp ra tlys.
1bc US Department of Defense stres-o;cd that they were not seeki.11g
military facilities or bases.
Facing the task of reform, !'resident Estrada ID<ld~ moves
tow ards the actualization of his visions. The administration had
:successful negotiations regard ing the Subic ront roversy. The
congression<~l pork ba rrel, seen as a source of graft, was .:~bolished.
TI1en- was the lowering of interest rates, promotion of savings and
reduced dependence on foreign borrowings. A presidential task force
against crime was t'~tablished. There was also the peactful resoluUon
of the Philippine Airline~· labor strike.
'Ihe grow1d crew union of the Philippine Airlines (PAl.) ended
its five-day strike after signing an agreeml?nt with the manageii}ent,
UJ1der l:he auspices of the Nat ional Conciliation and Mediation Board
(NCMB) of th~ Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE).
The end of the strike, the second to hit PAL in a span of two
month~ can>e about after nearly 15 hours of non-s top negotiations
between the two sides. The PAL Employees Associcl tion (PALEA)
agreed to cea~ all picket,; and the strike within 24 h ours from the
sigl'lng of the agreement. The m<~nagement S\'~ranteed not to
cOmmit any retaliatory action against the striking PALE A members.
PAL and PALEA agreed to reduce the airline's workforce by
1,800 employees, a ll PALEA members. lhis became effective on
Augu.~t 16, 1998. But the affected employees wl'rc given privileges

289
 and benefits like 1ravcl privileges for them and their dependents;
opporturtity to attend livelihood ~minars organi?.ed by PAL for a
period of t:h!cc ve3rs; separation benefit~ in two installments; benefits
from the PAL Dependents Medical Pian for three years; and first
preference in h.iring, in Ute event PAL increases Its manning
complement in the future.
The agreement came after P~dent Estrad~. P.~Sonallr_t.ook
direct hand in solving the confliCt, together with the efforts of tfi.e
~DqU!~1'1'i~)irl,Y.Uibor~~_r:e1a_ryJ~i~nv~ld.9.. h.~esma.·The PAL
management was guided by the directions of PAL Chairman Lucio
Tan and President Jose Antonio Garcia. The PAUA board, headed
by its President Alex Barrientos signed for the union.
The government inltnsified .ts drive against illegal recruiters.
Administrator Rey Rtgalado mentioned that the Philippine Overseas
Employment Administration (J>QEA) closed 11 illegal recruitment
agencies in the year 200() on 1.> clo.~Ul"C orders he had i.o;.~ued. More
than 400 cases of illegal recruitment were brought to the I>()EA's
legal assistanre division, 80 percent of which had already been duly
£iled with the special prosecutors.
The deregulation re forms initiated during the p ast
administrJtiOn opened up an abWJdance of business opportunities
tor the industrial machinery and materials industry. With the
liberalizat ion of foreign excha nge, refo rms followed in
teleconununications, shipping, aviation, and automotive industries-
all of which required industrial machint>ry and materia ls, including
metal and steel manufactu.res.
laws intended to crealc business environmen t conducive to
local and (nreign investment were enacted in the year 2000. They
included the Retail Trade Liberaliza lion Act (liheralizing foreign
ownership of retail firms), the General Banking Law of 2000
(reforming the financial system), the Electronic Commerce Act
(establishing regulations promoting E-cornmerce}, and the Securities
Regulation Code (enhancing capital market competitiveness).
In infrastructur~. Presiden_t Estra?_a's ~~r~e-J(_ea.t:building_
progra!!Unclu4!t.l the iJlstatlatiCJITOf 3113 stei:IIiridg;=s in 78 pnwincps
-!he bridge program was fu nded lhrough the assista nce of the
Austrian governmen t. One of the sleel bridges undertake" by the
program was installed in the country in the remote barrio of
'v1asalipit, San Miguel, Bulacan. This 50-meter long bridge cost P16
rnillion.

290
 Senior Deputy Executive Secretary Ramon Cardena~, who
chaired the Pre~ident'~ Bridge Program's Tt>chnical Working Group,
indicated that 61 :;tt.'E!l b n dges ha1t been completed in the Autonomous
Region in :'viuslim Mindanao (ARMM) since the project started last
1999. Fifty-one more bridges had been opened Wlder the "Tulay ni
Erap"- Salam (Peace) Bridge Project in four provinces of ARMM,
namely: Maguindanoo, J.anao del Sur, Tawi-Tawi and Sulu. The
project was likewise expected to spur socioeconomic investment~ in
the whole of Southem Philippine~> and convert the region into the
next food basket of Asia.
The MP.tro•tar or thC' MRT lll along the stretch of EDSA was
filiAlly made operational after three years of constroction. Jhis rail
system has provided not only speedy transportation for commuters
to their destinations but also helpe<.l eas e the heavy flow of traffic
along EDSA particularly on J>l!ak hou rs.
The government had provided measures to pursuP. its housing
program. To inte~ify its ho"!~ing project, the government had
required subdivisions being developed to have a portion for
socialized housing.
· Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council
(HUDCC) spearheaded the government's low-cost housing project.
HUDCC Chairwoman Leonora Vasquez de Jesus intmduccd. the
multi-w indow lending system endorsed by President Estrada, to
make th£ housing finance sy~tem more aCC"esSible to th£ marginalized
sector. Such system placed under the President's National Shelter
Program, planned to build 350,000 shelter units per year until the
end of Estrada's term in 2004.
In the commitment of providing shelter for the homeless,
President Estrada did rai>e fund> for the new building of the
orphanage of the Asociadon de Damas de Filipinn>, which was
destroyed by a dawn fire in 1998, kiUing at least 24 children and
injurin f, ot hers. He also provided the equipment and facilities
needed by this institution for efficient management.
One of the events that rocked the country was the hostage
drama in Mindanao, which involved foreign nationals as weU a::;
Filipinos. The Abu Sayyaf, a group of Muslim extremists, abducted
twenty-one western vacationers in an island resort in Sipadan.,
Malaysia and one Filipino reoort worker, Roland Ulla.
The rebels brought the hostages to jungle camps in Jolo. This
w<~s foUowL'<i by the kidnapping of two French joumali;ts and two

291
local TV reporters and 13 "prayer warriors" of a religious group
including its leader. The hostage crisis, whkh lasted for several
month:;, proj&tt!d the Abu Sayyaf to intematio.mal notoriety.
All hostages were able to return to !heir families exc:ept Roland
Ulla, still being held captive by the Muslim cxtremi.~ts. Task Force
Comet, an operational ann of the military, was assigned to launch
offensive~ agairu;t the Abu Sayyaf to rescue remaining captive Ulla
and to neutralize the terrorist group.
Taking into account the peace condition in Mindanao, a
Philippine travel ban was issued by the Gennan government to its
nationals. Nevertheless, the ban had been iinally lifted afti!T five
month~. Tourism Secretary Gemma Cruz Ataneta disclosed on
October 20, 2000 that the German government had issued a new
travel advisory ~tating that travel to the Philippines is safe. [ lowcvcr,
the ,,dvisory still discouraged German tomists from going to some
parts of Mindanao, specifically Jolo and Sulu, where military
operations continued against the Abu Sayyaf. They w~re allowed to
travel to Northern Philippines with comfort and safety.
The United State~ government was the first to issue a travel
advisory ,,dvising its citizens to skip the Philippines because of the
bombing incidents that hit Mindanao and some areas of Metro
Manila.
Abu Sayyilf kadcrGhalib Andang also known as Commander
Robot told chief government negotiator and Flagship Secretary
Robert Aventajado that his group was not many manner involved
with the kidnapping of the American Jeffrey Craig Edwards Schilling
in 7amboanga City.
Schilling was in the Philippine> for sewral monthl; and marril!d
to Ivy Osani., a cousin of Abu Sabay11. <mother Abu Sayyaf leader.
O~ani, a widow of a former Abu Sayyaf member, happened to be
the nephew of the slain foundC'C of the Abu S<&yyaf, Abdurajak Janjalani.
Abu Sabaya tagged Schilling dS an agent of the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) which the US Emt>assy denied
vehemently. The authorities had vcri.ficdrcporls !hat Schilling stayed
inZamboanga for six months. There were also reports that Schilling
himself had been sf€ king out thi.~ rebel group.
One rebel group that opposed the administrlltions of the pas\
wanted to return to the negotiating tabl~ . .Muslim leaders
subsequently approved a manifesto urging the Estrada
administration i\nd the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) to

292
rcswnc the peace negotiations that w~re ~rapped following the
outbreak of hostilities m Mindilllao. It was also supported by at least
100 gwups cornprjsecl of organizations from the religious,
prof~ssionals, farmers and other sectors of the Bangs~moro ~ople.
Lawyer Macapanton Abbas, Jr. of the Roycll Houses in
Mindanao pointed out that for the peace proces-~ to proceed anew, it
was necessary for the government to declar(' a C<?a~·fire. Criminal
charges and warrants of arrest against MllF chairm<~n Ust.ldz
Salama! Hashim, vice-chairmiut for Military Affairs. AI Haj Murad
and MILF spolc.esri,an Eid Kabalu were also asked to h~ dmpped.
Manila was once .-gain shuddered by inconsidcrahle
demonstration~ and strikes which loudly protesl~d on injustic-e,
stunted growth and progress of the country's economic life, lind the
perpetuating poverty of the great masse" of the country's population.
The public had al<;O given !heir views about Malac.ar\lng's propooalto
amend the constitution and allow foreigner:; to own land in the
country. Th~se problem• had been the issues of most dcbat<?s in the
land.
While Cardinal Sin demanded for President Estrada's tt•sig-
nation, Cebu Archbishop Ricardo Cardinal Vida I maintained his
silence and refused to join the movement to remove the l'rcsid<!nl from
office. He merely advio;ed the President to change and refonn his ways.
Senate President Franklin M. Drilon and len of his collt>agl>es
in the SenatE! rejected the call for holding a snap presidenhal elections
as an answer to the current politkal agitiltion brought about by the
ju~t,mg gambling payoff <harges leveled against President Estrad.1.
Th~y gave vari~d reasons discarding the Senate resolution iilcd hy
Senator Juan Ponce Enrilc asking both the Senate and the Hous~
of Rcpn.>sentativcs to pa~s a law authori7.ing the holdmg of snap
elections.
Secretary Lim cautioned the people to be vigilant. He darified
that economic recovery program of the adminislr<~tion hat! already
tn~de concrete gains. He also added that, if the constitutional process
or the rule of law would not be followed th".re would be chaos,
anarchy and violence; and the country would be transformed into a
banana re-public instead. ·
The Office on Muslim Affairs E)(ccutive lJirector Acmad M.
Tomawis expressed hope that the Muslims and other filip.i.nos would
remain steadfast in their support to President Estrada amid the

293
expo5C' on jueleng. According to him, the administra tion prioritizes
the plight of the poor and the marginalized peop le in nmning the
dffilirs of the nation.
Just a day b~fore 21)00 yearend, 14 people were killed instantly
clnd more than 60 othm were wounded in five b omb explosions in
Metro Ma.n ila. The Philip pine 1\'a tional Police (P'-11') Command
under PNP Chief Director General Panfilo ~cson directed all PNP
Wlits in Metro Manila to assist and provide security and mai.nt.lin
peac~ and order in the wake of the~c bomb attacks. ·
The firs t bomb bLlsred at around 12 noon in a roach of the Light
Rai lway Transit (LRT) at Blume nt ritt station o n its w ay to
Monurnento. Fifteen minutes later, another e xplusio n hit Plaza
Ferguson in Ermita, some 200 meters away from the Unit€<:1 States
embassy. The third bomb blew up and ripped off the J'()of of Edsan
bm; at the northbound Lane of EDSA in C ubao, Quezon City in Cront
of the Supl'l'lioes bu~ terminal. Another bombing incident followed
at the 1\ AlA cargo terminal area in Parat'iaque. Then at around 2:20
p.m., another bomb explosion took place at a J>etmn gasoline s tation
kx:a tC'd across EDSA from Dusit I lotel in Makati City.
four officia ls of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF),
headed by Chairman Hashim Salamat were charged of multiple
fru~trated murder by the Department of Ju~tic,; (DOJ) in connection
with the December 30 bombings in Metro Manila. TI1e :vllLF officials
have also pending case:; with the DO] in rorutection with the May
J7 and 21, 2000 bombings of malls in Metro Manila.
According to PNP Sen ior Supt. Raul Bacalzo, the December 30
bombings had been conceived by the MILF and the plots were
unearthed in an undatl'd document coded "Feasibiht)' Project" that
deta iled the bombings and economic sabotage in Metro Manila. The
document was taken from Camp Bushra in Lanao del Sur and
det11iled the p lots to bon'b malls, the Light R.\ilway Transit, warer
di:;tricts, provincial trains. and other structur~.
Presiden t Estrada condemned thc?se bombing incidents that
rocked Met ro Manila and said that those behind it have resorted to
acts of de~peration .md cowardice in order to satisfy and advance
their political agenda.
With the ongoing impeachment tria l, President Estra da
continued h is provincia l visits particularly in Mindanao and in the
depressed areas in Metro Manila. The government has released more
infrastructure funds through th~ regional offices of the Department
of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) for the President's
Mindanao'~ devdopment proje<:ts. This was part of Malacai\ang's
confidence-building measures to pu.~h his campaign again:;t poverty.
While the staging of another People Power revolt was being
contemplated by some sectors in the society, the President himself
cited another evident emergency situation, i.~ .• the sight of
uncollected garbage in the Metro Manila. The dumpsitc at San
Mateo, Rizal was closed at the end of tha~ year when its operating
contract expired. The Payatas dumpsite iri Quezon City was earlier
blocked in July 2000 after a landslide killed more than 200 people
living in the area. San Mateo and Payatas have been receiving some
6,000 tons of solid waste a day, from Metro Manila's 12 million
population.
In the midst of a garbage cr:isi.~, President Estrada ordered on
January 11, 200J the reopening of the San Mateo Landfill. The
residents of San Mateo and Antipolo however, vehemently rallied
against this memorandum by preventing trucks from unloadirtg tons
of garbage from Metro Manila. With no alternative site for garbage,
the government tried to dispose some of the metropolis' trash on
Scmirara Island, 45 kilometer~ (30 miles) from Boracay, a premier
tourist destination. This proposal was also thwarted by public
protest.
On the other hand, the Department of Trad~ and Industry,
earher ~ought the d~lay of the implementation of the Clean Air Act,
which intended to improve the environmental compliance of
industries. This was to give the industries more time to raise money
and acquire new technology to ensure compliance. Majority of the
industries had to retool their operations.
As the future of the country became more uno;-ertain, Senator
Pimentel resigned h~ post as Senate head in the evening oi January
16, 2001 after the motion to have the sealed envelope opened was
defeated in an 11·10 vote by the Senate impeachment tribWlal. The
second sealed envelope from Equitable PC! Bank allegedly contained
bank records of President Estrada alias "Jose Velarde" totaling some
P3.3 billion.
The 11 senator-judges, wh:ich included Senate Presid~nt Pro-
Tempore Bias Ople, Senate Majority Leader Franci.sco Tatad, Senators
Teresa Aquino·Oreta, Robert Jaworski, :-.likki Coseteng, Ramon

295
Revilla, Gregorio Hona:;an, Juan Ponce Enrile, Miriam Defensor-
Santiago and Vicmtc "TI!o" Sot to rejected the prosi!CUtion's motion
to open the second envelope. For them. the trial should be lim.i.ted to
the articles of impeachmen t as specified by the House of
Representatives. The so-called Velarde account was not in the articles
of impeachment.
The 10 senator-judges who voted that' the !leeond mvelope be
opened in the "interest of truth" wen! Senators Rodolfo Biamn,Raul
Roco, Franklin Drilon, Teolisto Guingona, Juan Flavier, wren
Legarda-Leviste, Rene Cayetano, Serge Osmena, Jun Magsaysay, and
Nene Pimentel.
The 11-man House prosecution panel, headed by Minority
Leader r:eliciano Belmonte, likewise tendered their resignation in
the wake of the Senate decision. Joker Arrovo, a member of the
prosecution panel, hinted a potential constitutional crisis due to the
stalemate that emerged following the irrevocable resignatiun of the
I louse prosecutors. However, Senate Majority Leader Franci~ro
latad conveyed to the public that the impeachment court had not
been disbanded It had simply recessed to allow the Hou,;c f"? address
the problem presented by the resignation of prosecutors.
Malacai\ang expressed optimism that President E.~trada's
impeachment trial would resume soon. His lawyers were ready to
present their pieces of evidence to prove false the prosecution's
charge~ against him. Acting Press Secretary Michael Toledo asserted
that if the case would close following the resignation of the
prosecutors, it would not be the fault of the defense p.mel. House
Speaker Amulfo Fuentebella made cle~r that they have developed
certain options on the impeachment prosecutors' resignation as he
assured all the decisions they would make in the process would be
the decision of the House as a whole.
House Assistant Majority Leader Frands Joseph E~cudero (1"
districtofSorsogon) pointed out that one way to resolve the deadlock
at the Senate impeachment tribunal was for the I louse minority to
choose another set of 11 congressmen to serve as prosccutors in the
impcadunent trial against the President. Nevertheless, Governor
Sing.•on a vowed before the Integrated &r of the Philippines (IBP)
regional convention, that if he would not be satisfied wlth the
decision of the Senate in the impeachment case, he would surely
bring the fight to the highest court, which is the people.

296
 On January 16, an hour after the Senate had rejected the o~ning
of the second enwlope containing bank documents of the alleged
Velarde account, thousands of l'ilipinos went out of the streets to
show protest. The demonstrators stayed at FDSA Shrin~ for four
days Oanuary 16 to 20, 2001} demanding President Estrada to step
down from office.
The Church once again lived up its role as the moral guardian
of the society. Jaime Cardinal Sin initiated the prayer rally at the
shrine with Vice-President Gloria Macapagat-Arroyo, and former
Presidents Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos present in the area.
Atter the resignation oJ the pr~ution panel, more Filipinos trooped
to EDSA. Text mc~sagcs were in<trumental in drawing a mammoth
crowd at EDSAShrine. Countless mobile phones were buzzing with
the latest text messages about Malacanang and the protest rally.
Nearly two million people went to the streets.
At the same time, pro-Estrada rallyists gathered at Mendiola
Bridge near Malacaiiang as early as 12 noon of January 17 to
denounce the 10 senators who voted for the opening of the second
envelope. The pro-Erap supporters stayed in the Mendiola area to
secure all entry points leading to Malacai'iang.
President Estrada intended to finish his term until 2004. He
appealed to those exen:ising their right to express1on and assembly
for calm and sobriety and assured the public that the government is
in control of the security situation. He even ruled out the possibility
of resignation as called for by his political opponents. He asked the
Filipino people to allow thecon~titutional process to take its course.
Nonetheless, the last-minute defections of politician~ even gave
more tcno;ion to these tumulluou-; days. 'I hey, too, aligned themselves
with the people den>anding F.strada to step down from office.
Mass resignation of the Cabinet was triggered by the defection
of the Arn>ed forces led by the Chief of Staff, General Angelo Reyes.
The military announced through media that they had already
withdrawn t}lpirsupport for the Estrada presidency, invoking Artide
2, Sec han 3 of the 1987 constitution, w h~rein the Armed Forces of
the Philippines shall protect the people and the State. Likewise,
Director-General Panfilo M. Lacsun, chief of the Philippine National
Police announced at a press conference that !he P~J> had also
withdra"'I\ support for President Estrada, stressing that the police
organization respects the decision of the citizenry.

297
 The pronouncement of the military wa:; a powerful blow to the
President. Nonetheles.;, PrBid•mt E:>trada still refu5ed to resign and
insisted on a :map preljidential ele(tion. I Jowever, the President
together with his family, reportedly left Malacaiiang after knowing
that the Supreme Court had already i.~sued en bane resolution
declaring the seat of th<! presidency vacant and could not be
con~titutiona11y replaced by his successor.

The Sup~me Court likewise through its rt!l;olution authorized

Chief Justice Davide to administer the oath of office of then Vice-
President Gloria Macapagal·Arroyo as the 14'~ President of the
Republic, succeeding President Estrad,,. However, the deposed
President in.'\iiltt:'d that he rud not re~ign hut merely left Malacaiiang
Palace to prevent bloodshed as protesters were already dose to
Malacaiiang to physically eject him from ~ post.

10. Arroyo Administration (2001-p.resent)

President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was catapulted into power
by the People Power Revolution II at EDSA, which ended on January
20, 2001. Facing the task of leading 76 million Filipinos in rebuilding
the nation toward!\ peace and progrc5~, the Presidl!nt urged the
people to help her in the ''healing process" of the mtmtry. For her,
healing should be with justice.
The Supreme Court had its deliberation on four petitions filet!
in ill; office involving the pr~idency of Gloria M~c;~pagal·Arroyo.
Two petitions sought clarification from the tribunal on whether Mrs.
Arroyo is Acting Presidmt or President. Another )X'tition asked the
High Court to declare Mrs. Arroyo as the duly con.~tituted Prci;idcnt.
The fourth petition pleaded for the nullificatioJ1 of .Mrs. Arroyo's
oath as President and to declare her as Acting Pre.sid1mt.
On March 2, 2001, the Supreme Court upheld the legitimacy of
the Arroyo government in a unanimous decil;ion vote. The High
Court ruled out that President Estrada had effectively resigned his
post with his acts and statements and declared Mrs. ·Gloria
:vfacapagal-Arroyotheduly coMtituted President of the Philippines.
Nine justices voted without reservation, while four justices reserved
their votes on the loss of irnmt~nity from suit of Mr. Estrada. The
High Court gave Ombudsman Ani.ano Disterto the lt!~al authority
to file the cases of the fomter Pr~sid<mt which include plt!Jlder,
perjury, and iUegal use of alii\s before the Sandiganbayan.

298
 Regarding the Estrada impeachment trial, the Sen<lte had
officially concluded on February 7, 2001 its role as an impeachment
court. Thi~ was based on Stonate Resolution 927 filed by Senate
President Pi.ml!ntel. The resolution also contained ttut the pieces of
evidence in im~~adunent cast' No. 001-2000, including the second
envelope be ~nt to the Senate an:hive;;.
The Sena te by 18·0 vote, unanimously conCi rrn~d the
designation of Sen. Teofisto Guingona Jr. as the new vice-president
following a resolution :.ponsored by Sen. Loren Lcgarda confirming
the nomination of Ston. Guingona for the position.
In her first few days as the Chief Executive, President Arroyo
directed government officials to forbid her family and relatives from
entering or iniluencing din!ctly or indirectly official transactions with
the government. The~e transactions include the procurement or
purchase o f property, supplies and mate rials, appointment of
government personnel, and recommendations fur positions in all
government agencies and offices.
In an effort to make the new Pre~ident more accessible to the
general public, Malacafiang came up with a scheme to a llow
everyone to send their s uggestions and opinions lo the Chief
Executive via Short Messaging Service (SMS) called NTexl GMA
Service." Presiden t Arroyo also placed in one of her administration's
priurity program:; the installation of modem telecommunication~
facilities in every municipality. The Department of Transportation
and Communication (DOTC) was assigned to provide these
telecenters which include a telephone line, a personal compurer, a
scanner, a printer or copier, and an Internet connection
The Arroyo government at the outset was constrained by the
country's fiscal condition, with I~ billion budget deficit inherited
from the previous admini~tration. The J>resident and the Congress
leaders agreed to reactivate last year's nationaJ budget to finance
government expenditures. To trim the ballooning budget deficit, the
President imposed frugality on all government agencies.
President Arroyo established her priorities and set the direction
for economic recovery. Eftorts in poverty reduction and promohng
good governance were am<.mg the piUars of her admini~tration. Mrs.
Arroyo likened her style of government to that of her fa ther, the late
President Di06dado Macapagal. with concern for the poor. the reliance
on free enterprise, fight against poverty and the emph~sis on soda I
equity and land :reform. One of the major thru~ts of the government

299
was the intensified program of opening new job opportunities by
attracting more venture capita I from overseas as well as local
cntrepren=rs.
A:; referred to in the Stare of the Nation Address on july 23,
2001, President Arroyo pointed out that the government financial
institutions had about P20 billion available for mass housing
program~. In the first tOO days of! lousing and Urban D~velopment
Coordinating Committee (HUDCC) Chair Michael T. Defensor,
shelter was generated for more than 100,000 families, with 1'450
million in housing loans released for employees in the Arm~,>d forces
and police. teachers, local govenunenl employees and p rivnte sector
work.ers. lmplementatiun of the commu nity mortgage program was
d one whe~ lando..,· ners were persuaded to ~dl their lan ds to
squa tters residing on the land . lhe governmen t provided the
financing to the beneficiari(".'; who in htm should pay at least P400
to PSOO per month for a number of years until such the full payment
to the lot purcha~cd has been paid in full.
Solid Waste Management Act, Republic Act (RA) 9003 was the
first piece of legislation that Mrs. Arroyo signed ~s Presid~nl. '!hi~
law sought to institute mecha.Usms of waste m inimi.7.a tion_ resource
recovery, appropriate collection and transport ~erviccs, omd treatment
and disposal of g arbage. The l11w also empowered the local
govenunent units to pursue thei.r respective solid waste manag.e ment
systems in their a rea ofjuri-.diction. RA 9003 symbolized the reforms
that the new administration would like to implement.
In the second qu.uter of 2001, the country's (;ross National
Product (GNP) which was 3.5 percent, was higher than the market's
estima te of about 2.2.5 percent growth. The economy showed
su fficient rest!iency in the midst of political turmoil. It was during
this period when the government faced destabilization attl'mpts,
including the May attack on the presidential p a la ce by peop le
supporting dctrined former Presldent joseph Estrada.
A year after the second People Power Revolution, President
Arroyo affirmed that she had s hoWr1 capable leadership during her
first year uf administration. The C. NP growth rate in 2001 was 3.7%.
The country benefitted from its electronics industry, (IT-enabled
services, tourism, tmnsport and teleconununications, among others)
due to s tructural reform measures designed to e-ohan,~e productivity
and market competition, such a~ the liberalization of retail trad~,
telecommunication and u tiHties.I'<EDAnoted the retum of investor

300
confidence for the increase of gross domestic capital formation by
4.3 percent from 2.3 percent in 2000. This was augmented by
investments in public coosttuction and bll.'eding stock and orchard
development
The President focused on the economy and implemented pro-
poor programs to provide jobs, food, education and hou..~ing for
Filip inos at the end of her tenn. Trus included her Kapil-bisig Laban
s.a Kilhirapan (Kalahi} program for poverty alleviation proje<:t:s and
servicl!s and the Ahon Kabu/rnya11 Prl!ject of the Gininluan at
Makabayang Alay (GMA} Foundation.
In an effort to stabilize the cotmtry, President Arroyo supported
the p assage of legislations in congress such as the Power Reform
Act and the Anfi·Money Laundering Law. To improv e rice
productivlty and generate thousand s of jobs between 2002 and 2()(14,
the ~partmen! of Agriculture (DA), Department of Trade llnd
Indus try (DTI), the Nation al Food Authority (NFA) and their
respective agencies promoted the large-,;calc use of the hybrid rice
technology. This was pursuant to Administrative Order No: 25 (AO
25) whi<h targeted 135,000 hecta~s (ha.) in 2002;200,000ha. in 2003;
and 300,000 ha. in 20().l. The hybrid rice program was adopted by
the administration under the GMA CARES Rlce Progr~m. In other
h ighly p opulated cotmtries like China and India, the hybrid rice
technology was proven to b(! successful.
To fulfill the vision of promoting economic growth and
agricultural modernization in :'vfindanao, the Philippine government
entered into an agreement with the World Ballk (WE!) for its $289.5
M loan funding the twelve-year program in the area. The Mindanao
Rural Development Program i~ in charge of the implementation of
the project envisioned to address .\1indanao's need for food security
by improving agricultural p roductivity, mobility for goods and
services and local capabilities in using and managing its own resources.
To refurbish the educ<t tiona l ~y~tcm, the Department of
Ed ucation (DcpEd) has provided the B<;sic Educa tion Curriculum
(BF.C), olhen"'i~ kno\"ll as the millennium curriculum. The BEC
was pursuant to Republic Act No. 9155, "An Act Instituting a
Framework of Governance fo r Basic Education, Esta blishing
Autho rity and Accountability, Renaming the Dt:partment o.f
Education, Culture and Sports as the Department of Education , and
for other pu rposes."

JOt
 R.t\ 9155 tran.~fcrrcd to the Philippine Sports Commission, th~
sports promoting functions of th~ D~pEd. It also gavt- th~ Nntional
Commission for Culture and the Arts, lht> culhue promotion
functions of the department. The collegiatt> and higher studies
functions were given to the Commission on Iligher Education
(CIJED).
The 2002 restructured BEC focuses on the 3R<;, Mmely: reading,
writing and arithmetic, as well as ,;cicncc and p.1triolism. ll includes
the integration of values in all learning areas from elementary to
~condary levels. The curriculum consists of the following subjects:
Filipino, English, Math, Science and Makabayan.
The millennium curriculum t!econgestH the overcrowded
subject areas. It seeks to prepare the students' readincss for lifelong
learning. BEC stresses integrative and interactive teaching-learning
approaches. l"hcsc involve group learning and sharing of ideas
behveen teachers and students and among students. President
Arroyo had outlined that one of the pillars towards winning the
war against poverty is quality edu<"ation. Education offers
opportunities for people to acquire skills and be<"omc more
productive.
The Arroyo administration with an ardent regard tn pc::acdul
seltlernenl, exl~ndP.d amnesty to NFA guerrillas who wish to rejnin
the society. It also avowed lo resume aborted peace talks .with the
secessionist groups. Presidt-nt .Axroyo expre~ed concern to R'store
peace and order through negotiati0115 with both the communists
(NDF /NI"A) and Muslim separatists (MILF). She ordc~d the
immediate suspension of offensive military oper.1tions against them
a~ a prelude to the administration's conciliatory move.
The Muslim leadcc.s wanted the full implemenla!ion of the 1996
Peace Agreement signed on Sept. 2, 1996 betw~t>n the Government
o{ the Republic of the J>hi!ippines (GRP) am! tht> .Moro National
Liberation 1-'ront (MNI.I'). On the oth~r hand, the National
Democratic Front (::-.JDF) discarded the peace negotiations with the
Philippine government two years ago following the approv a! of the
Senate of the Visiting Porces Agreement (VI'A}, which allowed US
forces to hold training t:?xercises in the country.
The GRJ> peace panel left for Oslo, Norw<~y via raris to resume
formal pe-ace talks with their counterparts in the NDF, which began
on April27, 2001. !'resident ArroyQ sent off a five-man team headed

302
by former Ju.~tice Secretary Silvestre Bello In. The GRP peace panel
included Agrarian Reform Secretary Hcmani Braganza, Riza
Hontiveros, R4!lle Sarmiento, and Atty. Chilo Gascon. Ute President
expressed the government's willingness to discuss the NDF's
political demand with an open mind.
Regarding the military strikes inAfgha.ni:itan, President Arroyo
offered to the United States the use of its former military bases in
·the Philippi11es fur refueling US jets. This was in support of the war
ilgain:;t terrorists harboring Osarna bin Laden and his ai-Qaeda
organization, primary suspects in the September 11 attacks on !he
World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington,
D.C. The fourth jetliner, whichcrashl!d in Pomn.sylvania, was believed
to be the handiwMk of these terrorists. The sep~trati~t ~LF denied
any link with international terrorist Osama bin Laden, the prime
sus~t of the- series of attack.« in America that left nearly 6.000people
dead and senral others wounded. Muslim<; in the country called
for moderation in the continuing campaign to wage war again.<>t
terrorism.
·In an attempt to end terrorist elements in the country, the
Department of National Defense cited support for the military
exercU>es between the United States and the Philippint'S, which was
officially op!!ned on January 31, 2002. The exercises dubbed as
Balikatnn 02-l or Freedom F.agle was expected to take place for a
period of six months. This was sanctioned under the RP-US Visiting
Forces Agreement duly ratified by the Philippine &nate in 1998.
The command slntcture of the Bnlikatan (shoulder to shoulder) wall
under the command. of the Armed Force;;.
Some 660 US military personn~l and Filipino soldiers had been
~irected to participate in joint military training exercises held in
Basilan, Mactan AU: Base in Ccbu, Zamboanga del Sur, ,md Camp
Enrile in Zamboanga City. US forces were not allowed to operate
independently in Philippi11e territory at any time. l lowever. the
Arnerkan t:roops were allowed to fire back and t.1kc .1 defensive
po~ition against an assault during the trilining.
The government made its staunch commitment against
terrorism. Mindanao, particularly, had suffered mudt from decades
of local insurgency. In her se~ond State of the Nation Address
(SO:'>!A), President Arroyo described terrorists and uiminals a!:i
enemies of the State. She brought her call for a strong Republic,

303
 declaring "total war" agairlst criminals and terrorists. She pointed
out that a strong republic must be able to win the twin battles against
terrorism and poverty. It should efficiently deliver basic services to
the people and uphold the Jaw. furthermore, it should be
autonomous oi dominant classes and sectors to represent the people's
interests.
To strengthen the society and the family, President Arroyo and
former President Aquino headed the campaign for peace by their
Prayer Power Campaign 2002. The campaign sought to consecrate
families to the Sacred Heart of j('SUS .md the Immaculate Heart of
Mary. Praying the rosary and m<tsses were held in big churches and
campuses around the country. nus was part of preparation.~ for the
4°' World Meeting of Families (4WMF) on January 22 to 26, 2003
with the Philippines as host.
The WM:F is held every three years upon the invitation of the
!'ope, the pontifical head of the Catholk Church. It is a reunion where
families gather to pray and deepen their understanding of how the
Christian family can fulfill its role as the inHi.ator of evangelization
in the modem world.
The Holy Father Pope John I'aulll named the Third Millennium,
the "Asian Millennium" because it is the millennium for the
proclamation of the Name and Gospel of Jesus in Asia (with four
billion people). The Pope chose the Philippines as the venue for the
4WMF. Seventy million out of 120 million Christians in Asia are in
the Philippines. Despite the eagerness of the Pope to attend the WMF
a~scmbly, his doctors shove aside his travel to the Philippines due
to his frail condition. The Holy Father sent Alfonso Cardinal Lopez
Trujillo to the country.
One of the top priorities of the Arroyo administration prior to
its end in 2004 is its renewed and intensified campaign against illegal
drugs. Interior and Local Gov·emrnent Secretary and Dangerous
Drugs Board (ODB) OIC·Chairman jose D. Lina ordered the
mobi.lization of anti·abuse councils nationwide and the monitoring
of drug testing centers by local chief executives (LCEs}. The DDB's
implementing arm, the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency
(PDEA), created by Republic Act No. 9165 and established in July
2002, is expected to crush the PlSO billion or more or so illegal drug
business in the country. The Phllippine National Police (PNP) Anti·
Illegal Drug Task Force has been assigned to validate the arrest and
file appropriate charges on drug pushers and drug-users.

304
 To restrict the addiction to smoking, the Congress likewise
pasSt!d the 2003 Tobal~Co Regulation Act (Republic Act No. 9211)
w hich impo::;es an absolute ban on smoking in publk places and
restricts the packaging, use, sa14!, distribution and advertio;ement of
cigarett~ and other tobacco producb;. President Arroyo signed th is
law as p<1rt of her administration's commitment to a cleaner, healthier,
and saf~r world. The increasing prevalence of smoking in the
Philippines with around 20,000 filipino~ who die every year due to
tobacco-related diseases, prompted many Filipino legislators to
regulate the distribution and use of cigarettes in the country.
The country has been facing a Jot of persisting challenges. It is
in need of fea.«iblc solutions to .chieve lasting pe-.ace and prosperity.
The government alone could not carry ou t the arduous tasks. The
Philipp me~, naturally blessed with bountiful resources and a ~toric
past, has withstood the difficult times. It is resilient yet staunch like
a bamboo. The nation has been stri\·ing for its primary concern, its
people f rom il~ forcmo;;t strength, the Almighty God.
Faith, industry, discipline, anu sense of teamwork through the
baya11ih11n ~piril muld inspire and propel the capacity of the people
to promote sustainable growth. There is no easy formula to 3void a
political or economic crisis. Perhaps, each individ ual should give
each other hope and inspiration whether in times of crisis or not.

305
 Chapter Test No. 10

Name: ___ - - - - - - - - - - Date: . _ _ _ __

Cour~e, Ye<tr,and Section: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

f. Multiple Choke. Choose the letter wilh the .:ocrect answer.

Write the letters on the Hanks provided. (60 pts.)

1. Following President Roxa~' inaugural address was

the public si!,,'ning of the
a. Bell Trade Ad
b. Tydings Art
c. U.S. Philippine Treaty of G~neJal Relations
d. Military B;~ses Agreem!!nt
2. The :vtilitary BasesAgreem~ntgave the tJS free use
of 2~ base sites for
a. .'iO years c. 99 years
b. 75 ye,;~rs d. 100 years
3. Di~regard for civil right:; wa:; shown by the MP'~
in the Masico Affair in
a. Bataan c. Quezon
b. Laguna d. Pampanga
4. Fraudulent practices like tnkipan, consisted in
paying
a. 50% interest c. 11)()•~interest
b. 70% interest d. 120o/o interest
5. The first president of the Committee on Labo:r
Organization was
a. Cipriano Cid
b. Amado IIemandcz
c. Luis Taruc
d. Ma~o del Castillo

306
 6. The <tllf:!ged "s~cret document" between Judge
Antonio Quirino and Luis Taruc included scr<lpping
of the
a. BeU Trade Act
b. Tydings A<:t
c. l;.S. Philippine Treaty of Gene-ral Relation~
d. Military Bases Agreement
7. Best known f()r the selection of the Ten Outstanding
Young Men (TOYM) is the
a. Philippine faycees
b. Philippine News Service
c. Lions Club
d. Rl.>tary Club
8. The JUSMAG was a!\signed the tasl< of
implementiJlg the recommendations of the
a. Bell Mission
b. Melby Mission
c. PACSA
d. Quirino-fCJStcr Agreement
9. Atty. Jose Lava, Federico Bautista and other HMB
members were pronounced guilty by the Martita
Court of First Instance for the crime of
a. rebellion
b sedition
c. possession of iUegal firearms
d.· i\ISOn
___ 10. St>cretary Magsaysay ordered the arrest ofNegros
Governor Rafael Lacson for allegedly being involved
in the n1urder of
a. Taciano .Rizal
b. Moises Padilla
(. Jaime Ferrer
d JuanFeleo

307
_ _ _ 11. Building of feeder roads and improvement of
govcmm~nt St"rv ices in the ba rrios in th~ field of
ht"al th and education d uring the Mag,;aysay
ad ministration were made possible through the
a. NARRA c. ACCFA
b. FACOMA d. PACD
_ _ _ 12. To conf~r with Luis Taruc regarding his surrender,
President Mar,saysay sent
a. O r. Jesus Lava c. Clam :'vi. Recto
b. Ninoy Aquino d . Ca rlo;; P. Rornu lo
_ __ 13 The SEATO wa~ establish€d in 1954 primarily to
counteract
a. poverty c. conununi~l ac:livities
b. terrorism d. econom ic sabotage
.:..__ _ 14. The controversial Ri7.al BiU ended with a unanimous
approval of a s ubstitute measure wri ll en by
a. Rose ller Lim c. Emmanuel Pelaez
b. )05e La urel, Jr. d. Claro M. Recto
___ 15. Garcia r~n under the Nacionalista !'arty with his
ntru'ling mate,
n. Jose Yulo
b. Diosdado M.lcapagal
c. Lo n:!nzo Tai\ada
d. jo~t'! Lau rel, Jr.

_ __ 16. President Ga rcia a ncho red his p rogram o f

government in austerity which as a policy means
a. discipline in the bureaucracy
b. lcs;:; imports
c. tempe rll te spending
d. no presidential junkets

308
_ __ 17. 'fhe Filipino I'iist Policy of th~ Garda administration
was officially promnlgarcd by a resolution passed by
a . f-ilipino Chamber of Commerce
b. American Chamber of Comn•~rce
c. International Chamber of Commerce
d. Na tional Economic Council
_ _ 18. In 1~58, a coup d' etat plan of a group of military
men was revealed by
a. Sec. Jesus Vargas
b. Cong. Bartolome Cabangb ang
c. Col. Nicanor Jimenez
d. Sen. Claro M . Recto
_ _ 19. The Dr. Jo!;e Rizal Centennial Comml~sion was
created during lhe odmini~tration of Pru~idt'Tl l
a. R. Magsaysay c. E. Quirino
b :Macapagal d. C. Garci<~
_ __ 20. One of the Philippine presidents who was not a
member Nacion~!ista Party was
a. R. Mags<~ysay c. D. Macapagal
b. C. Garcia d . F. Marcos
_ _ 21. The legitimate governor of the Centr11l Bank as
ruled by the Sup reme Court in its decision in 1962
was
a Andres Ca$tillo c. Dominador Aytona
b. Jose Diokno d. Maca rio Peralta
_ _ _ 22. Seized during the'raid~ done on the offices owned
hy Harry Stonehill was a the so-called Blue Book
containing
a. the earnings of the corpora hun
b. names of companies owned by Stonehill
c. names of persons in and outside the govern·
ment who a llegedly received variOllS sum~ of
money from Stont>hill
d. names of government officials who allegedly
supported Stonehill in his commercial tran·
sactions

309
___ 23. President Macapagallovcd to c~ll himself the
"poor boy" from
·a . Angat c. Lubao
b. &color d. Tarlac
_ __ 24. Before President Macapagal issued an cxccutive
order changing lhe Philippine Independence Day
to June 12, this lllstori< event used to be celebrated on
a. Janua ry 23 c. August 23
b. July 4 d. September 15
_ __ 25. Experim~nr in the leasehold system during the
Macapagal administration was made in its first
land reform art>a which was
a. Bali wag c. Plaridcl
b. :Malolos d. San Fernando
_ _ 26. Sabah was given to the Philippines as <1 port of the
agreement between the sultan of Sulu and the
sultan of Brunei =til it was leased in 1878 to
a. United St11tes of America
b. Great Britain
c. Federation of Malaya
d. British North Borneo Company
_ __ 27. "lginuhit ng Tadhana," which was s hown in
theaters, is a film biography of
a. Dio.~dado Macapagal
b. Ferdinand Marcos
c. Ninuy Aquino
d. Hartzell Spence
_ __ 28. Prior to Pre~ident Marcos· term. the government-
owned bank "•hich became nearly insolvent d ue
to unpaid. loans of government corporation..; was
a. Philippine National Bank
b. L;md Bank of the Philippines
c. Development Bank of the Philippi nes
d. Bank of the Philippine Islands

310
___ 29. The joint conununique of the seven Ntions that
participated in the Manila Summit in 1966 gave
emphasis on conditio~~ on
a. North Korea c. 1'\orth Vietnam
b. South Korea d. South Vietnam
_ _ 30. In 1970, the youth leaders protesting at Mendiol;;~
and then a t Plaza Miranda wanted an assurance
that President Marcos
a. should release all political prisoners
b. would nut IUll for a third term
c. should not undermine communist activities
in the country
d. would not commit the country in the Indochina
cri~is

_ __ 31. 1\ur Misuari, a respected campus radical at UP in

them id-60s formally established the MNLF in 1971
in an island off the coast of P~m~k,
a. Indonesia c. Mindanao
b. Malay~ia d. Thailand
_ __ 32. Serving a~ the political arm of the Communist Party
of the Philippines was the
a. New l'r.ople's Army
b. Bangsa Moro Army
c. National Demo~:rat:ic Front
J. Kabataang Makabayan
___ 33. Senator 1\'ino>• Aquino mentio•led in his privileged
spel.'ch that according to some sources in the
Arml!d Forces, Manila and its envi ron~ would be
placed under martial law as found in
a. Oplan Capricorn
b Oplan Leo
c. Oplan Sagittarius
d. Optan Viq;o

311
 ___ 34. The implement.1tion of martial law pursuant tc:
Proclamation 1081 was signed by !'resident Marcos
on
a. September 21, 1971
b. Septt-mber 23, l9n
c. Sept~r 21. 1972
d. s~p tember 23, 1972
___ 35. In 1973, President Marcos ordered the irrunediare
ex_ecution of Lim s ..ng by firing squad for
a. murder c. kidnapping
b. rebellion d. drug trafficking
_ _ 36. In the plebiscite of January 10-15, 1973. the dtiY.t-n.s'
a~semblies composed of vol~rs were report~d to
have rati.fied the constitution in open and group
voting by
a. casting tht-ir ballots
b. raising th eir hands
c. having a forum first then cal'ting their ballots
d. writing tht-ir narnes on either "yes" or "no"
paper
_ _ 37. The 1973 Constitution establishcq a
a. pn:sidential form of government
b. parliamentary form of government
c. modified parliamentary form of govenunent
d. dictatorial goveTJUn('nt
___ 38. In the 1973 Constitution, the extension of the term
of the Prt'Sidt'Ilt beyond 1973 w a!l containt-d in the
... preamble
b. bill of rights
c. amendments
d. transitory provisions

312
_ · -- 39. In the 1978 1'a tional electi ons, the principal
contending party of the Kilus<~ ng &gong Lipunan
was
a. Liberc~ l Party
b. Lakas ng Bayan Party
c. laban ng Bayan Party
d. Naciona usta Party
_ _ 40. The Philippine Refugee Proces:sing Center (PRPC)
was established in
a. Bataan c. Cavite
b. Batangas d . Lagun,1
__ _ 41. P~sident :Marcos allowed 1\"inoy Aquino It) leave
the COlU\try in 1980 to
a. confer with rebel leaders to achieve pt·a~
b . ~tay wi th his family in Ma5sachusetts alter the
presi<.I.:-Illial pardon
<. undergo a heart bypa!;!! surgery in America
d . lU\dergo a knee operation
_ _ 42. The pre~idcnt of the Statehood USA movement
who ran against Mr. Marcos in the 1981 presidential
elections was
a. Alejo Santos
b. Bartolvme Cabangbang
c. Prospcro Olivas
d . Luther Custodio
_ _ _ 43. The acquittal of all the 26 accused in thf Aquino-
Galman double murder case was made hy the
a. Agrava Board c. military tribunal
b. Supreme Court d . S~tndiganbayan
_ __ 44. Mrs. Corazon Aquino agreed to run for pre!!idenl
in 1986 if
a. at least one million people would sign a
pe tition urging her to mn for that position
b. at le;ost two million people would sign a
petitinn urging her to run for that position

313
 c. Pmadent Marcoo would .resign
d. the political parties in the opposition unite.
_ _ 45. In the Tagumpay ng Bayan rally. :'11rs. Aquino
vowed to
a. improve living standard~ in the rural areas
b. reform the Armed Forces of the Philippines
c. le01d a civil disobedience campaign :~gainst
Marcos
d. reorganize the government
_ __ 46. During EDSA I, US Senator Paul Laxalt said Lo Mr.
Ma.rc05 to "cut (now)and cut cleanly" rru:aning that
a. the pl'oplc should be advised not to support
the miUtary defectors
b. there s hould be the restoration of
professionalism in the milit<' ry
c. he should proclaim Mrs. Aquino lhe winner
of the e)e('tions
d. he should now step down and leave
- -· . 47. The Constitu tio!la l Commission o f 1986 wa s
chaired by
a. Jose Diokno
b. Ce<iliG Muno.z-Palma
c. Jovito Salonga
d. Corazon Aquino
_ __ 48. ''Philippines: Fiesta L~lands of Asia," a five year,
program wa.s launched by the
a. Dcparlment of Tourism
b. Dcparlment of Foreign Affairs
c. Executive Department
d. Bureau oflmmigration
_ __ 49. The RP-US Mihtary Bases Agre€1llent expired in
a. 1990 c. 1992
b. 1991 d. 1993

314
_ .- 50. The historic signing of the GRP-MNLF Peace
Agreement took place on
a. Septemb~r 2, 1993
b. September 2, 1996
c. September 15, 1993
d. Septembt>r 15, I<J96
_ __ 51. The National Centennial Commission assigned
themes for every ye;~r from
a. 1992-L998 c. 1992-1999
b. 1994-1998 d. 1994-1999
_ _ 52. President Estrdda gave hi~ inaugural address at the
a. Quirino Gr01ndstand
b. Barasoai.n C hurch
c. Manila Hotel
d. Malacaii~ng Palace
_ __ 53. Globalization would affect the AP'EC countries
consisting of
a. 18 member st.ttes c. 21 member states
b. 20 mt>mber stales d. 24 m ..,.,.,.,~ ~ ; tates
- ·- 54. During the Estrada administration, one of the steel
bridges instaU~d in the country could be found in
one of the barrios of
a. Bustos c. San Ddefonso
b. Baliwag d. San Miguel
_ _ _ 55. For President Aroyo, healing should be with
a. charity c. compassion
b. justice d . eqtlality
,_ _ 56. The Supreme Court gave the Ombudsman the legal
authority to illc the cases of former President
Estrada which include plunder, illegal usE'S of alias
and
a. brraft and comtption c. bribery
b .. perjury d . tax eva$iOn

315
 ___ 57. The fir~t piece of legislation under the Arroyo
administJa tion wa~ about
a. clean air
b. power reform
c. anti-money laundering
d. solid waste management
_ __ 58. The GRP peace panel left for peace n egotiatiolls
with the NDF in
a. Switzerland c. Norway
b. France d . Malaysia
___ 59. Republic Act ~o. 9153 tralls{erred the culture
promo lions functions to the
a. Department of Education
b. National Corruni!\sion for Culture and the
Arts
<"· Commiss ion on Higher Education
d. Department of Tourism
_ _ 60. This natural gas project dubbed as Victoria 3 is
located in
a. Ca1:;ayan c. Tarlac
h. Palawiln d. Sulu

II. Essay: (10 pts. each)

J. How doe~ the Arroyo govenunentcombat tcnorism in the
country?
2. Explain the changes l>rought about by the mil lennium
cuniculum in the Elementary and High School levels.
3. What does the Fourth World Meeting of Families M l us?

316
 References

Al.ucon, Nortn.~ l. Pltilippin,• A r.:hil••ctun• During tlw Pr.•-Spo11Q;h ""'I

Sp<tni.<h Pt>riotf.<. :'vlanila: t:ST Publishing Hou,;c, 1991 .
Badago.n, Louie. lvfani/a Bay, J898 ·Nt'<lt'r wn> 1/i<'r~ allt!lll•·mDro• rlwaply
w.m!' .K.tlayaan Volume 3, No.5, 1998.
Begomi.l. Mik~ L. Rio Alma U11n lw11g Milenyum. (1963-1981). Qn~zon
City: u.r. Press, 1998.
l:lucc hh!r, Soledad B. Th~ Cry nf Balinlnwak, A Contriwd Cor~trover~y.
Quezon City: Ateneo de Manild University I'rcss, 1WS.
(;as,, I, Fr. G.1b ricl 5., et al. Ko:<~'!J"fl!Pl"· Tht- Story of th.· Yilipino flt>oplr.
Yol\•m~ II, Asia Publishing Company Limi ted, 1998.
Cervantt:'S, I.Pticia. f.rup Pro ·Poor f'rogmm iti Pine~. MagNo:gv:>yo, May,
1999.
Constantino, R~nato and l.eti:f.ia R. Const.lntino. T/J(: Philip,mw,;: .4
PnM Revisited. Quezon City: Renato Conslantino, 1993.
Cnnlirwou.< S!•arch for Suslainnl>lr Dn't'lopment. Sta. Mari,l Municip<~l
PlMming and Dcvelopml•nt Office, 1998.
Corpu:r, Onofre D. Saga nnd Triumph (T7tr Filipino R.-r'Oiution A}~lliMt
Sptilll. Manih1: t>hilippine Centenni.>l Commission, 1999.
Corpu:t, Onof•·e D. '!'he Roo/> of th, f•lipino Nn:in11. Vol. Il. Q11e7.on
City: AKLAHl FoundMion, me., 1989
Cortes, Ros~rio M, et al. Tlw Filipi11o 5.1:0:•1. l fislory ns Socinl Clumg~.
Quezon City: :-Jew Day Publishl'r:<, 2000.
Cris lobal, Adri.m E., cd .. Siglo, A ]oumnl of flu• Nntionnl Cmtmnial
Commis.,icm. Manila: Commlttw un Publication nf Cen tennial
Matl'ri.als, 1998.
Cruz, l.saga1u A.Pltilippin~ Political Litw. Qui"'J.On City: Central
Lawbook Publishing Co., fnc., 1991.
De Ped ro, Emesto. The "C1tholic Unit" of tire Impmal fupnnt'S<' Army.
1942· Its Frttile Courtship of tire Catholic Church of lh<' Philirr,ines.
Manila: University of Santo Tomas, 1996.
~Ia Costa, Father lloracio. Re11dings in Philippinr HiMnry. Makati
City: llookmark, Inc., 1992.

317
F~j.1rdo,Fclid,1nn R. f.conmuic D~vflopmmt. Manila: :\'ational Book
Stondnc., 1994.
I'cdder, Edwin II. NATO: 'l'hl' Uywmric~ of AllimlC<'> in the Post war
World. :-Jew York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1993.
Fcm.;ndcz, Samuel P. Plrilippinr History: To;IQgnlphy uml Cullure.
Qut-:e.on City. Velprint Corporation, 1998.
Garcia, :V!anucl B. Social Problems in tire. Philippine' Cont~:rt. Metro
Manila: !'-Javotas Press, 1994.
Ccologo, Fr.md:; A and Bernard ita Keyes Churchill. Cmfetmial PaPfn;
on lite K11tipunun .and tile Reuolution. Manila: :-Jalional
Commi~sion for Culture and the Acts, 1999.
Halili, Maria Christine N. A Hi~tory of lht! Bultlcan Military Arm
Mott<'lll<.'llt During the Jnp1mrse Occuptltion, unpublished M.A.
thesi~, t: niversity of San to Tomas, October, 200(1.
l!lon Fncts atld Figures. Manila: lbon Philippines Databank and
Re~ar<h Center. Volume 18, No. 23 and 24, De<ember 15 and
31, 1'195.
Jbun Speci11l R~/e.ase, People's Policy and Advocacy Studies. Manila: !bon
Philippines Databank and Research Center. No 39, Octo~r 15,
1998.
Jleto, R~ynaldo C Fili11inosand th,•ir Revolution. Quezon City: Atenco
de M;mila University Press, 1998.
Isla, Carlo P. 104 day.> thnl gripped lltl' nation ,md UST. The Varsitarian.
Tanu11ry 2f>, 2001.
Joaquin, Nick. M.mi/11, My Manila, Makati City: Bookmark Inc., 1999.
joS£>, Ricardo T. "TJr,•Japant'!'e Occup~~tioJt ", KPsaysay;m, the Story of tile
Filipino People. Vol. VI. Asia Publishing Company Limited, 1998.
Kahnyon, Alicia H. and Cdia a Zulueta Philippi11e Utemtr~re Throu~lr
tile Yt•ars. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store, In~ .• 2000.
K<ll,lmbakal. jupiter I •. Nnfion Cl'iebratt•s lllr Cmte•mial oftM Fi•st Flag
Hoistiug i11 Mindanao. Kal<~ya.ln Spedal Supple>mE'nt, January
l'N'I.
Lardizabal. Amparo S. Be(lutiful Philir,pines. :\1;:mila: Rex Flook Store,
Inc., 1':192.
Leut"rio, Florida C. Philippine History and Covemment, A Cr.ntmniul
Edilnrial. Manila; St. Agusline l'uhlications, Inc., 1998.
Mnrqu<>~:,Albl!rto T. Worl<l War 1l Gurrril/;•s in the Plli/ippines. Que7.on
City: ).lew D,,y Publishers, 1992.

318
 :vfartin, Marian C. Mr1sonry 1111d t~ Philippine &volution. Kalayailn,
Vol. 3, No. 10, October I9Y8.
Micro$oft t::nmrfa l::o•cyclopedia 2000. United States: Microsoft
Corporation.
Molina, Antonio. Du...;k m•d Ditwn in Ihr. Philq>pinl"S, M·muirs ofa living
Witmo;;s of World Wt1r ll. Quezon City: New Day Publishers; 1996.
Nakpil, Carmen Guerrero. History Today. Metro MAnila: Vessel Books,
1996.
Narvo1sa, An<.lrl'ti R. Ucture ou lilt' MaJo/os Const itution. 1\"ationa.l
Ccnt~nnial Commission. &>ptcmber 13, 1996.
Nav.1 rro, 1\toy, M.:~ry Jane Rodriguez and Vicente ViU.1n. Pnntayong
Panlllllllv: tlflnl at Kabuluh1111, Pnmbwtgnd so P11g-11arn/ ng Bagong
IVIoii!J~II!f<lll. Mandaluyvng: Palimbagang Kalawakan, 1997.
r.
Patanfte, Eulenio Thf Philippi""~ i11lhe 6th to 16th Onturies. Metro
Man if,,: LSI\ Press, Inc., 1996.
l'aular, f~egina
1'. Hlipinof; in Histar.IJ. Manila: National Historical
~tih1e,1990.
Pelmo ka, juan). Pre-Spani..'!h Philippinl's. CatOOcan City: Philippine
· Graphics 1\rt'!, Inc., 19%.
l't>rez, R,lfad H.. et al. Currml ~iallssw!l. Manila: Rt!" Book Sto•-e,
Inc., 1997.
Philippint~. Tlw lkM oftht> fs/mufs iCD·ROM). Manila: Department of
Tourism, 1997.
l'ohrc, Cellar P. HiMory oftit•' Arm~d Forces of thl' Filipino P('Cipk Quezon
City: New nay Publisht>rs, 2000.
Ptmvnb-bayan, Raynnmdo S., el al. Knsay>nynn, Thr. Story oftile Filipilto
People. Volume I, Asia Publishing Company Limited, 1998.
Ramos. Fidel V. 1\ Call to Duh; (Citiunsl!ip tmd Civic Responsibility in
Third World Dfntocnu:y). friends of Steady Eddie, 1993.
R.1mos, Fidd V. To ~·\lin fllf Future. !People F.mpowtrmmt for' National
Dt't'!'lopmmt). Friends of Steady Edt!iP, 1993.
Ri.z.al. Jose P. His:oricnl Ec..-uts f1[ tlr£ Ph11ipt>inr Islands 1nt Dr. Antonio
d( Morgrz. Manila: NationalJiistorical Institute, 1990.
Slllttll· to t/11! 50111 Am:irlt'rsary, Liberation of Bt!gt1io City. Philippine
fnfonnation Agency, April27, 1995.
S.llilzar, Jose A. and A.C. Polintan. Dahmzg Pnng·alirala sa Pi:;ta ng
Baymrg HagollO!f. January 17, 1992.
Sanchez, Custodia A. and Fe B. Agpoa. Cunt(mpomry Social Problems
1111d 1>~1/l'$. Man,hluyong City: National Book Store, Inc., 1997.

319
Santos, Hector. " Lilemcy in Pre-! fisp.mic Philippines'' in A PhiUfJpiTU.'
Lmfat http:I /W>vw.bibingka.com/dahon / literacy / litcrJcy.htm.
US, October 26, 19'16.
Santos, He<: tor. '"The lag\IIlCI Copperplate Inscription" in A Philippine
Leaf a t http:/www.b ib ingka.com /dahon / Ici / lct.ht m. US,
October 26, 1996.
Sdu-eur~, Peter. Angry Days iu Mindanao (Tht' Philippine• R.~mlulion
and the War Against thr US i11 East amJ Nortl~ Mindauao 1897-
1908). Manila: l\alicmal Ilist<Jrica l Instituc, 2000.
Scott, William Henry. Looking for the. Pre.lti>panic Filipino. Quezon City:
N ew Day Publishers, 1992.
Studenl's Hat\dbook, Makati City: Salesiana l'ublishers, Inc, 19':/!S.
The Philippi"'- flag. Manila: Philippine Cent~nni~l Commission and
Philippi»<' H istory and Government Through tht' r~nrs .
'Manda lu yong City: Nalional Book Sto re, Inc. 2003 and the
:'\lation,,ll-listorical ln..~titutc,
. .1997.
Tirol, Loma K. Tite World of1896. Makati: Bookmark Inc., 1998.
Tubangu i, Helen R., et al. The filipino N.>titm, A Conci;t' Hislory of the
Philippiue:;. Bdited by Jum Jaskins, United States: G rolier
International, 1992. ·
Veneracion, Jaime B. t:d. Ang Kilu,;~mg MIIS<l .<a Kasn!J'><~.I((mg Pilipino
(1900.1992). Quezon City: CSSP Publica tions, l9'J.J.
Vcneracion, J~ime B. ed. 100 Taor1 Prim.·r 1lmgkol ;u Rebol!t~yo11g
Pilipitw. 18%. Quezon Cily: Lupon sa Sentinaryo, U.P., 1995.
Viana, Augusto V. Tit<• C(ll/nixmrtion lssut' During Worlcl War II in the
1'/tilippines. Mast<:>r's ThE'sis, Manil01: L:niversity of Santo Tomas,
1995.
Vivar, Tcoiista D. Economic '/JworifS and Princi1'tes. Quezon Ci ty: Vibal
Pub lishing Houst!, Inc .. 1998.
Wionzek, Karl-Heinz, ed ., Gmnuuy, fh<' Pltilippirw;. and the Sp.uzisli·
Americ~n WM {four Accounts by Offit;l'r; of t/u' lmpt:rilt! Gmmm
NnvyJ. M~nila: National ll istorical Institu te, 2000.
/.aide, Sonia M. The PhilippiHl'S: A Uniqu1' Nntion. Quezon City: All
Nations Publi•hing Co., Inc., 1994.
Zulu eta, Fra ncisco M. Genernl Sociology Mandal uyo ng Ci ty:
Academic Publishing Corporation, 1998.
Zulueta. FranciS<"O M . •1nd Abriel M. 1\:cbrcs. Philippirtt' History nr~d
Co-v.•rnmeu / Titn>ltgltllw. Y~ars. Mandaluj'Ong City: :\<tHana! Book
Store, Inc., 2003.

320
 Index
1935 Constitution, 188. 211
1935 National ~lectiom, 200
1935 Philippine Constirution.
251,2.68
1953 Presidential elections, 258
1973 Consutution, 270, 280
1987 Philippine C.on.~lirurion, 279
1996 Peace .'\gtttmcnt. .l 02
4"' World Mc..'ting of Fdmilic•.
304
A Aglipayan Ch urch, 19.1
A'lam, Sultan JdmaluJ, 126
Abad Santos, Jose, 114
Abad Santos, Pedro, 212
Abad, JUJ~n, 1~1
AbariUo, Lt. Macario A., 243
Abaya, Federico ~~~lo, 153
Abba. 58
A~bas, :\1acapanton, Jr., 293
Abelardo, Nicanor, 190
Ablan, Gov . Roque, 236
Abonginc:5 of the Philippmes, 40
Abra, 27
Absolute Spirit, 2
Abu Bakr, 52
Abu Sabaya, 292
Abu Sayya(, 292
Acab. Vidal, 142
Academic refonns, 88
Academy of Drawing and Paint·
ing, 89
Act "fAgreemenJ, 152
Act of the Drclaration <>fPhilip-
pinelndependencc, 161
Acta de Tejeros, 149
Adam and E•·c, 16
Admiral7beng He, 50
Adriano, Numeriano, 136
Adriatiro, Macario, I SO
Aetas, H
321
AFFB (Agrava Fact Finding
Board), 275
AFP (Ar med Fo~t:es of the Phil·
ippincs), 286, 289
African conti nc nt, 2 0
Age or contact, 4S ·
AC.CFA {Agricultural C:redit 0>-
operadvc Financing Administra·
tion), 255, 259
Aglipay, Bishop Gregorio, 188,
192, 19.\
Agno River, 99
Agoncillo , Dol! a Marcela M ari-
ito, 162
Agrava, Corazon Juliano, 2i5
Agricultural Credit Cooperari...e
Financing Administration
(ACCrA). 255, 259
Agncultural Land Reform Code,
2b<t
Agricultural modernization in
Mindanao, 30 l
Agricultural people, 41
Agricultural practic~. 43
Agricultural revolution, 42
Agriculrutal Tenancy Act of
1954,258
Aguinaldo, Ba.ldomero, 147, 162,
178
Aguinaldo, Emilio. 145, 147, 148,
149, lSI, ISS. 156, 157. 162,
163, 16~. 167, 169, 178, 188,
192
exile of, 152
govcrnmeru:, 176
Gmeral, 183
mo,·ement, 192
A&usan, 27
Agustin, Marcos Y., 236
Ailing «anomy, 283
Albay, 7 .tniw. 68
AlaJide-Mayot, 83, 93 Anniversaries ofthe Filipino na-
Alcarazo, Don Juan de, t 13, 114 tional h~rocs, \90
Alejandrino, Castro, 239 Anti·clcrical commmt.uy, 13.\
Alexandrian scltolaJ, I 7 Anti·Dummy .Law, 209
Allm and Hutfhutf, 46 Anti-Marcos sentiment in the
Alipin, 56, 57 country, 2 77
Aliping namamaJoA)I 57 Antl·nationalistlaw, ll!l
Aliping sagigilid, 57 Apa; 227
Ali~ao, 123 Apacihte, Galicano, l.l5
Allah, 53 Apani, 24
Almazan, Pedro, 117 APEC (Asia Pacific F.cono.nac
Al·Qaeda organization, 303 Cooperation), 288
Alvarez, Ueherson, 281 Apo lpe. 194
Alvarez, Mariano, 147 Apostol. Cecilio. 168
Amadeo. Ul Aquino de Belen, Gaspar, 90
America.223 Aquino, Agapito, 2&2
Americancavally, 242 Aquino. Benigno, 230.259, 270,
American colonial era, 22 274,275
American colonial govemtn<!nt, dealh,27S
189 Investigation of, 275
American era, 191 murder, 275
AJnericanjazz. 189 l!ial, 275
AJnerican liberalism. l2S Aquino, Pr(s. Cara:ron C., 276,
American military rule, 17S 277.281,283,297
American mine operator. 236 administration (19&6·1992),
in cht Philippines, 2J6 279
American m.ode of dlessing, 19() foreign trip~. 231
American ntwJpaptr. 1S9 Aquino, Eusebio, 239
Aromcan(>C(Upation, 190, 194 Aquino-Galman double murder,
Ameri~an period, ISO 275
American prisoner~, 178 trial, 27S
American public schools, 188 Arandia. Gov Utn. Manuel de,
American revolution. 190 12S
AmCl'ican rule, 181 Aianeta, Gemma Cruz, 292
Anu,iam Soldier, \89 Aranet.a, Gregorio, 166
American, •ictozy of, ISS Araneta. Vicente. 260
k~ericanistas or pr<rAmeriQlns, 179 Archarologw:al rtlit·s, 48
Anda. Gov. Simon de, 119 ('Opper \mage ofGanesha, 48
Anda.ng, Ghalib, 292 Garuda, 4S
Anderson, CaJ)I. Bemard L.. 23 7 god Garu4a pendant ofPala·
Andres Malong's Revotc, 117 wan,4&
Pangasinan (1660·61), 116 gold am age of Agusan, 4&
Angara, Edgardo, 281 Archaeology. 5, 1, 4()
Animal life, 211 Acdtipelago of St. Lazarus, 22

322
 ArchitectUrdl plan, 191 156, 157, 192
AreUano, Caye1ano, 192 Augustiruan mi$S10naries, 94
J\reUano, Ocudato, 136, 139 Aurora, 24
Arellano, Gen. Alfonso. 262 Austra!o Melanesian. 40
Arevalo, Bonifacio, 136 Austrian govemrocnt, 290
Aristocracy, 57 aSl.ist.l nce of the, 290
Armed Fo~<.~s of 1M Philippines, Awonomo~ Reg~on in Muslim
257. 2n Mindanao (AR.tviM), 23
t\RMM (Autonomous Region in Avancena. Chief Justice Ramon.
Muslim Mindanao), 291 208
Army of National Liberation, 255 Avcntajado, Roben,292
1\rmy oflhc Republic, 169 A•.., de Rapirl4, lS9
Amis, 61 Avi4tion Security Command
Arrecllcdera, Bishop Juan M , 125 (AVSECOM), 274, 275
Alloyo AdmillJStration (2001- AVSECOM (AYoacion Security
2004), 298, 299 Command), 274, 275
dir~hon for economic recov- Awir (songs), 48
ery,199 :· Awitsa Paglikha ng 'Bagong
pro-poor programs. _,OJ Pilipinas", 233
thrust of gnvemment, 299 A)IlOna, Domina.doc, 262
An of mttallurJ:Y, so
Anacho, ls~belo, lSI B
Artifact, 47 Babdy{an, Ill
Anwo.-ks, 55 llabuyan Channel, l7
Arza, Don Manuel de. 120 lla£al:zo, Ralll, 294
Asbatos, 29 .Ba<ljao(s), 32, 33, 64
Ashfalls, 282 Bagba.ll Rivers, 176
Asia Pacific Eco nomic C'.oop.:ra- Ba&Qbos,64
tion (APEC). lSS and ll'laans of Davao del Sur,
member stall'S, 2.88 32
A51an tu1oni..:trs, 233 Bagong Lipunan I mprovemenr o f
Asian history and culture, 232 Sita and Setvi«s (BUSS), 2i 3
Asian Millennium, 304 &,g<mg Sibol, 182
ASO<;aciot1 de Dallf•s de Fillpinas, llaguio Ocy, 24
29! Bagumbaya n 131
.Asociocion {k J'IIZ, 179 Balrag, 62
organizer~. 179 Bah4y ~..Do. 63
Astbenosphere. 18 Databac, 20
Atayde, Juan. 134 /Ja/IU!g<:y, 4 s
Atencu de Manila, 8 discovery of, 45
Atlas, 17 .Balangay DimasalaJl8, 145
ATOM (August Twenty-O ne 8olangJooi, 73
Movemeot), 274 Batatuk:an Mountain, 25
Audinu:ia RaJ, 113, 102 .&liltatan, 303
Augustin, Gov. Gen. Basilio, l:la~ngit, Pedro, Ill
 Ballot box snatching, 276 largest, 28
lWmori. Joaqu•n, 197 Banle in La Loma, 175
Bambalito, SO Banle o f Bagbag River. 176
Bamboo jaw harps , 00 Baute of Cape Engaflo, 24 2
Banal, Juan, Ill Bante of lmus, 147
B.mda Pasig, 165 Battle of Mactan, 74
&nJalo, \1 6 Bau)t, of M.anila, 163, 133
Bandboltz, Col. Harry II., !Sot Battle of Manila J:lay, 155
Bangsa Morn, 271 Battle of Marawi, 127
Bangs~ Moro A rmy (1:\.MA), 210 Banle of Mendiola, 268
Bankaw, 113, 114 Banle of Mount Puray, 151
aankaw's revolc, Leyte, (1622). Battle of Pinaglabanan. 143
113 Banle of Samar, 242
Banks. 227 Battle ofS utigao Strait , 242
Ranulan. 12 5 Battle of l'ua d Pa$$, 178
Barang,\y, 40, 41 , 56, 5i Battle of :.Capote. 146
elections. 280 Bautista, 1\.mbrosio Rianz.urs,
llarasoain Church, 165, 166, 168 156, 162
Barbosa. Duarte, 71 BAYAN (B"~gong Alyansa~ Ma-
Barcelona, 135 kabayan). 274
flareuo, A~no. 180 Bayuni Aan, 34
llMnett, C.a ptatn Ufo rge, 236 spirit of, 34
Bun>. 63 &,nmiilan Spirit, 305
Sarong Ta~alog, 2,8 · &ybuyin, 47
Basa, Josr Maroa, 131 Royong , 227
Rasa, Pio Matia, 131 Bayot, Col. Francisco, 122
Ba.•a. Roman, 138, 139 Beatcrio de Ia Ca mpania de Je-
Basco, Jose, 92 sus, KS
Basi, 60 BF.C (Rasic Education CuTTicu.
Basi. ('.eronimo, Ill lum), 301
Fla.<r revolt (1807), 121 llt'f:he<:, Pedro. 120
cause, 121 Rei!. Major, 171>
Bataan Defenst l'orce, 215, 211 Bel.trmino, Vito, l40
Ba taan Peninsula, 216, 217 Beliefs and ritua ls, 3S
Rataan, 21 7 Jlcn Missio n, 256
taU of, 214 Bell Repon, 256
historic defense. z 17 Bell Trade Act, 255
surrender of, 219 Bell, Gen. Franklin. 180
Batak, 32 BeDo, Silvestre Ill. 303
Batasang Pambansa. no, 279 Benevolenr-As~imilation Procla-
Bares, John. 175 m.u.ion. 174
Bar!raia, 46, 58 Beyer, llenry Otley, 6, 7, 34
Bato, Sorsojlcn, 7 Beyer's m igration theory, JS
~.2& Biak-na·Bato Republic, 151, 152
smallest, 18 authority of. 156

324
 officials, 152 Burial coffins, 43
Bicol, 28
Bicol Region, 23 c
Bicolanos, 31 C<1banalan, 5ll
Bin Laden, Osama. 30J Cabanatuan, 223
Binatog, 226 Cabangbang, Capt. Banolome,
l!inwangan (Ohando), 47 238,261,262.273
Birth control,284 C,haa de &uu'Jgay, 82
methods of, 2M Cabili, Tomas, IS7
'Sisruta, 4 7 Cabinet Crisis ofi92J, 185
Blanco, Father Manuel, 91 Cabot. Sebastian, 76
'BUSS, 2H Cagayan. 6, 117
Blumentriu, l'er~inand, 1:\4 Cagayan regjon, 23
Board oflnformauon, 233 Cagayan River, 26
Boar building, 48 Cagayan Valley, 8
Body ornaments. 44 Cagayancillo in Palawan, 27
Bognot, Cu\lo. 197, 19S Cagrard.y, 7
Bonifacio, Andres. 136. 13&, Cagsawa, 26
140, 141, 142, 14.1, 149, 162 CAL (China Airlines). 274
day, 190 \.alarniane~. 2t
monument, 191 Calao. 111
Bonifacio, Ciriaco, 150 Calatagan, 7
Bontot.s..12 Calderon, Fe-lipe C., 166. 16"/
Rothoan, 60 Calendar, 62
&sm4ing Bil/uw, 189 religious, 9S
Bourbon, Print·e Alfonso de, 1 ~3 Calicut, lodiii, 69
BourCcfkx, 56 Camp Agwnaldo, 271
Braganza, Hem.mi, 303 Camp Rushta in t.anao del Sur,
Braude!, Fernand, 3 294
Brigotu!age Aa, 181, 182, 184 Camp Jerusalem, 239
passage of, 182 Camp John Hay, 243
Briones, Samuel, 8 \.amp Murphy, 2S6
Brtlcka, Lino, 280 Camp O'Doonel, 21 s
!:!rooks. Robert P.. 263 Capas. 219
Uudiman, Sultan Pangiran, 123 Cape of Good Hope, 69,75
Buenavista Regiment. 238 Cape Verde Islands, 70
Buencamino, Felipe, 179 Capital offense~. 281
Bugtong (riddles), 48 CAP.\1 (Cory Aquino for Prcsi·
Building Str\l(tl.lre, 94 dent Movement), 2 76
l:!ubneg, Pedro, 90 Cap!1lrc of ~anila, 157
Bulacan, 24 Carahallo Mountain, 26
guerillas. 238 Caraballo Range, 24
Bulwagan, 63 Carahao Fesuval, 97
l:luranuns. 46 Ca~ Adminisrranve Region,
Bureau of Religious Affairs,l3.1 23

325
 cardenas, Ramon, 291 Clleng Cheng-l'Ullg, 100
Carigara, 1 B, Chtn,g Ho, 50
people of, 113 Chico, l7
Cariilo, Nicola.<, 120 ChiefofMedang,47
CARL {Comprehensive Agrarian China, 6, 7
Reform Law}, 280 China Airlines (CAL), 274
Cabarruyan lsla.nd, 7 China Sea, 21
C'.arreon, Frandsco, 183 Chinese, 30
Carrilla, 139 imlnigtation,93
C•scc{s), 224, 228 in tilt Philippines, 97
Ca~tillo, And.res. 262 merclwrts, 33, 99
Castillo, Mateo, 152 mestizos, 98
Catastrophism, 17 revolt, 99,100
Catechism. 133 tladers, 21, IOl
Catholic Ch~Ueh, 284 Chocolate HiUs, 26
Catholic devotiofl, 194 Cllristian, n
Catholic religion, 8i history, 97
Catholicism, 94, 102. 193 Filipinos, 175
.Catholics belief!., 24 maniage, 78
Cave of Bernardo Carpio, 141 religion, 3l
Caveman, 34 way of life, 95
Cavite Mutiny of 1&72, IJO, 132 Cluistianity, influence of, 95
CBCl' (Catholic Bishops' Cooti!r- . Cluistianization of the Filipinos,
ence of the Philippines}, 284 94,
Cdlu,&, n Christianized Malays, 30
Cebuanos. 31 Chu:fon-dli, 49
CEDI' (Community Employment Church, 224
and ~elopment Program). Cllurch and stare, !67
280 separation of, 167
Celcbt'S Sea, 22 CIA (Cenual Intdligence
Cenozoic era, 19 t\gency), 292
tcniary period of the, 19 Cid, Cipriano, 253
Census CommissioD, 211 Cimdo HupaM-Fi/ipino, 134
Census day. 180 City of the Most Holy Name of
Centennial programs, 287 Jesus, 77
slogan, 2&7 Cillllarf acl SanJissit>w Nombrrde
Central Lw.on, H Jesus, 11
Ccnuat Mindanao, H Civilian emetgency Admlnistra·
CcnU'al Plain in LU7.on, 24,27 tion. 212
Central Visayas, 23 Civilization, 41
Ceron, Alvaro Saaved!a. 76 Clark Air Base in Pampanga, 282
Cha-C.ha (Charter Cballl:e), 286 Clark Field Air !lase in Pampa-
Champa,46 ng;~,25l
Chart&, l7 Ctaveria, Gov. Gen. Narciso, 125
Chau-Ju-kua, 21, 49 Clemente, Juan, 95

326
 C~mares, 20. 30
warm and ~·old, 20
Clolh wt".avi.Qg, 45
C'oa~tion party, 188
Coastal s~tf. 20
of Aumalia. 21
of Southeast Asi4, 20
Cobble too~. 4l
Code of .Kalantiaw. 9, 10, ll
Cofradia de Sao Jo>c, 193
Cohen, William, 289
Cojoangco, Corazon. 274
Cojuangco, r:duvdo. 277
Colegio de San Juan de Lettan.
88
Co1egio de Santo Tomas, 88
College of Manila, 87
College of San Ignacio, 87
College of Santa Potendana, 8J
Colorum organization, 194
Colorum rebellion. 195
Colorums, 193. 194, 195
Columbus, Chrisrop~. 69
ClMINia,<IO
C"'MEL EC (Commission on
Elections), 276,271
Conun.ander Robot. 292
Commission on l::lection, 211
Committee on Labor Org.aniza·
tion, 253
Commonwealth ConstitUtion,
200
Commonwealth of r.be Philip·
pines, !87, 208
the transition, 208
Commonwealth perioc1. 203
Conununkation,33, 128
improvement in, 128
Communism, 198
Communist Milniresto, 3
Commumst P.uty of the Philip-
pints, !98
Community, 4~
~.7 1
Conl~or, Gov. Tomas, 239
327
Con~ress of the Philippines, 211
Conley, prosecution of, 186
C<>nquis:<Ui<>res, 15
Constabulary, 22.5
Constantino. Renato, 3, 4
Consunrinople, 69
Constitution, drafting of, 187
Constitutional Commission, 279,
180
Constitutiona I Convention, 199
Coruu1t.ltive Assembly, 156
Consumer Cooperative league of
the Philippines, 210
Continental s~1f, .20. 21
Cooper Act, 179, llrl
Copper' 29. 30
Copper mines, 24
Corcuera. Gov., 12~
Cordilkra, 62
Cord.illen l\dmin4tralive Region
(CAR), 23
Coroillera Ral\jle, 24
Core populllion theory, 35
Core tool$. 41
Comisl\, Rear Admiral Sa muel,
101, 102
Cor~dor, 217,21 8,224
Malinta. tunnel, 219
Corrtgiliores, 8)
Com!JSimlmt<>s, 83
Cory Aquino tor Pmident Move-
ment (CAPM), 216
Corabatn, 32
Cotton industry. 22 7
Council of' Trent, 129
Council of war, 150 .
Coun of Agrarian Relations. 2~
Court of ln.d usoiil Relalions, 208
1!$Ublishment, '208
CPP (Communist Party of the
Philippines), 285
Cc aftsmrn, native. 98
Creation, story of, 16
"Crossroads of the Pacific". 22
Crux, Juan Marapang, 181
Cry of Balinrawak, 143 Datu Puti. 9
Cry of Pugadla win, 143 Datu Sumakw'CI, 9
Cuban, 152 Datu Zula, 74
Constitution. J52 D atu Macabaog, 79
rebels, 154 Datu Madidans. 79
revolution, 154 Davao dd Sur. 8
sttuggte, 15J "Dawn Man•, 34, 35
Cu~a.Fefipa,239 Dayag, Ga!>ricl. 112
<.'ullnary art of tile early Filipi· DDB (Dangerous Drugs Boar4),
nos, 50 JO<l
Cults, 24 de Aguil.lr, Geronimo, 91
C.'ultural artifd~'lS. s de Agu<tO, M~gr. Pedro, 90
CultuJal Center of the Philippilles de Alba, Fr. Juan, 79
(CCP}, 266 d~ Alida, Gov. Gen. Simon. 100,
CuliU!al changes, 129 102
Cultural evolution, 40 de Arana. Pedro, 78
Cultural uadition, 3 1 de BeJcrt, Ga_~par Aquino, 90
Culture, 33. 3~. 46 de Benavid~. Fray Miguel, !8
Curfew. implc:rocntation of, 270 de Bustamante. GO..·. Gen. Fer-
Currency, 227 nando Manuel, 92
Cushing, Walter, 236 d.e Camuz, Juan, 77
Custodio, Brig. Gen. luther,l7' de Cb.avcs, Capt. Pedro. \12
Customs and traditions, 48 de Corcuera, Gov. Gen. Sebas-
of the early Filipino, 48 tidn Huttado, 85, 99
Cuta!lay, Ft>Ji.<, 112 de F'spinosa, Gomez, 7S
de Folgueras, Gov. Mariano. 12.2
l) de Gama. Vasco, b9
UA ~rtmcnt of Agriculture), de Goiti, Ma.rshal Martin, 19, 80,
301 98
IJilgohoy, FranciSCI), 118 de Je$US, Gr~oua, B8
J.)agohoy's Revolt, Bohol (1 744- de Ia Cruz Palari1. Juan, 103
1829), 118 de Ia Cruz, Apoijnario, 122
cause, I 18 de J.a Cruz, Jose. 90
Uagll ma range, 25 de Ia Cruz, Juan, 189
Uai1y Mirror. 259 de Ia Rosa, lope, 240
Uandan, Father Pedro, 131 de Ia Torre. Gov. Gen. Carlos
lJ apita.n, Zamboanga del Norte, 6 Maria. 129, JJo
l);uag;~ {Cagsawa), 26 de Ia VIlla, Jo~. 180
IJ4mtigan, 46 de las/Uas,Severino, 177
Datu. 9, 56. 51 de lavezaris, Gov. Guido, 110
Datu llalensu5a, 9 de Legazpi, Agustin. 1I I
Datu Bangtaya, 9 de lcgazpi, Miguel Lopez, 77
Datu Durnan,gsil, 9 ae loaysa. Caplain Garcia Jofrt,
Vatu Kafantiaw, II 76
Oatu Paiburo"8, 9 de lo >Reyes, !sabeto, IJJ, 141,

328
 193, 196
de los Rios, Gen. Du~go, 164
de los Santos, F,pifanio, J68
de Marquina, Gov. Gen. Fdix
Berengucr, 9.l
de Mas, Don S•mbaldo, 93
de Morga, Dr. Antonio, o
de;.! atividad, n~lfina llerbosa,
162
de Oliv~r. Fray Juan, 90
de Otaduy, F.ulogio, 93-94
de Pc~alosa, Gov. Geo. Gonzalo
Roquillo, 98
de Rheta, Gov. Gen . Fernando
Primo, 93
de Sala:.titr, Archbishop D~r
mingo, R7
de Salcedo, Juan, 79, 80
de Santo Tomas, Frdy Pellro.
112
de Urdaoct.a, Father An!lre3, 77
de Va ldcrama, f'r. Pedro, 71
de Vega, Col. l.udo, JM
de VcfiC(ia, Jose, 181, 288
de Vc.ra, Fr. Melcbor, J 14, 116,
IN
de Villa . RenaiO, 2&8
de Villalobos, Ruy Lopez:, 76
Death march, 216, 21S, 137
l)(ath penalty, 226, 281
Decade of unrest, 111
Dectarlltlon of the Philippine l n-
depcndcncc, 167
Declaration ofllu: Rights ofM,m
(1789}, 136
Decorati"e ~. 48
DECS (Department ofEd.uca-
tion, Culture and Sporu), 30 I
Defensor, Michael T ., J 00
Defensor-Saoriago, Miriam. 188
Deglaciarion, 20
del Cano, Juan S<!bastian, 75
del CastiUo, francisco, 146
del Pilar Regiment, 237
del Pilar, Gen. Gregorio . 157,
329
178
del Pilar, MaR-clo 11., 132, IJ3,
134, 135, 141
del Pilar , Pio, 149. 157
del Rosariu, Salva.dor V.. 168 ·
del Rosario, Tomas, I i 9
Delgado, Fr. JLW1 J.. 22
Delgado, Gen . .Martin, I M
Democracy, 135
principles of, 191
Democrata Pany, 136
Democratic Alliance, 251
Democratic JOnrn~ot, J 79,
195
Democratic labor Union. 193
Dent, Alfred, 126
Depanment of Education (Dep.
Ed). 301
rocu~es on the 3R.s,l02
Deparunent of Envhonrntnt and
Natural Resowct• (DENR), 26
Department of In !Ormation, 243
LJepal1llltnt of Jusuce (DOJ), 294
!Jepartrntnt of labor and Em-
ployment (DOLE), 289
Uepal1:rtlent ol J'ational ~
(DND}, JOJ
Depanment or Public Works and
Highways (lWWH}, 295
Department ofTourism (DOn.
280
Department ofTradt and Indus-
try (DTI), 295
Deparonent ofTraru portalio o
and CommWiicatioo (DOTC},
299 .
Dern, Gco~gt, 208
Pespotism, downfall of, 219
Pcspujol, Gov. Gen. Eulogio,
1.16
O~c\oped Iron Age, 44
Dewcy,armorcdcruises, ISS
~ey,c;cor,ge, 155, IS7, 163
Dewey's H<lg.Ship Olympia, 189
Dewey's forces, 16J
Diari«rf( Tugtl/cg, l 32 P umagucte C".lty, 8
Oiaz, Banolomc, 69 Oupuy Cle Lome, 154
Diaz, Caroido Lopez, 92. Duque, Faustino, 141
Din, Alimud, 102 Duran, Pio, 241
Diokno. Jose W ., l63, 270, 17'1 Dutch assauhs, 10 I
Diokno, NarciSQ, 187 Durie&to be obstn-ed by the Sons
Dionisio, Patricio, 19& ofthr Counuy, 140
Disierto, Ombudsman Aniano,
198 t:
Diwata Range, 25 Eagle, 28
Diwaw, SS Early Metal Age, 43
Inzon,AJnado, Z15 J::astc:m Visayas, 23
Dil.on, Marina, 1~5 Ecological zanes, J3
DND (~panment of National Econunuc development, 2.60, 286
Oefeme), 303 Ecooom1<: mobi.l iution, 2S4
Doctrina Cllristiana en lml,'" tSpG· Econonuctbeory,2
nola y lag<Ja, 90 J::devoso, Elell!erio, 237
DOJ (Depanment of Justice}, 294 £DSA, 27&
Dohus, 224 .EDSA Sltrine, 197
DOLE (~astment of J.abor and Education, basic, 87 .
J::mployment), 289 Educational decree, sa
Domingo, Damian, 89 Educational ~ystem, 88, 232, 301
DOT (De.p11tment of Tourism), J::gbcrt, CoL Harry 0., 176
280 Eight-Hour Labor /\a and the
DOTC (l.Jepattment ofTranspoi- Minimum W'31,.e Law, 2.03
tlllion anel CommuniCiltion), JJI Htrr.!<k> <k Ia Rtwlucicn, 168
2~ El l\ido Cave. 4)
DPWH (Oepartmeot of Public El Nino phenomenon in 1990,
Works and Higltways), 295 282
Dr. Jose Rb;al Centennial Com· £/ N,_, Dia, 168
mission, 261 El Rtru~~:imimlo, 189
Orake, OawSQnne, l 02 Electlon Code of 1978. 272
Drake, Sir Francis, 101 Eltctlon, firSt. under American
Dramatic Philippines. 234 flag, 192
sister OCJ!anization of, 234 Elephas. 6
Draper, Brig. Gen. Willlam, 101. Elephas &yeri, 7
102 Embroidery, works of, 94
Dressing, 48 Emerg<:ncy power. 270
manner of. 51 Eno:moflfikros, 110
mode of,4S abU$CS of. 110
Drilon, Franklin M ., 293 Enamtimda, 81, 82
DTI (Depamnem ofTrade ai!CI English language, 3~, 188
Industry), 295 Enrile. Juan Ponce, 277, 278, 2&2
Dujiols, Col., !51 Enriquez, Capt. :0.1anuel P., 236
DumagaiS, 238 EmiroiiJlle'ntal problems. ltU

330
Equality, 121 Fdipina. 2l, 76
ERAP (Enhanced Retail Access Yelipirtas, 76
for the Poor), 288 l'e!iu, Gen. Ota,guer, 145
Espeleta, Bishop Migu~l Lino de, l'elizardo, Cornelio, !83
!18 l'~ndez, Dionisio, 111
Esteban, Don Francisco. 117 Fernandez, Father A,gustin, 142
Estrada, Joseph, 282,287,290, Fernandez, .Ramon, 186
293, 295. 297, 298 Fernandez. Ulpiano, 141
administration ( 1998-2000), Ferrer, Jaime, 258
287 1/estivall.A N<Mil de Mattila. 101
cases of. 2911 Figueroa, Capt. Esteban Rodri-
impeachment trial, 295, 299 guez de, 12'
opening of the envelope, 296, FilipiiVJS, 22, 168
197 Filipinization in 1916, lSI
slogan,287 Filipinization oftht judiliary,
~ision of government, 287 211
Ethnic dances. 61 Filipino, 223
F.t.hmc tribes, .H Filipino, christianilalion of, 94
Europeans in the Philippines, 100 filipino-Amencan troops, 218
F.vangclista, Alfredo, 7 Filipino-American collaboration,
F.vangelb1a, Crisamo, 197 ISS
F.vangelista, General, 146 Filipino-American ,-elations, 174.
F.~ccutive Order No. 163,279 209
F.xpcd1tions l>y tlte Spaniards, 126 filipino-American war, 179
Filipino church, 193
F establishment of. !93
Fabrics. 94 Filipino con1posers, 190
Fajardo, Gov. Diego, 114 Filipino tlistory. 46
Fajardo. Si~ta, 13S Filipino landowners, 212
!?all of~ila. 102 Filipino language, 263
farmers Coope'l'ative and Mar- Filipino loyalty, 254
keting Associations (FACO- reaffirmation of, 2S4
MA),259 Filipino Masonic Lodge, 133
Fasc1sm, ns Filipino nationalism, 127, 131
Fasting (sawm), 53 the rise of, 121
Father of filipino painting, 89 Filipino people, 30
Father ofJJocos l.ituature, 90 Filipino prehistoty, 44
Fauna,20 the phase of, 44
fe~t of the Immaculate Concep- Filipino propagandists. 134, 135
tion,95 Filipino sculptors, l'll
federal Party, 213 Filipino settlement, 55
Fedmzlistas, 179 Filipino society, 41
federation of :Malaya, 264 Filipino soldiers. 175. 303
Feleo, Juan, 252 F1lipino writing, 49
Felipe, Julian, 162 Filipinos, equality of, 132

331
Ftrst Congress of the Philippine$, Franco, M.1riano, 240
244 Fraternity. 121
First Philippine Cornmtssion, Fraud,l/6
174, 176 Froy &rod, 133
fishes. 29 french Revo!ultun, Ill
species of. 29 ·•friar Pnthelly". l.\3
Ftshing prople, 41 !'rUI!S, 27, 49
Firstcongres~ionallaw, 179 I' unston, (;en. F'r~'dNirl, I i8
Rag Law{1907), 181
Plake tools, 42 G
Flora, 20 flahalcton l.aw, 185
Flora de F'ilipina.<, 91 G.la!ta (/,, Filipim.s, 168
Flores de Maria, 1.\ I Gaddangs oflsabda, 31
F1on:s de Ma>"• 97 Galleon trade, 94
Florida, 76 Galman, Rolando, 274
Flowering plants, 27 Cralut, Januario, 178
speciC$ of. 27 Gamboa, Jodquin. 120
Flowers. species of, 48 Gwrt<Jfl>, 235, 240
Flowers of May, 97 c...n..solkli. ~ 7
fluvial condition, 21> Garu:s, lsa~l, 73
Folgueras. Gov. Mariano de, 122 Garcia Olivt•, Col. Fran<:•sco, 144
Folk epics. 48 Garda. Jose Antonio. 290
tlte Bicol 1liJNiiong, 4S Car<:ia, Pres. Carlos P., Z58, 260.
the Ifugao A/im and Htldltud, 161
4S administrdtion, 261
the llocano Lam·artg, 48 Gascon, Ally. Chito, 303
the Kalinga Uialim, 48 Gl!isreswissau:lrojie.J, 2
the MaRUtndanao J.ulorapatTil, General Banking Law of lOOO,
48 190
the Maranao &ntuJ.:an, 48 Gcocnc Arl, 281
Folk heale~, 62 Clene;ts 1: 1. 16
Folk SU()CISittiOO, 194 Geograph~r~. 21
Foradada, Fr. FranciM:o, 193 Geography and Resources, 22
Foreign Investment Bill, 260 ('~ological formation, !9
Forens, 23, 2 7 \,enlngic~l F tmndation. I 9
Fort Bonifacto, 274 \,eological monumems, 26
Fort of San Felipe in Cavite, 144 Geology, li
Fort Pilar, 124 analytical study of, 17
Fort Santiago, 102. 137, 142, 223, Uerman fleet. 156
256 G11, Manano, 142
fossils, IS Giron, Lt. Col. Pedro, ISO
4°' World Meeting of Families, Glacial period. 20
304 Gladation, 20
fox. Roben B., 1, 8 Glaciers, 10
franco, Domingo. 136, 137 GIOrtOUS fourth, 190

J32
GNP (Gr06s Nation.al ProdU(."l), H 4d}i, 53
300 Hagabi, 32
Go/JematltJiriJJCl!, 83 Haldccmann , Col. L'har\es, .243
Gold, 29 Hantik (AntiQUe), 9
G old mines, 24 Hare-Hawes-Cut1111g Act, 186
G old mining, 29 Hari ng mga T~galog, 17
Golden age ofzarzU~:Ia, 189 Harrison, Gov. Geneul, 18~
GOMBURZA, tilt ellecution of, Hay, John. 164
131 H~lth and U•i ng conditions, 235
Gomez, Dr . Dominador, 183, Health ca re progra ms, 2&4
184, 196 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich.
Gomez, Esteban, 72 2
Gonzales, Ntpeali, 281 l:ieoeral Miong, 145
G overnment, reorganization of, Herald of the Revolution, lOll
279 Hero-worship, 194
G overnment ftnancn, 266 Herrera. Emesco,l75, 281, 282
G raft and corru!Oon, 262, 27S, Herrera, Fray Diego, 78
283 Hihok-Hibok in Camiguin, 25
G rand Opera House. 184 Hidalgo, Resurreccion, 133
Grayson, PrivatA! Raben Willie, High crime rate, 2Sl
174 High school system in the ooun·
Grear Britain, eoastline of, 13 lry , 179
Grear story, 46 Hilario. Jos~. 198
Grearer East Asia Co- Prospenry Himalayas, 20
Sphere, 22S, 226 Him.unaylan, Negros Occidenllll,
G reen Revolution, 266 10
Gr~e. General, 163 Hirrdi Am l 'aJgy (l Am Noc Dead),
G~riDa. ba.tt.Je, 240 181
G ucnlla movemtnJ:, 239 Hispanizadon of the natives, 86
Gucrtlla.s, 235 Historical man, 2
G ueucro, Fernando Ma., 163 History, 1, 2. 4
G uerrtro, uonMa .. 179. 2J8 SOUJctS of, 4, S
Guevarra., Father Jose Maria. J3l H itler's troop, 211
G uillermo, Faustino, 144, 13.3 Hodobu. 225
captured, 1113 Hollywooc1 ullcies, 189
prisoner, 183 Holmes, Arthur, 18, 19
G uingona, Teofisto, 270, 282 Holoctne epoch, 20
G umapos, Pedro. 116 Holy ChUICh, 194
Gunpow<ltr. manufacturer of, 50 Holy !'ather Pope John Paul U,
Gurami, 227 }()4
GuW, Carl, 6 Holy images, 95
Black Nazarene, 95
B Cmro Rcsuciradq, 95
f{iJdm44sys!A!m, 195 Our Lady of Peace and Good
Haan<kros, 19' Voyas;c, 95

333
 S<lnto F.nJierro, 95 Illegal association, 252
Holy Land. 69 llacos, 6
IIolyQur'an, 54 people ot; 117
!Ioly week, 96 !locos .Re¢on, 23
Homma, Gen. Masaharu, 213, llonggos, 31
214,216,217,213,22~.224 !ltWrados, 129, )32
Homo sapiens, 1, 34 Images, popular. 95
llona~an. Col. Gn.,gono IMF (lntematioml.MOJtetary
"Gringo", 277 Fund). 276
Horai ttct, 228 lnangbayan (mother country}. 11>2
Hospitality. 34 ltuulttua/Wn, 33
House ofRepreseDla.tive (Lower rmleJ)('ndcncc, 176
House). 185, 21! ~cruulc for. 1 76
llubbard, 1lhornas,289 Independence of the Philippines._
HUDCC (Housing alld Urban 250
Development Coordinating recognition of, 250
CoWlCil), 291, 300 Indian literature, 46
Huot, Lt. Col. Joaquin, 123 Indian Ocean, 75
Huk. 254 India Q/idol, 16&
Huk leaders, 239, 252 Indigenous culrure, 33
Hull: rebellion, 2SS Indigenou.s grou~. 32
Hukbalahap, 2.19, 252 Indigenous people, 33
llukbong MaJXlgpala)'a ng &.yan, Indios, &7, 123
25$ Indonesia, 22
Huks, 240,253 Industnes in the country, 4S
dl10ies and privileges. 240 Inferior race. 128
guiding principle; of, 240 lnqui!inb{s), 195
Human fossil bones, 7 ln~ects, 28
Human R!lic, 35 species of, 27
Human rights, 132 Institute of National Language,
v\olatioll$, 2/9 210
Ilutterer, Karl, 8 hmJflrts, !22
Hutton, James, 17 lntercaetero, 69
Hydi-ologic cycle, 17, 19 Jnttrisland steamers, 169
Hydrophytfml! orbiculaiJim, 42 International airport, 284 ·
International Monetary Fund
I (JMF), 276
Ibalois, J2 Iranuns, 32
[ba/(]lf, 46 Iron, 29
lbanags {l:agayaoos), Jl Iron Age culture, 35
Ide, Gov. Gen. Henry C .. 183 Irrigation projeciS, 258
!fugaos, 24, 32. b2 lsabela, 24
lginuM n.~ 1i1dhatul, 265 Islam, pillars of. 53
lgorots, revolt oftlle. 112 Islamic faitll, 51
!ligan In1e3fated Sted Mill, 270 lskttd Origin I lypo<lre:;is, 40 .

334
 Islands in the Philippines, 23 Jimenez, Nicanor, 261
/J/(1$ d.! s- [.1V;t110, 22, 72 Johmon. L.M.. 162
l$14$ d.IJ PaN4nte, 76 Johnson. P~s. Lyndon B., 267
{ski$ Lmlrones. 72 Jones Law, IS5
lsnegs, 32 Jopson, Edgar "Edjop", 268
Izquierdo, Rafael de. 131 Jose Marti, lS4
leader!lbip of, 154
} • Jose Ve~rde", 295
J acinto, Emilio, 139, 141, 142, Jo~. Jose, 252
143 Judiciary' lll
Jagor, Feod.or, 5 lilipiniz.ation of, 211
JAJA {Justice for Aquino, Justice JCSMAG (Joint U.S. Military
tOt All), 274 Assi51a.OCC Group), 256
Jam.a.-Mapum or Pal.&wan, 32 Justice.systero, 280
Jiltljalaoi, Abdurajak, 292
Japanese army, 218 K
Japanese artillery, 213 K.K.:K. (KataasfllasaJt Kagalang-
Japanese forces, 213, 242 gal<mg~P~g Xatipullan ng "'8" Anak
Japanese garrison, 23 g ng Ba.Y<"II), B 7
Japanese hai'ku, 2)4 Kabola, Pedro, 195
J apane.re Imperial forces, 212, Kabungsuwan, SlwifMulwn-
223 mad, 52, 53
entry of, 212 KUwrif11'1, 53
Japanese invasion, 209 Kahapon. Ngajlrm iJl BWuzs (Yes-
Japanese martial law, 2H terday, Today, and Tomonow),
Japanese method or discipline, 182
232 Kakarong Regiment, 237
Japanese migrarus, 209 Kakarong Republic, 145
Japanese Miliwy Admillistra- Kalantiaw code, II
tion, 228, 229, 23:} Kalatungan- Kitanglad R.a!llle, 25
Japanese OCCUpatiOn, 223,234 Kalaw, 28
Japanese policy of attraction, 2.35 Kalaw. T eodoro, 189
Japanese traders, !OJ KalaydiJII, 14.1
Jaudenes, Gen. Feanin, 163 KALIBAPI (Kilpis<>Mif SG Pggli-
Javier, Restinno, US, 141 /itt.gltctl SD &gong J'11ipitw ), 129
JEEP (Justice, Economy. Clivi· Kalinga(s}, n. 64
rorunent and Peaoe), 287 Kaling~~s r..a:oo, 32
J~~Oll, \28 KalwalhWn, 58
Jesus Christ, 90 K"rlflllig, 227
pmonof. 90 Kamil:-. 241
the lnrth of, 96 Kankanays, 32
Jewelry, 44 Kanlaon in Negros, ZS
Jihd, 54, 127 Kanlaon volcano, l6
Jimaguayu Constitution. 152 )(qpisMan Makaho/4 Makarilwg,
Jimbangan, Datu All . 12 7 195

335
J(ap;.afllln PaM/rim NG, 21.2 L
J(aptaJ~ 16 L:J~a.l68
KArim u1 Ma.khd\L!II. 52 l.4 /..igcl, 136
KDt1i!JtJ, 139 goal! ot; 136
ruching$, 139 Liz L.igl FilipiNJ, I~
Kasi~l. 73 l.4 R.tmdon del Obrm>, 196
Kuipunan ac Kakarong Real, Liz Smri/14 138
0

exiltence of, 145 La So/iJJJrida4, 1.)4

Karipunan blood ('Qmpact, 187 rontribulors of, 134
Katipunan Councils. 14l, 147 Liz Vang&«Jtdla, 224
K.aripuna.n factions, 148 Labor Day, 197
Karipunan, 138, 139 Lacambrc, Gen~. 146
flag, 182 Laoon., Go\·. Rafael, 257
members of. 144 Lacson. Panfilo, 294. 29i
organof, l41 Lacuoa, Gen. Urbano, 178
Katipunnos, 141 Ladia., Pedro, 114
inCavier, 14S LadmntJ:S, 182
Katuhusan ng .&yan, 240 Lady A:ngkatan, 47
Katrmgltula"' Gll,g<lwin 'W mg.~ Laguesma, .B~vcnido. 290
Am>l<ttg Bay<ut, 140 Laguna., 8, 24, 223
J(a.,·, 47 Laguna de Bay, ao
Kawit Company. I 77 Llzhu, 2S, 282
l<BL, 273 Uzltambini of the Kanpuoan, 138
Keithley. Captain, ll.l Lilindula,IO
~Uy Theater in Clarll Air Bax, and Sulayman, InOII of, 110
2S4 LAKAS-NUCO, 287
/(mtpNdi, 224, 234, 235 Lake Botlbon ('faal), 9
Kiangan, 242, 24l l.a\sama.na, Fraocisco, 100
KinabaliD,2S Labaw, )36
KinJ: <:haM 1, 22, 70, 76, 77 l.arnadrid, Sergeant, 131
King Charles m.92, 93 lmn·IVI,g. 46, 90
King Ferdinand Vll, Ill l...tm1b<mog, 60
King Manuel, 70 LAMP (U.pio" 1111 MGS~U~g /'ilipi·
King PhWpll, 70, 80, 81, 82, 129 rJD), 2&7
King Vic1or EIIUIWiud U, 131 Lanao Lake rqpon, S3
Kiram, Sultan Jamalul U, 175 Land refonn, 2.58
Koenigswald, Von, 7 Land Refonn Act of 1955. 258
Koxinga, 100 Land stn&crure of tbe Philippines,
Km,SS 19
Krueger, Gen. Wallet, 2.l9 Land tenure syscem, 19~
KualaLumpll1,288 LandlordJ, 25 3
Kudarat, Sultan M ubammad Di· l.andlord·tenant relations, 195
paruan, 124 l.Anrlllla,S~
Kumakata, 25 Lanuu, Romualdo, 135
K.Wd, 224

336
 LllpiJJnJl Mllkobd=, 260 Limasawa, 72, l 13
Largest plain in the archipelago, chieftain of, I tJ
21 Una, Joey, 282
U.S allligUlU ltym14s ~ Ia isla ~ Ling:ayen Gulf, 7, 242
Negmr;, I 0 LiDguistic innuence of China . 51
Laurel administration, 232 Lisabeta, 74
Laurel, Doy, 276 Literature, wrincn, 411
Laurel, Pr~. Jose P., 185. 214. oral, 411
232,241,242,260 Lithography, 91
Laurel, Sotero, 282 Lid>osphetc, 18
Lava, Dr. Jesus, 259 Livdihood, 33
Lavezans's Reve~al of J..egazpi's means of, 33
Policy, 1tO Liwa.yway, 224, lH
Lawton, Gen. Henry W, 188 LlaneTa, Gen. Mariano, l Sl
Laxalt, U.S. Senator Paul, 278 Loan:a, Miguel de, S6
Lead, 29, so Local government, 192
Leaders of tribal OOIIlll\Unitle$, 32 Locke, 128
Legupi, Avelino, 8 L acsin, Cecilia Y•• 8
Legupt, Miguel Lo~z de. 78, Lot/g. Nilo.d, 135
79, so, 113 Lcdp SoliJarii!Jul, US
dr:alh of, 110 Loney, Nkholas, 94
expedllion, 78 Longinus, story of, 96
Legazpi, Valeriana, US Lopez Jaena, Graciano, 133, 13S
Legends, 17,48 Lopez, Salvador P ., 118
and myths, I 7 Lopn, Sixto, 164
Lemery, Batangas, 8 "Los Tr«e Ma.n:ires", 144
Lenten s~ason, 96 Los SaftrJ(., 223
uon l<ilat, 153 LRT (Light Rail Transit), 273,
Leyte beadles, 241 284, l94
Leyte Cetm interconnection, 2 84 Lucioo, General, 144
completion of, 284 Luengo, Don Manuel, 142
Uy¥a, Purificacton, 135 lugaw, 226
Liberal Party, 2!i8, 2n Lul.:Nn, General, IS!
Liberal Spanish con!drution capeure of, 181
{1815), 121 Lulci>an, Justo, 179
LiberaH&a~, 128 Lummvig, 58
spread of, 12S Luna, Ge11. Antonio, 134, 176,
Liberty, 121 177
or
Lifestyle people, 43 Luna, Juan, 133
Uga Filip/tiJJ, 137 Luzon,23
Light Rail Tramit Aulhority, 273
IiltJfa, 58 M
Lim, Alfredo, 238 M. Ponce Regiment, 238
Lim-Ah·Hong.llO Mabini Plan, 166
invasion of, 911 Mabilli, Apolinario, !36. 163

337
Macapagal, Diosdado, 261, Malay Peninsula, >a
262-264, 299 Mlllo)ltltltin (who knows), 182
administration (1961-65), 262 Malay-Polynesian, 41
\-f~pagal-Arroyo, Glona, 297, inhabitants of, 41
298 Malaysia, 22
administration, 298 Malinta tunnel. 218
MacArthur, Gen. Arthur, 175, Malolos, Bulacan, people of, 114
176, 178 Malolos C:ongre~s. 168, 192
MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 142, Malolos Constituli.on. 167, 168
208,209,211,214,215,216, Malolos Republic, 165, 167, 169
218,219,222,223,236,243, Ma!Oll8, ll6
244 Malvar, Gen. Miguel, !51, 180,
Macasiag, Jacimo, 116 181, 184
Maceda, Emesto, 282 surren~red in Lipa, lSI
M~t's R~olt, cagayan Man. emergence of, ! 9
{1396), 112 Manahan. Manuel, 260
MQganito, 59 Mana.lastas, 1oz
Maga114yan, 16 Manchuria in 1932, 211
M~dalo, 145, 149 Mandayas. 32
Magdalo conspiracy, 149 ~oves,27
Magdala Council. 148 Mangyans. 32
Magdala troops, 145 Maniago, Don Francisco, 115
Magdiwa11g, 145, 148 Mani;)8o's R~olt, Pampa~
and M agdalo for~:es, 147 (1660), 115
M~Uan, Ferdinand, 22, 70 causes, 115
M.ag:!aysay, Pres. Ram(ln,257, Matli_fost Deslirty. !54, 155, l74
259 lli.utila. 6, n. B, 110, 157, 223
admin.isttation (1953.57), 258 or.
fall 102
fatal.aull at MI. Manungal in surrena.er of, 157
Cebu, 260 Manila., capture of, l57
p:residcttli.al cunpaign, 25& Manila Acami, 264
Mahablla!ata, 46 Manila Bay, B, 29, 80
Malulrfi/t.a, 22. 57 Mani!~ ChJ'Itrlide, 254
Ma·i, 21 M a'IJ!a Declaration, 264
Main Line R<:l'istance (MLR}.. Manila Eloctric Company (Meral-
215 ro),270
Makabulos, ~n. Francisco, 153 Manila International Airport, 274
M:alcapagal. Major Lazaro, 149, Manila Planerariwn. 272
ISO Manila Railroad Company, 186,
~~iLl~). 235,240,241 224
Molthdumirz, the stage of, 52 Manila Summit, 266
Mala=. 52 Manot>os, 32, l 14
Ma!ac.Uiang Palace. 178, ZS8, Manuel, E. Arsenio, 1
218 Manufacturill$: of carriages, 9ll
Malay, 30 Manuguit, Agustin, 111

338
 M,;mmggul Ja•. 43 Ma,..aua. 73
MAPHILINDO (Malaya, l'hilip. MRA (M1lit.uy Bases Al,r«·
pines, andlndon,e,ia), 264. 265 ment), 251
Maps, li McCulloch, 156
Maragondon, 150 Mdnto~h. ~eil, 7, 8
Maragtas, 10 McKinley, Pres. William, 174.
~1arag~as Code, 9 179
Maragras Story, 9 McNau, Commissioner, 25()
Marawi City, 270 Mccxa , pilgrimage to, S3
M~rrhl:l FilipifiiJ Magr/4/o, 162 Medicine, 62
Matt:ha Nacional Filipitul. 162 Medieva l filipino, <19
Mar~hc. Alfed, 5 Melby Mission to the t'hltippines.
Marco, Jose E., 10, II 256
Mar~os, Ferdinand, U5 Mdliza, Raymundo, 188
life story of, 265 MERALCO, 190
Man:os, Pres. Ferdinand E., 22, Mercado, Orlando, 282
271, 2H, 276, 27S, 279 Mercator, Gerardus, 17
administration (1965-1986), ~erin, Major Gen. Wesley, 163
265, 273 Mesozoic era, 19
regime, charur ofthe, 280 Mesrws tlesungley, B I .
Maria Regidor, Amonio, !31 Metal Age, 44
Marianas bland, 13 1 Mc~orirc, 19
Mariang Makihng, 23 Mwo Manila Commission. l72
Mari·Velez,Jose,270 Mctropolil:an Manila, B
Martial law, 270, 274 Metropolitan Tlleater, 234
implementation or. 270 M•cldk Ages, 69
powers, 271 M~granon theory, 34, 35
Maninez, Archbishop, 130 MlLF (Moro lslamJC Liberation
Ma1t.ine2, Placido, ISO Front), 292, 293, 294
'v{ar.,, Karl, 2 · Military Academy of Malolos,
Masanga River, 2l8 169
Masangkay, Guillermo, 141 Military conspiracy, 275
Ma.sao, n M1lirary Tribunals, 272
Ml<sioo Affair in l.aguna. 2.H " Million Dollar Hill". 242
Masoruc lodges, llS Mindill130 Revolutionary Council
Masonic order. 1.)7 for Independence, 271
Mass poverry, 28l Mindanao, 8, 76
Mala, 'Raymundo, 142 Ming COurt, 50
M&lbemarics, 62 Ming dyt~ascy. 5()
MU·makiJl!, 62 Mil'ljl emperor. 50
Ma-Tuan-lin, 49 Mmg Shih, 50
Mauricio, Balbina, t.H Miocene epoch, 19
M11-yi, 21 Miracle Rice, 266
Maynilad, 17 MIS (Military Intelligence Ser·
Mayon volcano, 2S, 26 Vice), 251

339
MiJIJ dt (;QUo, 96 Tag(>-Apo Range, 24
Mtsuari. Sur, 271 Mountain slopes, .\ 3
Mtlra, Ramon, 270 Mountainous region of Cordil-
MNI .F (Moro NationAl Libera- lera, 24
tion Front), 284, 302 Mountains, 2.3
MO<Icrn civiltzation, influences MRT, 291
or, J2 Mt.Dul~.26
Molbogt., J2 Mt. :\lalilling, 26
Moluccas, 70 Mt. Pinatubo, 25, 282
Monarchy, 131 eruption of, 282
restomion of, BI Mt. Samat, 217
Mongolian area. 20 capture of, 21 7
MongoLoid people. 21 Muhammad ui-Halim, 124
Monotheism, 53 Muhammad, 53
Monratan, Julian. 183, 1&4 Mui!oz-Pal:ma , Juslicc Cecilia,
Montalban Gorge. 17 279
Morueclaco, Pedro A., 10 Murad, Al Raj, 293
Monte!!quieu, 128 Murata, Shuzo, 231
1he tnougbts of, 128 Murosawa, Colond , 225
Montlnola, Ruherto, 187 Murphy, Gov. Frank, 27, 200
Montojo, Admiral Patricio, IS5 Museum of Archeology, 7
)>.loors, 70 Musical heritage, 190
Mord)(s, Fr. Gaspar, 118 Musical instrumenls, 43, 60
Moral• and character, 232 Muslim groups of Min4.mao, 32
Morayta, Mlglld, B 4, 135 Muslim missionaries, S3
Mo1J1.a, Antonio de, 56, 129 Muslim separaus1 forces. 286
MO'II&, Or. Amonio de, 6 Muslim traden. 51
Moriones l'esuval, 96 Muslim wars ( I 578-1898), 123
Moro-moro, 9Q, 124 Muslim wedding dance, 61
Morong freedom lighters, IS I Muslims, 175
Moros, 124 Myths, 48
Mot.ion of tectonic plates, 19
Moun! Apo in Davao del Sue, 25 N
}.fount 'Banahaw, 23, 24 Nabong, Norberto, 188
Moun! Diwalwal, 29 Nacioaalista Party, 257,273
:1-lount Makiling, 23 NAIA 0 (New Ninoy Aquino
Mountain ranges, 23, 24, 2~ International Airport Tcmuoal),
Caraballo Range, 24 2114
Cordillera R.ln~e. 24 Nate Mltiwy Paa, 149
Daguma Eange, 25 Nalcac, C.aptain Guillenno, 236
Diwata .Ranges, 24 Nakpil, Julio. 162
Kalatungan-Kitan,glad Range, NAMFREL (National Move-
25 ment for free Elections), 2S8,
Mounc Pul.;g, 24 276
Sierra )1.-ladre, 24 National artthem. 168, 233

340
 National A~sembly, 187,210,231 32,40
N lltional Capital Region, 2 72 Neolithic ~riod, 42
National Counnittee on Geologi- New Katipunan, 1&.\
cal Scu:oces {NCGS), 16 New ReiJIIblic, 273
National CoUllcil of Education, New Soci~. 272
210 New Stone Age, 42
National Cultural Treaswe of !he New World, 69
Philippines, 43 New Yorlc World, 154
National Defense Act, 208 Kews~per, 231
~ationat Economic Council, 21 I, NFA (National Food Authority},
161 301 .
~ational l'.cooomic Protection- NGO (Non-Go,·emment Organi·
ism Association, (NEPA), 209 2.ation}, 236
!II ational economic recovery pro- l\IC (New Industrialized Coun-
gl'am, 276 try), 2ll3
!llarional F.du.cation Board, 232 Nieto, CoL :Manuel, 214
National election. 1M 1935 Constitution, 188, 21 1
!'I ational hyron, 162 1935 National elections, 200
National independence, 137 1935 Philippine Co nstirution,
National Movement for Free 251,268
Elections (NAMFREL}, 276 1953 Presidential elccdons, 2.58
!II ational Museum, 7 1973 Constitution, 270, 2SO
National policy, 266 1987 Philippine Constitution, 279
National Socialist Party, l 88 1996 Peace .'lgteemcnl, 302
National Supreme Council, 186 NIPAS (National l nt.cgrared 1'~
Nationalism, campaign for, 263 rected Areas System), 2.85
Nationhood, concept of, I 31 Noli M• Tangere (Tou.cb Me Not),
!'!alive dallCeS. 61 133
Natives, 87 Nolledo, Jose, 210
Natividad, Delfina Herbosa de, Nomadic, 33
162 Nomura, Admiral K., 213
Natividad Rrgiment, 238 Non-Mala)'S, 31
NATO, 259 Noriel, ~- Mariall(l, 146. 157
Natural dis asters, 282 Normal School, 39
Nature and ancestral beliefs. 31 Nortb llornco (Sabah), claim
Nlllurwissmt:/r4jim, 2 over, 263
Naval baale of Palahoan, 99 Nonh Lmon Fon::-es, 215
Navol.l.•, warriors in, 110 Northeastern fo,!indanao, 6
NCC (Na.tional CelltellRi.11 Nonhem 1sabela in the Cagayau
Commission). 286 Valley (1621), 112
NCMB (National Conciliation Northern Lmon, 6, 24
aod Mediation Board), 28~ Northem Mindanao, 2)
Needkwoik, 94 Norzapray, 47
Negl'itos, 30. 34 Novaliches, 6
'll<egritos or W3s of7..ambales, Novena, tn

341
 Nozaled.a, Alchbishop Remar· Onehus, Abraham, 17, 18
11ino, 192 Orug~s. Francisco, 180
:-<CC (Kalionalllnification Osias, Camilo, 168
Commission), 285 Osmcila, John, 282
1'\uestra Smora dt: Satambao, 97 O$mcila, Pres. Sergio. 16&, 184,
Nueva Ecija, 24, 27, 223 186, 1&7. 188, 208, 214,243,
N uo a Viscaya, 24, 27 244
NU$/liiiiU! (the
maritime oriented Os-Kox M ission, 186
prehistoric JleQple), 41 Olis, Gov. Gen . E!wc:ll, 175, 188
Numuon ai1mmts, 235 Ottoman Tuflcs, 69
Our Lady of tbc Mou Holy Ro-
0 sary, 10\
Ooondo, 47
Obando, Gov. Gen. Francisco de, p
125 Pacadua, Franci$Co, 116
Obando Fesoval, 97 PAC.C. (Presidential Anti-Crime
Obras Pias, 92 Commission), 283
Ocampo, Pablo. 166, 1115 PACO (Pre~idential Assi$tant-e
Occup•ed Philippines. 2l4 !Or Community Dcvclopm.cnt),
Oceanographic research. 18 . 258
OFW (Overscu Fitipino Work- Pacific Ocean, Z2, 24. 71
ers), 2lU Poci/)ald<Os (PaciliSis), 179
Ohta, Kyosaburo S., 209 Pact of Alliance, 230
OJtir, 5S Pgaolk sat!8~- 187
Oitlto7, 55 Paluyas Festival in Lucban, 96
Ota, Gen. Simeon, 184 Paila, 47
01~-Fcliu, Genera\, 145 Pakpak, Datu Amal, 127
Old Stone Age, 41 PAl (Philippine Airlines), 7.89
Oligoccneepoch, 19 Palahoao, Naval S attle of, 99
Oliva.~. Major Gen. Pro~pc1o. 275 Pa.lapag, Samar, peuple of, !IS
Ongiunco, Oorotco. 136 Palaris, Juan de Ia Cnu, 120
Ongpin. :-..faria lsabd, 8 l'alaris'~ Revolt (1762·6~). 120
OPAPP (Office oftht: Presiden cause of, I 20
ciaI Adviser on the Pea~ Proc- Palawan, 21. 23
e$S), l8S Palay, 22 7
Op/tm Sd.~in4rius, 2 70 PA LEA (I'1\l. Employtts A ~so­
Oppel, George, 9 1 ciation), 289
Ora, Anllln1o, 198 Paleolithic periOd. 41
Ona, Gov. Gen. M<trccl.ioo, 123 Palma, IW'ael, 139, 168, I i9
Orang Bandjar, 46 Pam.uan, Juuice Manuel, 275
Orans Dampuans. 46 Pamban5a,g KabtiJtan ng mgu Mag·
Orchids, 27 hubu.tid (PI<M), 252
varieties of, 27 Pamilinan Cave, 141
Orient, 69 Pampanga, 6, 27, ll i
Ornaments, 44 Pampanga R.evoll, first. (1585},

342
 110 on Good Govt:mmem), 279
Pampangueftos, 31 PCG R (Prcsi dential Commi'ision
Panay, 9,60 on Government Reorganiza-
Panay lslaad, 6 tion), 279
Panday .Pira, 79 PCHR (Philippine Commission
Pander. S9 on Human Ri3hts), 279
PangtuJ, 18 PCPI (Preparatory Conunission
Pangan, Mattin, 111 for Philippine Independence),
Pang.wban, Dr. SCM Villa, 49 230
Pangasinan. 6 Pe~ Treacy of Paris, 127
PaiJga$inense5, 31 Peace ueacy with Japan, 257
l'anhvfJla, 59 Pearl Harbor, 2 U
Pataca.lc. 80 Peul of the Orient, 22
Para'llaque, I02 Pearl of the Orient Seas. 22.
people of, l 02 Pc.uw organiulions. 212
Pardo <kTclvera,Joaquin,l31 Pei-Pon-Tao, 50
Pardo de Tavc13, Trinidad, 179 Pdlafrancia Festival, 97
Porri4D Co~. 180 Plninsu/ares, 122
Pllrrido /)rm()t;rtltG, 180 P~ioNltlos, 232
Pdrri4D Ftderal, t84 People empowerment, 283
PGrrido /NkpmliiJ((), 180 People Power Movement, 279
Parti4D Komuni514 ng Pilipin<Js People power revolt, 295
(PIU'), 239, 253. 2SS People Power .Revolution 11 at
pq,rfido lAiras T4D, 283 EDSA.298
Pattido NadoiWJ Progresista. 184 People's coun, 250
Parri4D Nruimlll)isJa, 180, 184 People's Republic of China, 273
Farrido 0/Krro tk F"j}jpi114S. 197 Peralta, Macario, 262
Pi~Skm, 90 Pntt, Gov. Gomez, 82
Pasong l'irad, 178 Pelfet:to, Gregorio, 187
P11SJ'O'IR ~. 9D l'erico, Don, 212
PariUI)'OI!g, 63 Periodicals, 232
Palt'l'llo, Dr. Peclro A., 152, 166, P<:rreira, Jose, 189
!77, 179, 180 Pershing. Gen. Jolm "Biad;jadc",
Paterno, Maximo, 131 188
Paterno, !;ocor:ro, 8 Peso, 227
Paremo, Vicente, 282 Philip II, 79
Paterno Plan. 166 Pbilippine archipelago, 16, 19
Patino, Teodoro, 142 Philippine Armed Fo~. 256
P41ipa1, S9 PhlUppine army, 213
Patriotic prinre~. 141 barrackS, 2!8
Pavon. Fr. Joge Marla, 10, II Philippine assembly, 1M
Payar;as dumpsi«: in Quezon tirst. 184
City, 295 Philippine Civil Affairs Unit of
PCGG (PJesidf'ntial Commission the United States Army
(PCAU), 244

343
Philippine Commission, !82 251
Sllt'Dnd, {79 Philippine Republic, 183
Philippine commonwealth, 244 lint. 167, 192
Philippine Constabulary School. second, 232
191 Plrilippirv Rlv;,.,, 234
Philippine Constituuon, 230 Philippint revolution, 162, 169,
Philippine dcmoc:racy, 261 191
Philippine dialeas, 94 nsend , l62
Philippine economy, 128,251 Philippine sodety, 30
cransfonnation of, 128 Phillppine soil, 19
Philippinellag,181,232 Phallppine sovereignty, 250
Philippirv Fm: Prts:i, 189 Philippine Tourism Authority
Philippine Gtnera1 HOl>pit.tl, l91 (PTA), 26
Philippi114 Herald, 1119 Philippine Trade Act, 251
Pb.ilippme history, 3, 4 Philippine Vetctans Bank, 264
Philippine Immigration Law. 210 Philippine War Oam<~ge Cam-
Philippine lndtpen~. 163, massion, 251
208, 230 Philippine, 19
Uay, 263 urul str\ICtlft oftht, 19
shilting, 263 Pbilippine-Arntrican Friendship
p•oc1amation, 16.2 Day, 263
recognition of, zoa Pbilipp•nes: Fie~ Islands of
war of. 174 Asaa, 280
Philippine lndtpendcnt Cllwch. Pllysical aaiviues, 191
192 PICC, 273
Philippine lntcrnational Comocn- Pigafctta, Antonlo, 71 , 75
tion Center (PICC), 273, 277 Pilapil, Fr. Mariano. 90
Philippirw language$, 210 Pilgrimage to Mceca, 53
Philippine Jqhi&IUJ'l', 185, 187 PiJ&rims, 24
Philippine Long Disr.ance Tele- PiJ}Qr.;, 2 34
phone, 191 Pimentel, Aquilino Q., 282
marion of, 191 Pimcnttl, Narciso, 187
Philippine National BAnk, 266 Pineda, ~gc, 189
Philippine National Polk:r, 304 Pirate Jtadtrs, Sl
Anri-l~ Drug Fa=. J04 Planting ofsome species of flow-
Philippinr National Red ('ross, ers, 48
212 PlaD!s, 18
Plrilippine News Scn-icr, 256 Plays, il«lalmtd, 234
Philippine 01J!anic Act of 1902, Pwa de Annas, 144
185 PL!iOOiiS, 272
Philippi~ Purt in I834, 128 Pltistcc:me, 6, 21
Philippine pottery. 43 Pleistocene epoch, 20, 40
Philippine Rd\Jgtt$ Processing Pliocenr epoch. 19
Center (PR.PC), 273 PMA (Philippine MiUtary Acacl-
Philippine: Rel\abiUtation Act, tmy),277

344
 PNP (Philippine Natio!l.ll P<>- Pre-historic people, 40
tice), 294 Prdoistori& Soora Mllrmalsfor 1M
PNR (PhilippiDe Natioaa\IWI· ~yofPIWippinL History, 11
ways), 284 Prdl.istory, 5
Poblacion, 86 President's Action Committee oo
Pob~e.~rdo,239 Social Amelioration (P ACSA),
Poblne, Pasc~l. 179, 180 255
POEA (Philippine OvetSeas Em· Presideo!ial Committnent Order
pioymeat Administration), 290 (PCO), 274
Poem,, 4& Presidential Decree No. 1886,
Polavieja. G en. Camilo de, 144, 275
146, 151 Presidential Decree No. 21, 271
Policy of social justice, 2()8 Pre-Spanl$b era, 21
Politlcalasylwn, 278 Pre-war American films, 233'
Political CilltOOning, 189 Primary education, &S
Political dlgniwies, ti!le of, S4 Primary S<Jurces, 5
day<Jng, 54 Primo de Rlvera, lSI, 152
1:4/i. 54 Prince Henry, 69
mja mud<., 54 Princt ofbotanist, 91
suJuzn, S4 Prince Philip of Asturias, 22
Political doctrine, 283 Princess Ganding.an. 55
Political opponents, 270 Princess l'aramisuli, S:l.
.Political prlsonm, 2SO Princess Urduja, 9, II
.Ponce, Domipgo, 197 Prindpa/1$, J28
Pope Alexander VI, 69 PROC (Ptop~·s Republic of
Pope Gregory XV. 87 Cbina), 285
Pope innocent X, 88 Proclamation No. 2045, 273
Pope Pi us v, 129 PRODED (Program for Dteen-
Popularcoundl, 136 tralized Educational Deve)()p-
Populu epics, 46 rnent), 28()
Popular pla)'t, 234 Profession of faitlt. ~3
Population, 30 Pro-Japanese, fanatical, 240
Population profile, 33 Gat14ps, 240
Porcelain, ~0 MAKAPa.I, 240
tbe use of, SO h/oald, 240
Portuguese, 69 P41nJ11lfJ, 2.40
Posnna.~oon, 47 Pulalwwes, 240
Post-war unionism, l S3 l.lniud Nippon, 40
Poaery, 43 Propaganda movernertt, n2
manufacture of, 43 PIOJ)ilgillldists, l, 132
Power crisis, 283 Prot.tstant Christianity, 191l
Pntt,l!.$-pcncec, 155 Prato-Austronesian, 41
Prayer Power l.'am!Jil4ln, 304 migration of, 40
Prayers and moclu.:ries, 133 Provincial Council, l.l6
Pre-Christian Taaatog, 46 Provisional Conmwtion of tbt

345
 Philippine Republic, 151
l'!U'C (Philipp me Refugees Proc·
essing O:nter}, 273
Ptolemy, 17
Publi<: Defenders A~'t, 2 i I
Pueblo, 83
Pulangi, 2i
Pule, Hermano, 122. 123, 193
Puliran,leader of, 47
Fun Tao King. 50
Putong, 62
Pyroclastic flows, 25
Q Rebe11<eaders, 257
Qu'ratt, ss
Queen Maningv;antiwan, 9
Que•on Memorial Circle, 191
Quc-r.ott, 24
Quezon, Pres. Manuel l., 184,
135, 186, 188, 1&9, 208, 214,
215,216,223,239
Quingua (Piacidel), l76
Quiono, Pres. Elpidio, 244, 2~.
257
admtnistration (194S.53), 254
Quirino-Foster Agreement, 256
R Republic, organ of the, 1611.
Racial prejudice, 12S
Radical propapndist, 19.3
R.adJo Veriw, 278
Raha BagiDJ!.a, 52
Rallman, Abdul Tlltlku, 264
Rainforest, 20
Raiab Basanda. 52
Rajah Humabon, 73
Rlljah Kolarobu, 72
Rajah M.uanda, 79, 114
Rajah Tupas. 77, 78, 79
RAM (Reronn the AFP Move.
rnent), '1.17
RAM (Repo.nnang Alyansang
:Mak.abansa}. 284:
Ramadan, 54
month of.~
Ramayana, 46
Rllmos, llenigno. ZOO, 241
Ramos, Father Marcial Fu:ocia,
91
Ramos, Fidd V., 277, 278.283,
297
admillisl:r.uion (1992-1998),
U3,2S6
Ramusio, Giovanni :Bani$1a, 22
Randall, C. B., 190
Risul, Sant!niaa, 282
Real Monatterio de Santa Clara,
88
R~ Aa, 181, 182
~islas,69
Recto, Claro M .. 187.231,259,
260
.. Red Chri$tnla.s ", 100
Refo.rmisU,277
Rfgidot, AnUlnio Maria, 131
Regiments, 23 7
&in4 Cami/4, 156
Religious fanaticism. 194
Religious freedom, 122
Religious Revoh of Hermano
Pule{l840-41), 122
Republic Act No.4, 253
Republic Act ~o. 6675,281
Republic Act No. 900-l, 300
Republic Act No. 9165, .304
Republic Act No. ~211. 305
Republic ofSp.l(tl, 130
Republic of the Philippmes, 21,
250
Ulird,2SO
Religious of the Vifxin Mary, 217
Ripubt~. T.he. 232
RA!public .R.egimmt, 2}7
Republican government in Billa·
tall, 192
R.esitlmt:ia, 84
Resista~~«, 235
Restoration. 235

346
 Retail Trade Liberalization
290
Revolt in Cebu, 15l
cau~. 117
Revolt of Da vao, The. 114
cau~. 114
RcvoltofGumapos(J661), 117
cause or, II 7
Reo.·olr oflandia (lb43), 114
ause, 114
Revolt of Palaris in Pangasinan, .
121
Revolt ofTamblot, Bobol (l6ll·
22), 113
cause, 113
Revolt of tbe Bayot Brothers
(1822), 122
ca~. 122
Revoir of the Igorocs (1()01}, 112
Revolt of the lrrayas, 112
RtvOiudon, 13~
Revolution. 192
phase of, 192
Revolution of 1896, 142
Rcvohnio~ries, 15)
in Zambalts, !53
Revolutionary Co~s, !66
Revolulionasy G1lvemmcnJ, 163
declaration or. 163
emissaries, 169
Rcvtrufiln.ism,ll3
Reyes. Angelo, 297
Reyes, Major Candido, 169
Reyes, Major Jose, 169
Reyes, Most .Rev. Gabriel \1.,
250
R<:Jits, Severino. 189
Rhinoceros. 6
Ricarte,lvtemio, 22, 146, 148,
152, 241
Rice Grani\ry oftbt· Philippines,
27
Rice production, 266, 267
Rights and freedom, 110
struggle fur, 110
AL1, Rio Grande, 110
Ritual pyayer, 53
Rlruab. 24
Rivalry in the Katipuna.n, 147
Ri~er system, 23
Rivera, Fernando t'rimo de, 1~1
Rivers, U
R.izal, Dr. Jose, 6, 22, 24, 129.
134, 136, 137, 142, 194
Vay, 190
~rtation of, l.l7
Monument, 232
Rlzal, Josefa, 135, 138
RJz al, Paciano, 148
Rlzal, Taciano, 25i
Rlzal, Trinidad, 135
R.izal biU, 260
Rlzat.ca~ite-Laguna·Baanga.s,
183
resistan<:C furccs in, 183
Rlzaline ~public, 22
Robertson, Dr. James, 10
Roces, Joaquin "Chino", 276
~oco. RauJ, Z!~
Rodriguez, Ar<hbishop Juan A.•
89
Rodriguez, Btruta, 138
Rojo, Archbishop Manuel Anto-
nio, 1o1. 102
Roxnan. Col. Francisco. 177
Roman Catholic Church, 87
Roman CathoHcism, 193
Romulo, Alberto 0., 282
Romu\o, Carlos P., 189
Romulo, Major Carlos P .. 218
Roose-.·eJ[, Pre1. Theodore, 213,
215
Roosevelt, Pr~ . F.ranklin .D ., t8i
Root crops, 32
Rosales, I>ecoroso, 280
ROTC,237
Rousseau, 128
tbc thought of, 128
Roxas, Baldomero, 135
Rcuas, Pres. Manuel A., 186,
347
 187,244,254 death of, 183
administration (1946-4&). 250, San Pascuai.Baylo, 97
25l Sande, Gov. Francisco de, 123
RP-US \1ilitary .Bases ~ree­ Sandiko, Teodoro, 187
menc, 273, 281 Satuiugu, 56
RP-US Treaty of Ftiendship, 2&1 Sanggumang Bayan, 272
Ruiru of war, 244 SQn.~feys, 97
Sanskrit, 46
s Sanskrit words, 49
Saduk, 9 Santa Clara, 97
Saguisag, Rene, 282 San!a Cruz de Mayo, 97
Sahul Shelf. 20, 21 Santa Iglesia, 194
Saltay. Macario, 141. 144, 183, Santocruzan, 91
134 Santan:n, Fr. Prancis,o, 9
surrender of, 183 Santiago. 71
Saltdd, 199 Santiago, Col. Mariano,l78
movement, I99 Santo Tomas lntenunent Camp,
Sakda!J.sm, 199 242
Sakdati~s. 199,200,240 Santo Toma~, Fray Pedro de, 112
Sala!llilt, Hashim, 294 Santos, Capt. Alt'jo S., 237, 273
Salamat, Magat, Ill Santos. Dante, 275-
Sakwikain (ptoverl>s), 4& Santos, Fr. Rufino, 7.H
Salazar. Luciano, 275 Santos, Lope K .• 196, 197
Salcedo. Juan, 99 Sarangani Bay, 2S
Sa!illan. 146 Sariling Siloap ltvelihood program
Salonga, Felipe, Ill 2"15
Salonga, Jovuo, 2& Sarim4n<>k, SS
Salt, 29 Sarmiento, Pedro, Ill
Saluag Isle, 2.) Sayid Abu l:!akr, 52
Salvador, Amtlrosro, 136 Scalf. Al~n. 2
Sam.als ofZamboa~a del Sur, .\2 Schilling, Jeffrey Craig .l::dwards,
Simar, 72 '-92
Sampaguita, 91 xhool, 226
Samson, A.pohnario, 144 Schunnan Cornmi$SiOn, l74
San Antonio, 71 Scou. William Henry, II, 10
San Carlos tinivooily, 8 Sea volcanoes, 2!
San Cnstob.!l, 194 Seafloor spreading, 18
mountain of, 194 Sea~ons, 30
San Juan dd Motltc, 115 dry,30
battle, 144 rainy, 30
San Juanico Strait, 2i wet, 30
San Lazaro Hospital, 95 ~e/\1"0,259
San Marco l.andfiU, 295 Second Philippilte Republic, 232
San Mtgucl, Gen. Luciano, 182, inauguration of. 232
192 Secondary sources, S

348
 Secularization conttovctsy, 129 Singapore, 22
Secularization movcmcm, lJO Siogian. Grq;orio, 180
Secularization of Philippine par· Singkil, 54, 55
ishes, 132 Sino-Philippine relations, 49
Sedillo!, Dr. Charles Emmanuel, Sityar, Lt. Manuel, 142, 169
II Smith, Gen. Jacob, ISO
s.dili<m .L.uv, 181 Smokey Mounrain, 2M
SEDP (Secondary Edocatioo De· Snap election~. 276
vc!opmcl\t Program}. 280 Snap presidential ele<:tion, 29S
Scgismundo, Cecilio, 178 Social aristocracy, 123
Segovia, Lazaro, 178 Social (USIOID$, 51
Scgui, Archbishop Jose, 123 Social suatification ~ystem. 5&
Self. flagellation. 96 Social welfare, 95
Ira clition of, 96 Socialist Party, 212
Semuc impeachment tribun.al, Scci¢ad Fmnomia &e los Amp 1M
295 Pai<, 92
Senate (t::ppcr House), 185 Soldiers, Japanese, 1.27
Sen&mbu,225 Solheim, Wilhelm G. 11, 7, II, 40
Scng, lim, 271 Solid Maru~gement Act, 300
Srrrano Laktaw, Pedro, !.H. 135 Soliven, Maximo, 270
Sharif Muhillllmad Kabungsu· SONA (State of the Nation Ad·
wan, !i?. dress), 303
Sharif ul-Hash1m, 52 Sotelo, Col. Antonio, 27&
Sharp, General, 219 South. China Sea, 22
Shell,28 Southeast Asia, 45
glory ofthe sea, 28 Southern Dcvdopmcn1 Bank, n7
tridacna gigas, 28 Southern Mindanao. 23
pisidum, zg Southc.m Tagalog, 23
Shoernaling, 9S Southwesc Pacific Area, 216, 236
Shrine of valor, 217 Spa:m, 3, 69
Siazon, Domingo, 289 Spanish· American wac, t 55
Sierra Madtc Mountains, llR Spanish colonial era, 3
Sierra Madre 'Range, 24 Spanish. colonial rule, 169
Sigala, i7 end of, 155
Si-KaU.c, 16 Spanish colonies, 101
Sikatuna, 77 Spanish conquest, 78,101,,
$i-Kavay, 16, I 7 ::>panish constitution of 1812, 121
Silang, Cavite, 146 Sp~nish Constitution of 1868, 167
Silang, Diegp, 103, 109 Spanish Cortes, 165
Revolt {1762~3}, 119, 120 parliamentary rules. 165
cat.t;e, 119 Spanish domination in the Philip-
Silal\1:, Gabriela, 120 pines, 127
Siliman Unhersity, 8 Spani~lt fleet, ISS
Sin. Ar~hbishop Jaime Cardinal, Spanisb forces, 156
276, 278, 293, 297 Spanish friar, 133

349
Spanish government, 125, !52 Revolt, Samar (1649-SO). ll S
Spanish Guardia Ctvil, 169 cause ot; 115
Spanish revolution. IJO Sutttpuk, 44
victory ot; 130 Sunda Shelf, 20, 21
Spanish rulers in the country, II I Sung Dyna5ty, 21
Spanish settlement in Luzon, 124 Superstitions, 48
Spanish·filipino rorces, 114, !15 Supreme Council. 136
SPCPn (Southern Philippine officer$ of, 138
Couoci! for Peace and Develop- Supreme Court. 211, 279
mcnl), 236 $11prm•o (President}. 139
Spices, 69 Sunbao, Antonio. tl l
Spifitualists, 24 Surrender, 102
Spratl)'l', 289 terms of, 102
SRA (Social Reform Ageuda), Swifi, Charle• M., 190
284 SyUabic wnti~. 4 7
Sri Vijaya power, 4!> SZOP AD (Special Zone of Peace
St. Francis Xavier, 76 and Drvelopmetll in Soll1hcm
bo.~tificarion of, Ill Philippines), 286
Siallrtcs ofUoiversal Masonry,
166 T
S~ lau~. 169 T'bo~s. 32
Stegodon, 6 Taal in Jlatangas, 2~. 26
Stone tools, 42 Taa.l Volcano, 25, 26
types of, 42 Taboo caves, 7
"Strait of All Saints", 71 Taborr-tubml, 42
Studenld~rarions, 270 Tadlar, Brig. Gm. Arlmlio. 273
Subanwu, 32 Taes , F.stcban. 11I
Subic Navat Bur, 252 Taft, Gov. WiDiam Howard. 179,
Subic Naval Slalion. 282 180
Submarine Galnilla, 238 administration, 179
SubmarineNc011'11rlr.l/, 238 Tal\ Commission. 13l
Sumos d4 Las Islas Filiplnar, 6, 129 Tagalog, 2 I 0
Suez Canal, 128 Tagalog language, 49, 23l
Sugbu (Cebu), 73 Tagalog regi()l), 23
SuL!yman. i9 T~og Repubbc, 183
revolt of, 110 Tagalog script, 4 7
Sulfathiazole. 129 Tagbanua. 32
Sultan Alimud 'Din I. l2S Tago-Apo Range, 25
Sultan Kudarat, 32, 126 Tailoring, 98
Sultan Makatunaw, 9 Taiwan, 22
Sultan S.Utf. 52 Tal Placido, H ilano, I 78
Su1uan lslan4. 12 T alibit, 214
Sumalcwel codes, 10 Tamaoo, Mamima!, 282
Summer capital, H Tamb1ot, 113
Sumoroy, Ju.u, 115 Tallada, Lorenzo, 260

350
TaNda, Wigbertn, 282 ~.18
Tatlikola rog Gui1lfl>, I &l Tbe Philiwint L<:~. 136
Tao't .Bato, 32 The Re\igioiiS ofthe ViJllin Mary,
Tapar's Revolt, Panay (1663), 217
118 Tlte R~k. 232
cause. 118 The ~It of Allnaz<ln (16601),
TDfJUY, 60 117
Taruc, Lws. 239, 251,254, 2SS, cause, 117
259 The 'Revoh of Davao, 114
Tausugs,l2 ~-.ux, 114
TcciO'O Comico, 91· The ~volt ofGumapos (1661),
Tcauo Nueva Luna in Malabon, 117
181 cause of, 117
Technologicil anifacts, 41 The .Revolt ofl.anllia (1643), 114
Tecson. Pablo, 166, 167 cause, 114
Tectonic movement, 19 The Revolt ofTamblot, Bohol
Tello, Gov. Francisco, 112 (1621-22), 113
Tenazas, Rosa, 3 cause, ll3
Terren>, Gov. Gen. Emilio, 126, The Revolution of 1896, 142
127 The siege of Bilcr, 164
Terrorist clcmenu in the co~, The Spanisb-Amencan War
303 (1898), 15}
Thailand. 7 The Thirteen 'M.utyri of C.lvit.c,
Tba.OOgiving Day, 190 144
1'114 Age ofthe £arJ/I, 19 TheTondo C011.1pitacy (1587-88),
The American legacy, 188 lll
The American Rille, 174 Tlte Tribune. 241
The archl~'s name. 21 Thearu oftlle unh, 17
The Bial<-na-Bato Republic, 151 ThtliLcr, 61
The Declaration oflhe Philippine TMcrrum Ortns 'ferrarum, 17
Independence, 163 T he legend of Benwdo C;upio,
The Federal PaJty, 179 17
The F undam~ntal Spirit, 240 Theory of catasuopbism, 17
Th~ Holy Jlible, 16 T heory of continental drift, 18
The Katif1U111Jfl, 137 Theory of plate tectonics, 18
The M agdalo Council. 147 Theory of Scientific Social Evolu-
The Magiwang Council, 147 tion,~
the capital of, 147 Theory ofcbe Eallh,17
The !li!akabulos Constitution, 153 Thobum, Bishop James M., 190
The manyrs of Aldan, 146 TboRWites, 1B8
The M ilitary !lases Agreement, Tidoi:C', 75
151,252 Tiger of Milaya, 242
The NadonaliJras, 185, 186 TimGKU,57
The Nnv Yorlt Jo;mwl, IH Tingco, 100
Tlt.e Origin ofOmlinmJr aNI Tirad Pas$, 173

351
 Tiruu.ys, 32 Tyding$-McDuffie Law, 187,
Tobllcco.l29 208, 209
monopoly, 93 Typhoon Uriog in Ormoc, 2A2
Tobacco Regulation Act, 305
Tojo, Pmniei Hlcleld, l2S u
Tolentino, Amlro M ., 263 U.S. Battleship Maine in Ha'anA.,
Tolaldoo, Aurelio, 142, Ill Cub~. U4
attn!, 182 U.S. WanhipMaine ,\ ~3
Toleor:lno, Ollillemlo, 191 sinking oftbe, 1~3
Tomawls, Acmad M. , 293 UgJ!de, Don Felipe de, 117
Tool .usemblages, 41 una., Rolarul, 291
Torogtm, 5' UNCR (United N.ui.ons Hil!h
TorrtS, Gen. Isidro, 153 Commission of RefUgees), 27l
Total :&<>nomic Mobilization UNESt.'O {United Nations EdU·
Program, 2SS cational, Scietllific a.od Cultur.ll
Total History, 3 0Jgani:!ation), 235
TOYM {Ten Oul::!tallding Yoq UNIDO (Unllt'd Nationalist
Men), 1'6 Democratic Organization), 276
Toynbee, Arnold Joseplt. I UNIDQ.PDP-l aban Party
Tradi'll, 61 (United Nalionali.st Demooatic
Traditional Filipino commuai· OJg&nizalion.Peop.le's Dem~
ties,SS ratic Party-Lakas og Bayan).
TraMport.ation, 128 276
improvement in, 128 UnifOrmitarian theory of geology,
TmM4,19() 17
Travel ban, 270 Urlitwt tk Ulogtufos, l 96
Travelll!J merchanu, 97 u.ucn lkl Tmbdjo u FfiipirlllS, 197
Trea~ ofPariJ, 103, 164, 174, Unyon ng MaJPOS<II<a, \91
ISO Unit»t ObrmJ l>rmoarlric.:, 106
Treaty ofTordceiUIJ, 70, 76 Unilfd Nalions High Commis-
Tm tk Abril, 1Sl sionof~fugees (UNCR), "1.73
"Trial of the Cencwy", m Unitecl Sta~s Anny Forces io Clle
Trias, 'Mariano, 148, 162, Ill .Philippines, 236
Tribal communities, leaders of, United Stalt'S Coll8Jess, 251
J2 Universidad de SaQID Tonw, 88
TriiXI1f~, 2 24 Uni>-ersil)' ofSan Ignacio, 87
Trillidflli, 1S Univmity ofSantoTo.mas, 223
Tropical eli malt', 30 University of the Philippint$, 7
Tropical jungles, 2J Ur'oi21Dildo, Gov. Gen Antonio
Trujillo lopez, Alfonso CMdinal, de, 126
304 US Military personnd. 303
Tuba., 60 USAFFE, HI, 214,216,236,244
Tutuban staciun, 228 US-Philippine Treaty ofGeuer;ll
Twain, Mark, 165 Relation.\, 2SO
Tydi~ Act,251

352
 v Kanlaon in Nq;ros, 25
Valdez, Gen. Basilio, 214 MalcaturiDR In Lanao, 2$
Valentine's Day, 190 Mayon in Alb&y, 25
Valenzuela Regiment, 237 Pinatubo in Zambiles, 2S
\'almzuda, Dr. Pio, 142 Taa.i in Baunga;, 25
Varps, Jesus, 261 Vplckma.nn, Miljor Russell, 235
Vargas, Jo.ge B., 214, 223. 224, Voltaire, 128
230 the thought of, 128
Vasquez, Leonora, 291 Von Diedrich!, Admiral156
Vegetables, 27,49 Votz buying, 276
\'elasco, Viceroy, 71
Vee, Gtn. Fa.vian, 2iS, 277, 278 w
Vee, Miguel, 237 W alnwright, Oen. Jonathan M.,
VFA (Visiting F01ces ~ 2 16, 217,219, 2)6
mem), 28&, 289 Walled City, 163
I'Uijm>s, 22 9 Wang-Ta-yuan, 49
Vices, forms of. 234 War, settlerneot cf the, 26 7
Vicksbucg. 178 War Plan Orange, 114,218
Y'.aori4, 71. 75 Wany-waray, 31
Vidal, Arrbbisbop Ricanlo Car· Washington Pay, 190
dinal, 293 Water poUution,l9
Viettlant Wat, 266 Wavn ofmigrulon, 34, 3S
ViDa, Jose Garcia, l &9 Weaving. 94
Villafuerte, Leon, 184 nwcrials mc6 in , 94
Villalobos, Ruy Lopez de, 22 Weaving industries, 94
ViUalobos eKpedition, 77 Wegener, Alfred, 18
V illamor. Capt. Jesu.s. 2 B Western coloniuJS, 129
Villaruel, Faustino. 136 W estem Mindanao, 13
Villcgas, 1' IUllaleon, I53 W cst~:rn P anp.sinan, 24
Vinzons, Gov. Wenceslao. 239 shores of, 24
Visayans, 31 Wesccm Visayas, n
Visayas, a. 23 Weyler, Gov. Gen. Valenano.
" VIVa Ia lndepeiiGeaci.\ Filipina", 127
142 Whale shark. 29
Vivien, Don Viego, 100 WiUn, Dr. Balley, 2 I
Voice orrreedom, 218 Wilson, Larry, 6
Volcanic eruption. 19 Wilson, Pr6. Woodrow, 185
'l<>lcanic>peaks ofCamiguin, 25 Wine monopoly of 17&6, 121
Volcanic tboory, 21 Winemilki~. 60
Volcanoes. 2.5 Wornan suffi:age, 211
Apo in Davao, 15 Wood, Gov. Gel. Leonard, L8S.
a.Jlahaw in Quezon. 2S 186. 195
llulusan iD Sorsoson. 2S Woods,27
Hibok·llibo~in Carniguin, 25 Won:tSter, Dean, 169
Jray;L in ~wtes. 25 World !lank, 276

)53
World Wu U, 2, 6, 2l z
Writ of habeas CO'llU$, 257, 270 Zabala, Don Antonio, 119
Written lilfta~. 411 Zabal.l., Gen. Antonio, 146
Zambales, II 7
y Zambales Molllllain, 24
v·Alni Tsle, 2.3 Zambals• .3\
Yabns,.H Zapata. MarCO$, 100
Yamashita, Gen. Tomoyuki, 236, Z4tzM414, 189
24\,242,243 Zbu Di (Cbu Til, SO
surrende-r of, 243 Ziga, Victor, 2l!2
Yengko, Gen . Flaviano, I~
Yung·lo Emperor. 5()

3S4