UNIT – 1

Information Technology:

• Computer is most versatile machine, man ever made.

Computer made significant impact in all dimensions of life
and soon become bread and butter of day to day life.

• IT replaced all conventional methods to solve technical or

operational problems.

• IT is generic name of following functions:

o Information/ Data Representation

o Information / Data Storage

o Information/ Data Retrieval and Processing

o Information/ Data Communication

Overview of Current IT Applications:

• Video On Demand

• Multimedia Conferencing

• Home Shopping and Shopping on Web

• Inventory Control

• Preparation of Business Documents

• Enterprise Resource Planning

Data and Information:

1
 DATA DATA PROCESSING
INFORMATI
ON

REFINING
OF

INFORMATI

Data:

Collection of raw facts and figures is known as Data.

Collected data may be correct or incorrect.

Information:

Processed data or data after processing is known as

Information. Information is the outcome of processing is
according to need of user and decides the nature of data whether
the collected data is correct or incorrect as it is according to the
situation and need of user.

Types of Information:

• Strategic Information

o Used by management for completing objectives and

plans of organization.

o Considers information like future market prospects,

cash, business segments.

o Concern with uncertainty about future predictions.

• Tactical Information
2
 o Use only short term decisions.

o Required special processing of data.

o Includes production measurements, cash flow forecast

etc.

• Operational Information

o Used in day to day business operations.

o Usually easy to obtain.

Quality of good Information:

• Accurate

• Complete

• Timely

• Relevant

• Summarized

• Up to Date

• Easy to Use

• User – Targeted

• Cost beneficial

• Authoritative

Information System:

3
• Organized collection of Hardware, Software, Human,
Database & Communication Equipment in which person
processes, controls and communicate information.

• Objectives of Information System is to gather data,

processing of data communicating information to system
users. User group includes persons from all levels:

o Lower Level

o Middle Level

o Upper or Top Level

o Person may be anyone among the following:

 System Analyst

 Programmer

 Technician

 Engineer

 Network Manager

 Manager of Information System (MIS)

• It also includes the concept of feedback mechanism.

• Information Systems can also be broadly classified as

o Manual

o Computer Based Information Systems

• Requirement of business analyst may be programmed and

computer based systems may be developed to study and
analyze. These I S are called CBIS. E.g. Railway Reservation
System.

4
Components of CBIS:

• Users

o Most important component

o Divided into groups:

 One who manages the system

 One who retrieve information from system and

take decisions

 One who retrieve information as well as provide

information to system

• Hardware and Communication and Component

o Faster gathering and process of information is not

sufficient but faster dissemination of information is also
essential.

• Software

o Different rules, methods and practices are coded in a

program.

o Software once installed on computer is considered as

most important component of IS.

o These programs process data and generate reports.

• Database

o Structured collection of programs

o Software fetches data from database and process them

as per requirement.

5
 o To develop efficient I S it is necessary to design good
database .

o I S are said to be built on top of database and

performance of I S depends on underlying database.

• Set of Methods

o Refers to transactions and practices prevailing in

business house, where I S is used.

o Various traditions are laid down in form of rules which

are then coded in to program.

o Rules change time to time by adoption of new rules in

business environment.

o I S must be adaptable to these changes and must be

flexible to incorporate in business environment.

Motivation factors for Organization to use I S:

• Support for business process and practices

• Support of decision making

• Support of innovative planning

History of Information System:

Year Main activities Skills required

6
197 Mainframe computers were used. Programming in
0s COBOL
Computers and data were centralized
systems.

Tied to a few business functions like

payroll, billing etc.
198 PCs and LANs are installed. PC support,
0s
Departments set up their own systems.

End user computing with Word Basic networking

processor & spreadsheet makes
department less dependent on IT
department.

Main focus is on automating existing

processes
199 Wide Area Networks become corporate Network support,
0s standards
System
Senior management looks for system integration,
integration and data integration, no
Database
more standalone systems
Administration
Main focus is on central control and
corporate processing
200 Wide Area Networks expand via Internet Network support,
0s to include global enterprise and
business partners – supply chain
distribution System
Integration
Senior management looks for data
sharing across systems

Main focus is on efficiency & speed in

inventory, manufacturing and
7
 distribution

Types of Information Systems:

Depending upon specific requirements of users, various I S may

be developed. Based on requirement of organization and need of
user, I S may be categorized into following categories:

• Transaction Processing System

• Management Information System

• Work Flow System

• Decision Support System

• Expert System

Transaction Processing System:

• Traditional system which is a combination of people, S/w,

H/w and Database.

• Main focus is on completion of Business Transaction.

• Objective is to reduce cost, effort and automation of

business activities in organization.

• Business Transaction is considered as an Atomic activity, so

it is necessary to complete it otherwise underlying database
may enter into an inconsistent state.

• A T P S deals with transaction in three ways:

o Batch Processed I S

8
  Different transactions are queued and executed
one after the other.

 Transactions keep modifying database and

preceding transaction operate on data processed
by previous transaction.

 Payroll, Electronic Filling and Telephone Billing

 Activities are triggered at required time and result

in fetching data from database and prepare
reports like bills and also modify the database
when required.

o Real Time T P S

 Not only transactions are processed online but

also deadlines are maintained.

 It is only important to process data but it is more

of importance that transactions are completed
within deadline.

o Online Transaction Processing

 Process data instantaneously

 Requests are processed instantaneously whenever

they are submitted

 Railway reservation, Banking System

 OLTP is the system in which operational level

support to organization is provided by processing
data through B.T.

9
  Request retrieve and storing data is online. Any
error is a costly affair, recovery from failure is time
consuming.

Characteristics of Transaction Processing System:

• Rapid Response

• Reliability

• Inflexibility

• Controlled Processing

Features of Transaction Processing System:

• Good data placement

• Short transactions

• Real Time back up

• High Normalization

• Achieving of historical data

• Good hardware communication

Types of files used in T P S:

• Master File

• Transaction File

• Report File

• Work File

10
 • Program File

Management Information System:

• MIS is used in those organizations where information in form

of reports, presentations is required by management to take
decisions.

• In MIS requirement is much higher as various areas need to

be integrated to provide collective information to
management

• MIS provides feedback to management with appropriate

data, which arises from TPS.

• Advantages of MIS:

o Facilitates planning

o Minimizes information overload

o MIS encourages decentralization

o Brings Coordination

o Makes control easier

Work Flow System:

• Are used to manage & control interrelated activities

require to perform a business goal.

• System helps users, employees & managers to evaluate

control and status of different interrelated tasks.

11
 • Systems are based on certain rules that control the flow of
task

• Primary objective is to provide tracking and routing of

tasks, documents from one process to another.

• Work flow system tools are Lotus Notes, Novell

Groupware, MS Exchange.

• Advantages:

o Include reducing time due to retyping, filling forms

etc.

Decision Support Systems:

• Decision

o Decision making is solution of problem

• Support

o Required computer aided decision solutions with

enough structure to permit computer support

• System

o Combined nature of problem solving, suggestion for a

combined man, machine and decision environment

• Supports management in solving business problems, often

may not be solved by MIS.

• Decisions are based on facts and feedback obtained by the

company.

• Taking these decisions, information provided by MIS is not

sufficient.

12
• It requires to prepare information specific formats.

• DSS is a collection of H/w and S/w to support decision

making in specific environment.

• Main objective is to suggest right options.

• DSS are often designed as per manager’s requirement and

plays vital role in managerial decision making.

• DSS are designed around business policies and methods for

decision making and supporting database to provide
information.

• Advantages of DSS:

o Improving personal efficiency

o Expedition problem solving

o Promoting learning and training

o Facilitating Inter personnel communication

o Increasing organizational control

• Characteristics and Capabilities:

o Support for decision makers in structured &

unstructured problems

o Support for managers at all levels

o Support individuals and groups

o Support for interdependent and sequential decisions.

o DSS should be adaptable and flexible.

o Support modeling and analysis.

13
 o Complete control by decision makers

o Standalone, integration and web based.

Expert Systems:

• Used to solve problems of individuals by providing expert

decision making.

• Use of artificial intelligence to solve problems that requires

significant expertise.

• E S are computer based systems that emulate decision

making of human expertise.

• Emulation means computer system act as an expert

• E S provides expert guidance to make use of special

knowledge required for decision making.

• E S and Knowledge Based Systems are more

interchangeably.

• One E S MYCIN was developed to provide expert guidance of

medical

• Several knowledge based systems are developed for

providing knowledge as an intelligent agent to expert. Most
of Expert Systems are designed around knowledge based
and inference engine.

• User enters information and expert system provides

response by invoking inference engine which draws

14
 conclusion from basis of information stored in knowledge
base.

• Knowledge and techniques used by inference engine limits

its performance.

• Advantages

o Provides consistent answer for repetitive decisions,

process & tasks

o Holds and maintain significant level of information

o Never forget to ask a question

o Encourages organization to clarify logic of their decision

making

• Disadvantages

o Lacks common sense needed in decision making

o Domain experts do not always able to explain logic and

reasoning

o Cannot adapt to changing environment, unless

knowledge base is changed

Executive Information Systems:

• Type of MIS intended to facilitate and support the

information and decision making needs

• Emphasis of EIS is on graphical displays and easy – to – use

user interfaces.

Components of E I S:

• Hardware

o Input data – entry devices

15
 o Central Processing Unit

o Data Storage Files

o Output Devices

• Software

o Text Based Software

o Database

o Graphic Base

o Model Base

• User Interface

• Telecommunication

Applications of EIS:

• Manufacturing

• Marketing

• Financial

Advantages of EIS:

• Easy to use for upper level executives

• Provides timely delivery of summarized information

• Improves tracking of information

• Provides Efficiency to decision makers

• Filters data for management

Disadvantages of EIS:

• Functions are limited, cannot perform complex calculations

16
 • Executives may encounter information overload

• Difficult to keep current data

• May lead to less reliable and insecure data

• Systems may become slow and hard to manage

Office Automation System:

• Most newest and most widely expanding C B I S

• These are adopted in order to increase efficiency and

productivity of workers

• Decision making process

o Identifying problems

o Develop all possible solutions

o Decision to best solution

o Feedback

Forms of Information:

• Text

• Image

17
 • Graphics

• Audio

• Video

• Animation

File extensions used by Microsoft are:

• Enhance Metafile (.emf)

• Windows Bitmap (.bmp, .rle, .dip)

• Joint Photographic Expert Group (.jpeg)

• Portable Network Graphics (.png)

Changing nature of Information System:

• Emergence of Digital Firm

• Globalization

• Rise of Information Economy

• Transformation of Business Enterprises

Value of Information:

• Need of information is a fundamental ingredient for any

development process in society, can be seen as a Dynamic
Resource.

• Emergence of information, triggers the development process

modern society may be termed as Information Society,
18
 characterized by increasing responsiveness towards need of
information.

• It is possible to quantify amount of information but difficult

to compute value of information.

• Value may be different for different groups.

• It can be categorized as:

o Normative Value

o Subjective Value

o Realistic Value

Normative Value of Information:

• Difference of estimated cost with prior knowledge of order

and without knowledge of order.

• These are obtained by theoretical and standard procedures

and ignores human factor, environment and risk.

• When these factors are taken into consideration for

estimating profit margins it provides realistic value of
information.

• It is not possible to calculate normative or realistic value of

information, experienced persons make intuitive guess for
expected profit margins. Value obtained using intuitive
guess is termed as Subjective Value of Information.

Need of Information:

• Resource allocation is an optimal way to attain basic goals of

organization.

19
 • To maintain relationship with management, customer,
government and suppliers.

System:

• A system is a group of inter related or interacting

components working together for achieving a particular
objective.

• System is derived from Greek Word “Systema” which means

organized relationship among functional units or
components.

• System is designed to achieve one or more objectives.

• System concept has three basic implications:

o It must be designed to achieve predetermined

objective.

o All components must be interrelated and independent.

o Objectives of organization as a whole must have a

higher priority than objectives of individuals.

Elements of System:

• Input

o Elements that enter into the system for processing. E.g

Raw material or Data.

• Output

o Outcome of processing of raw data or material that was

feed into system as input. E.g. Finished Products.

• Processing

20
 o It is the process that converts input into output.

• Controlling

o It is a decision making subsystem that manages pattern

of activity governing I/P, processing and O/P.

o Output specifications determine what and how much I/P

is needed to keep system in balance.

o Control is function that manages system’s input by

making necessary adjustment to get proper output.

• Feedback

o Control is a function achieved by feedback. The

feedback measures output against standards.

o Output information is feedback to input or management

after output is compared against performance
standards.

o Feedback may be positive or negative. If output is

according to desired one or according to predetermined
standards is called Positive Feedback. If output is not
according to the predetermined standards then it is
called as Negative Feedback and it required some
control mechanism to achieve desired goal

MANAGEMEN
T FEEDBACK

INPUT PROCESSO OUTPUT

R

STANDARD 21
OUTPUT
Characteristics of System:

• Organization

o It is the arrangement of components that helps to

achieve objective.

o Hierarchical Relationship starting with President on top

and leading downwards to Workers represents an
Organizational Structure.

o Likewise Computer System is designed around I/P, O/P,

CPU, Storage when they link together they work as a
whole system for producing information.

• Interaction

o It refers to the manner in which each component

functions with other components of system.

o In computer system, CPU must interact with I/P device

to solve a problem .

o Main memory holds program and data that arithmetic

and logic unit uses for computation.

o The interaction between these components enables the

computer to perform.

• Interdependency

22
 o It means the part of organization or computer system
depends on one another.

o They are coordinated and linked together according to

a plan.

o One sub system depends on I/P of another sub system

for proper functioning i.e. I/P of one sub system is
required for another sub system as output of one sub
system acts as input for another sub system.

o No sub system can function in isolation because it is

dependent on data it receives from another sub system
to perform its required task.

• Integration

o It is concerned with flow of system tied together.

o It is more than sharing a physical part on location.

o It means that parts of system which individually

perform their tasks, are integrated together.

• Central Objective

o Last characteristic of system is its Central Objective.

o It may be real or static or stated.

o Important point is that user must know central

objective of computer application early in analysis for a
successful design and conversion.

Distributed Information System:

23
 • Distributed development of software and information system
also named as Global Software Development, driven by
Globalization of companies.

• DISD (Distributed Information System Development)

• DISD promotes realization of I S in a collaborative way where

generally several partners located at distant places
(separated geographically), participate in elaboration of
common solution.

• DISD consists in decomposing I S development process into

autonomous phases.

• It aims at:-

o Increasing enterprise productivity

o Reducing I S development cost

o Enlarging number of Human Competencies

• Allows not only to share experiences in cultural environment

but also extends enterprise strategy to global market.

• Allows enterprise to deal with new economic constraints.

• Distribution of process has an impact on way I S products will

be specified, designed, coded and delivered to clients.

Types of Distances that play important role in Distribution

Information System Development:

• Geographical Distance

o Persons who are involved in communication are sitting

far apart from each other, but take part in proper
discussion.
24
 o Geographical distance represents a spatial distance
between two entities (organizations, persons, cities,
etc.) measured by the cost and time necessary to cover
it.

o It is also measured in ease of delocalizing and

relocating and has different facets like the type of
transportation, the time necessary for travelling from
one location to another, the need to have a visa or
other permission.

o In other words, the geographical distance is measured

by the effort that an actor has to provide in order to go
to the location of the other actor.

• Temporal Distance

o Concentrates on

 Dislocation in time

 Execution time

 Response time

 Working Hours

o The most evident characteristic is the time difference

between the time zones of two locations.

o This difference requires managing work schedules of

different entities in order to increase as much as
possible their overlap and therefore to facilitate the
communication between distant actor.

• Socio – Cultural Distance

o The success of a DISD project also depends on the

socio-cultural factors that are based on the

25
 fundamental difference of the system of values that
governs our lives.

o This distance is very complex and concerns different

cultural aspects like organizational, business, language
and political culture as well as personal motivations and
work ethics.

• Organizational Distance

o We define organizational distance as a dissimilarity in

the organizational structure and business processes of
two organizations.

o This difference can be observed in their organization of

work, management of human resources and their
knowledge.

o The I S development processes (Bass and Paulish,

2004). It is a potential source of problems in DISD.

• Technological Distance

o The large variety of technologies (software and

hardware) available for IS development leads to a
divergence in their application by different DISD
partners.

o We define technological distance as a difference of

applied technologies by two DISD entities

• Knowledge Distance

o Variability and complementarities of human knowledge

and skills necessary for IS development are considered
as one of the advantages that DISD benefits.

26
 o However, it can also cause many problems. We define
the knowledge distance as divergence of knowledge
that two entities have in some particular application
domain and for the realization of some particular task,
while this knowledge is necessary for the realization of
their work, communication and coordination of their
activities

Activities performed in Distributed Information System

Development:

• Communication

• Control

• Coordination

• Development

• Maintenance

INTERNET:

• Internet is derived from Internetwork or connecting together

of two or more components.

• Network of networks that connects people and computers

worldwide.

• Federal Networking Council agrees that following points

reflects the term “INTERNET”:

o is logically linked together by globally unique address

space based on Internet protocol (I P).

o is able to support communications using TCP/IP.

27
History:

• U S Department of Defense laid foundation of Internet, called

ARPANET (American Research Project Agency Network).

• In 1957, first project agency called ARPA came into existence

where U.S.A. formed ARPA with DOD.

• In 1968, ARPA awarded ARPANET contract to BBN.

• In 1972, first email program was developed by Ray

Tamlinson, ARPA renamed DARPA (Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency).

• In 1973, introduction of TCP/IP.

• In 1976, due to concept of Ethernet, LAN came into

existence.

• In 1979, USENET created by Steve Ballovin.

• In 1981, NSF (National Science Foundation) created ESNET.

• In 1984, ARPANET divided into MILNET and ARPANET.

• MILNET (serves military) and ARPANET (serves advanced

research development).

Evolution of INTERNET:

• Innovation Phase (1961 - 1974)

• Institutionalization Phase (1975 - 1995)

• Commercialization Phase (1995 – Till Today)

Key Concepts in INTERNET:

• Packet Switching
28
 o Method of slicing digital messages into packets and
sending these

packets.

• Routers

o Are special purpose devices that interconnect networks

and route packets to destination.

• TCP

o Establishing connection among sending and receiving

web computers, handles assembly of packets at time of
transmission and reassembly at destination.

• IP

o Provides INTERNET’S addressing scheme.

• IP Address

o Expressed as 32 bit number, divided into 4 octets. Each

octet contains 4 bits.

• DNS

o Domain Name System

o Expressing numeric I P address

• URL

o Uniform Resource Locator

o Address used by Web browser to identify location of

content on WEB.

• Client – Server Model

29
 REQUESTS
CLIEN SERVER
T RESPONDS

INTERNET Protocols:

• HTTP

o Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

o Used for transferring web pages

• SMTP

o Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

o Used to send mail to server

• POP

o Post Office Protocol

o Used by client to receive mail from Internet Server

• IMAP

o Internet Message Access Protocol

o Allows users to search, organize and filter their mail

prior to downloading it from server.

• FTP

o File Transfer Protocol

30
 o Permits users to transfer files from server to Client and
Vice versa.

• SSL

o Secure Socket Layer

o Protocol that secures communication between client

and server

• TELNET

o Terminal emulation program runs in TCP/IP

• PING

o Program that allows us to check connection between

client and server.

• FINGER

o Utility program supported by UNIX that tells who is

logged in, how long they are attached and username.

Governing Bodies of INTERNET:

• IAB

o Internet Architecture Board

o Defines overall structure of Internet.

• ICANN

o Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

which assigns I P address.

o Their Inter NIC, which assigns domain names.

• IESG
31
 o Internet Engineering Steering Group

o Oversees standard settings

• IETF

o Internet Engineering Task Force

o Forecast next stop in growth of Internet, watch over

operation and evolution.

• WWW

o World Wide Web

o Sets HTML and other program standards for Web.

Types of Connections:

• Dial Up Connection

o Modem Dial – Up Connection

o ISDN (Integrated Switch Digital Network)Dial – Up

Connection

• Broadband Connection

o Cable Broadband Connection

o DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) Broadband Connection

• Satellite Internet Connection

Domain Names:

• .com (Commercial Organizations)

• .edu (Educational Institutions)

32
 • .net (Network)

• .org (Organizations)

• .gov (Government Organizations)

• .mil (Military Used)

• .in (India)

• .au (Australia)

• .uk (United Kingdom)

• .us (United States of America)

• .fr (France)

Networking Components:

Layer Name of Layer Devices

L–1 Physical Layer Repeater
L–2 Data Link Layer Bridges
L–3 Network Layer Routers
L–4 Transport Layer Transport Gateways
L–5 Session/ Application
Presentation/ Gateways

Application Layer

Repeaters:

• Is an electronic and low level device

• Operates on physical layer of OSI Model

33
 • Repeaters do not amplify the signal, it regenerates it.

• When it gets a corrupted bit pattern, it creates a copy bit of

bit at original strength.

A REPEATE D
R

B C

Bridges:

• Operate on Data Link Layer of OSI Model, giving it access to

all physical address of all stations connected to it.

• When frame enters a bridge. Bridge not only regenerates the

signal but checks address of destination and forwards new
copy only to segment to which it belongs.

• As packet arrives to bridge, it reads the address in frame

and compose address with table of all stations on both
segments and compare them.

• When it finds match, it discovers the segment for forwarding

frame.

A B C A B C

BRIDGE BRIDGE

34

D E D E
A–D A–
C

Routers:

• Access Network Layer addresses and determine which of

several paths are possible between those addresses is best
after particular transmission.

• These are found in network layers

• They just take incoming packets from one line and forward
them to another line, but lines may belong to different
networks.

• A packet sent from one station on a network to station on

neighboring network goes first to jointly held router, which
switches it over to destination network. If there is no router
connected to both sending and receiving Networks, then
sending router transfer to next and so on until destination is
reached.

Gateway:

• Operates at Transport Layer.

35
 • Basically a protocol convertor can accepted a packet
formatted for one protocol (Apple Talk) and convert it to a
packet formulated for another protocol (TCP/IP) before
forwarding it

TCP/ OSI Model:

APPLICATIO
SMTP FTP TELNET
DNS MESSAGE
36
NFS RPC TFTP
SNMP
PRESENTATI

SESSION

TRANSPORT H
TCP UDP
SEGMENT/

USER
DATAGRAM
ICMP
IP
H
ARP RARP

NETWORK
DATAGRAM
DATA LINK LAYER

H
PRTOCOLS DEFINED BY
UNDERLYING LAYER

FRAMES
PHYSICAL

BITS

IP v 4:-

HEADER
DATA 37
VERSION HLEN SERVICE TYPE
TOTAL LENGTH

4 BITS 4 BITS 8 BITS

16 BITS

FLAG
FRAGMENTATION IDENTIFICATION 3 BITS
OFFSET

16 BITS
13 BITS

TIME TO LIVE PROTOCOLS HEADER

CHECKSUM

8 BITS 8 BITS 16BITS

SOURCE ADDRESS

DESTINATION ADDRESS
Parts of IP v 4:

• VER

o Version Number of I P.

o Current version is I P v 4, binary equivalent is 0100.

• HLEN

o Header Length

o Multiple of 4B

38
• SERVICE TYPE

o Defines how datagram should be handled.

o It contains bits that specify type of service such as

level of throughput, reliability and delay.

• TOTAL LENGTH

o Total length of datagram.

o 2 Byte field (16 bits) can define up to 65,536 B

• IDENTIFICATION

o Used in fragmentation of datagram, when passed

through different networks.

o May be divided into fragments to match network frame

size.

o When this happens each frame is identified by a

sequence number in this field.

• FLAGS

o It deals with fragmentation.

• FRAGMENTATION OFFSET

o It shows the offset of data in original datagram, it is

fragmented.

• TIME TO LIVE

o It defines the number of hops a datagram can travel

before it is discarded.

• PROTOCOL

o It identifies type of protocol i.e. TCP/UDP/ICMP etc.

39
 • HEADER CHECKSUM

o It is a 16 bits field used to check integrity of header,

not the rest of packet.

• SOURCE ADDRESS

o It is a 4 B (32 b) internet address of source.

• DESTINATION ADDRESS

o It is a 4 B (32 b) internet address of destination.

• OPTIONS

o This field contains field that carry control routing,

tuning, management and alignment.

IP v 6:

• Expanded address space up to 16 Bytes.

• Header format simplification.

VERSION TRAFFIC CLASS FLOW LABEL
• Header is 40 B, fixed length.

• No checksum at Network Layer

PAYLOAD
• 64 bitsLENGTH
aligned NEXT HEADER HOP
LIMIT
• IP Sec is mendtary. Authentication and Privacy capabilities.

• No more broadcast.

SOURCE ADDRESS

ver

40

DESTINATION ADDRESS
• I P v 6 addressing rules are covered by RFCs (Request For
Comments) RFC 3513, 2373.

• Address Types:

o Unicast

 One – One

 Global, Link Local, Site Local Compatible

o Anycast

 One – Nearest

 Allocated from Unicast

o Multicast

 1 to many

41
  No broadcast only muticast is used.

• 6 bone is an I P v 6 test bed setup to assist in evolution and

deployment of I P v 6 in Internet.

I P v 6 Header options RFC 2460:

• I P v 6 Header

• Hop – by – Hop Header

• Destination Option Header

• Routing Header

• Fragment Header

• Authentication Header (RFC 1826)

• Encapsulation Security Payload Header (RFC 1827)

• Upper – Layer Header

Comparison between OSI and TCP Protocol Suite:

OSI Model

Application
Presentation
Session

42
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Application

TCP and UDP

IP
Data Link
Physical

TCP/IP:-

• Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol, popular

term used in conjunction with Internet.

• To establish communication between two systems some

protocols are required.

• TCP defines rules for communication.

• Divided into:

43
 o TCP

 Deals with packets over networks.

 Packets are small pieces of data meant for safe

communication.

 Traversing from one computer to another, data

travels long distances called routing.

 Size of packets is decided on network capability.

 TCP also ensures safe delivery at destination.

o IP

 Deals with address of computer

 Decides address of computer to be labelled on a

packet.

 Allows various intermediate computers to read

address of destination computer and route the
packet to destination node.

History and Growth of WEB:

• Idea of platform independent, computer independent

communication system gave birth to WEB.

• Idea of non proprietary communication system was first

conceived in 1965, by Ted Nelson, helped to define two
concepts of WEB:

o Hypertext

 Is a text that is non linear and non sequential in

nature.
44
  Hypertext is a text inside a text.

o Hypermedia

 Hypermedia is a non linear and non sequential

media that can be viewed independently of one
another.

 It is a media based communication.

 Hypermedia connotated use of multiple forms of

media elements into a single document.

• Ted Nelson’s ideas have significant impact in area of

communication, US DOD in 1970.

• Protocol is a set of rules that defines how data is transmitted

and received to computer.

• US DOD called ARPANET, was designed to support military

research.

• Throughout 1980s several networks were developed and

those were UNIX based, NSF (Network Science Foundation).

• By 1983 all computers required to use TCP/IP

• In 1989, using Nelson’s paradigm, Tim Berner Lee proposed

computer based communication system, that enable physics
researchers to share information, CERN (Council European
pour La Recherche Nucleaure) in Switzerland.

• In 1993, Mare Anderson developed “First Browser”, used

HTML language.

45
 • In 1994, number of web servers drastically increased. W3C
consortium (World Wide Web) gave list of standards for web
communication.

• By mid of 1995, there were more than 15000 HTTP servers.

HTTP is a web server.

• From 1995 to today servers nearing 10 million and number

of users over 30 millions.

Protocols governing WEB:

• HTTP

o Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

• TCP

o Transmission Control Protocol

• IP

o Internet Protocol

• UDP

o User Datagram Protocol

• FTP

o File Transfer Protocol

• TELNET

o TelNet

• ICMP

46
 o Internet Control Message Protocol

• IGMP

o Internet Group Message Protocol

• SNMP

o Simple Network Management Protocol

• SMTP

o Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

• POP

o Post Office Protocol

• POP v 3

o Post Office Protocol Version 3

• IMAP

o Internet Message Access Protocol

• ARP

o Address Routing Protocol

• RARP

o Reverse Address Routing Protocol

Issues in Mobile Computing:

• Software

• Hardware

• Network

47
 • Research

• User Interface

• Security

Security challenges in Mobile Devices:

• Broken Access Control

o Restriction on authenticated users, not properly

enforced.

• Broken Access and Session Management

o Account credentials and session tokens are not properly

protected

• Buffer Overflows

• Cross Site Scripting Flaws

• Injection Flaws

o Passing of parameters

• Insecure Storage

• Denial of Service

• Insecure Configuration Management

Bluetooth:

• Short range wireless technology and use radio wave in 2.4

Ghz band, that allow any electronic equipment to make its
own short range connection, without wires.

48
 • Supports multipoint

• Significant industry support

Aims:

• Global usage

• Open interface Standard

• Small Size

• Voice/ Data Handling

• Negligible Power Consumption

Attacks:

• Blue Jacking

o Third party can send text message anonymously to

users.

o It can be used maliciously.

• Blue Bugging

o To initiate phone call on victim’s phone

• Blue Snarfing

o Involves theft of all contacts information stored in cell

phone.

Modes of Operation:

• Single Slave Operation

49
 • Multi Slave Operation

• Scatternet Operation

Applications:

• 3 – Way phases

• Automatic Message Delivery

• Digital Camera

• Connect all peripherals

Future:

• Sniff Subrating

• Simple Pairing

• QOS Improvements

• Automatic Encryption Change

• Extended Inquiry Response

Information Security:

• Information Security means protecting the information from

unauthorized access, use , disclosure, modification and
destruction

• Information should be confidential from customers, financials

and competitors.

• Principals of Information Security:

50
 o Availability

 Information must be available when it is required

 Ensuring availability also ensures prevention of

Denial of Service attack.

o Integrity

 Means data cannot be modified without

authorization

 It seems to be violated when user maliciously

make modifications in systems.

o Confidentiality

 Used to prevent disclosure of information to

unauthorized system or user.

If a laptop contains sensitive or secret information about

organization’s employee is stolen, it could result in a breach of
confidentiality then other principles of information security are:

• Non Repudiation

o One’s intention to fulfill their obligations to a contact

o Also implies one party of transaction cannot deny

having received a transaction nor other party deny
having sent a transaction

• Authenticity

o Is essential and important to ensure that data,

communication and documents are genuine

• Risk Management

51
 o Process of identifying vulnerabilities & threats to
information resources used by organization in achieving
business activities.

o Vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to

endanger harm to informational asset.

o There are two things, that may need some classification

 Firstly, the process of risk management is an

ongoing interactive process. It must be repeated
indefinitely. Environment of industries is changed
& new threats emerge everyday.

 Secondly, choice of countermeasures control used

to manage risk which must strike balance between
cost, effectiveness and value of information assets

Classification of Security Threats and Attacks:

• Physical Threats

o Related to damage of H/W & S/W of computer

system

o Like natural disaster, vandalism, flood, fire, war

etc.

• Accidental Errors

o Play very important role in computer system

o Could occur at any time in system and having

proper checks in place should be major concern of
designer

52
 • Unauthorized Access

o Data is stored in a system & has to be accessed

for it to be translated into meaningful information

o Involves unauthorized access to a system

• Malicious Misuse

o Lead to great financial loss & must be prevented

in all cases

o Any form of tampering of computer which includes

penetration, Trojan Horse etc.

o Illegal alteration of computer which includes

generating illegal codes to alter standard codes
can be termed as Malicious Use.

Information security threats and vulnerability:

Vulnerability is weakness of information and information system

can lead to attacks, harms, modification, destruction, disclosure,
interruption and interception.

o Disclosure occurs when unauthorized users have access to

information or IS and disclose confidential information.
Unauthorized disclosure has serious impact on maintaining
security and privacy

o Destruction occurs when information H/W and S/W are

destroyed due to malicious intention.

o Interruption means when computer network becomes

unavailable for access

53
 o Modification means when unauthorized users change the
information held in computer and server system

o Interception occurs when unauthorized users copy the

information that resides in computer or while data is in
transmission mode.

Laptop Security:

o Basic Security Measures

o Choose a secure Operating system

o Register laptop with manufacturer

o Enable a strong BIOS password

o Physical Security

o Use personal firewall on laptop like zone alarm and

Blacklce are effective and in expansive and take only
few minutes to install on Windows XP.

o Look your PCMCIA cards before locking your PC to

desk

o Use a docking situation

Information Classification:

o Is an iterative process

o Embodiment of management’s tolerance of information risk

o Why classification:

o Control over access to sensitive information

54
 o Protection of sensitive information

o Simplifying discovery of information

o Classification levels:

o Red

 Highly sensitive

 Person for named recipients only

o Amber

 Sensitive

 Named groups

o Green

 Normal business

 Business community wide

o White

 Public

 Public distribution

Information classification roles:

Users Scheme user is treated as Must prevent open view

an operator.
Due care to preserve
Role is commonly executed information security
by IT employee
Mandatory to follow
Managers & executives are operational procedure
also users along with
55
 supervisory
Custodian An information custodian is Performing data
a dedicated person restoration from back
ups

Running regular back up

and routinely testing
validity of back up date
Owner An information Review classifications
assignments regularly

Making changes as
business needs

Benefits of Information Classification:

o Helps to identify sensitive information

o Supports CIA rule

o Fulfils statutory requirements towards regulatory, legal

mandates

o Helps to identify which protection to apply to which

information

56
57