Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Geology, tectonic settings and iron ore metallogenesis associated with submarine
volcanism in China: An overview
Tong Hou a, Zhaochong Zhang a,⁎, Franco Pirajno b, M. Santosh a,c, John Encarnacion d, Junlai Liu a,
Zhidan Zhao a, Lijian Zhang e
a
State Key Laboratory of Geological Process and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
b
Centre for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
c
Division of Interdisciplinary Science, Kochi University, Kochi 780-8520, Japan
d
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Saint Louis University, 3642 Lindell Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63108, USA
e
No. 4 Geological Party of Hebei Bureau of Geology for Mineral Resources Exploration, Chengde 067000, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Submarine volcanogenic iron oxide (SVIO) deposits are one of the most important sources of high-grade iron ores
Received 21 April 2013 in China. The spatial distribution of the deposits is controlled by the tectonic settings including arc, back-arc and
Received in revised form 1 August 2013 rift environments, with the SVIO deposits mostly concentrated in the western part of China namely, the
Accepted 8 August 2013
southwestern Yangtze Craton, Western and Eastern Tianshan, and Altay orogens and the Kaladawan iron ore
Available online 19 August 2013
district in the eastern part of the Altyn Tagh region. The Chinese SVIO deposits range in age from Paleoproterozoic
Keywords:
to Mesozoic, and were formed during two main metallogenic epochs in the Proterozoic and Paleozoic. More than
Metallogenesis 70% of the SVIO deposits formed in the Paleozoic, with three important SVIO-metallogenic provinces recognized,
Iron deposits in the Altay, Eastern and Western Tianshan orogens. These SVIO deposits are hosted in lithofacies that are related
Submarine volcanic rocks to submarine magmatism, such as lavas and associated pyroclastic and volcaniclastic-sedimentary rocks. The iron
China orebodies are hosted in different volcanic lithofacies with different features. Moreover, the different volcanic
lithofacies in which the Fe ores are hosted also provide information as to their spatial relationship, ranging
from distal to proximal to the eruption center or vent. Many of these deposits are characterized by well developed
skarns, and could be interpreted either by a distal position of the ore system in question and/or exposed igneous
rocks or active magma chamber, or a relationship to early metamorphism and continuous alteration at relatively
high temperature followed by retrograde alteration as temperatures decline. Geological and geochemical
evidence suggests that these deposits were formed as a result of submarine magmatic activity, including
subaqueous volcanic eruptions, associated volcano-sedimentary lithofacies, and related post-magmatic
hydrothermal activity. Iron oxide ore probably formed the hydrothermal fluids which generated the skarns
could be a mixture of evolved magma-derived water and convecting sea water driven by the heat from the
shallow active magma chamber, whereas volcano-sedimentary deposits could be formed by the fallout of the
ore-bearing materials to the sea floor emanating from submarine eruption columns, or fractional precipitation
of iron which had been introduced locally into the bottom water by volcanic-origin hydrothermal solutions
and by leaching from the relatively iron-rich volcanic rocks. The formation of these various styles of Fe ore
deposits is controlled by several key factors, such as magma differentiation, lithofacies of host rocks, temperature
and chemical compositions of hydrothermal fluids, as well as the depth of sea water. In combination with their
geological characteristics, geodynamic mechanisms and metallogenesis, we propose a genetic model in which
the origin of these deposits can be related to the space–time evolution of the submarine volcanism, and their re-
lationship to volcanic lithofacies variation, such as central, proximal and distal environments of ore formation.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Three-quarters of the modern Earth's volcanic activity is submarine,
located predominantly along the mid-ocean ridges, with the remainder
along intra-oceanic volcanic arcs and hotspots, at sea floor depths varying
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 82322195; fax: +86 10 82323419.
E-mail address: zczhang@cugb.edu.cn (Z. Zhang).
from greater than 4000 m to near the sea level (e.g., Carey and
Sigurdsson, 2007; Embley et al., 2007). Submarine volcanic eruption is
difficult to observe directly, and their products are difficult to recover
and study. Hence, evidence of submarine volcanism comes from
sightings of explosive sea level manifestations (Kokelaar and Busby,
1992).
It is widely recognized that these volcanoes play a role in transfer-
ring mass and energy from the oceanic crust and mantle to the oceans,

0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.08.007
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
which is a favorable environment to form metal-rich deposits
(e.g. Tivey, 2007) as demonstrated by the abundant Fe and base metal
deposits present on land formed during geologic history, such as
Algoma-type BIF and VMS deposits (de Ronde et al., 2005; Mücke et al.,
1996). The metallogenesis of these deposits, and the distribution and
composition of submarine volcanic systems that create them had been
relatively well studied. In contrast, many, and probably most, iron
oxide deposits associated with submarine eruptions, especially those
generated in the Phanerozoic have not been investigated in detail yet.
In China, the discovery of many iron oxide deposits associated with
submarine volcanic rocks is considered as one of the last century's
most exciting facets of geological research on iron oxide ore deposits
(e.g. Jiang and Wang, 2005). Submarine volcanogenic iron oxide
(SVIO) ore systems mainly include volcanic-associated and (volcano
sedimentary)-hosted. The iron oxide ores typically occur as lenses,
layers and veins that may form at or near the seafloor in submarine
volcanic environments. They have been regarded to be formed by
iron-enriched melts/fluids associated with seafloor volcanic eruptions,
linked to submarine hydrothermal systems (Kelley et al., 2002;
Hannington et al., 2005; see Pirajno, 2009 for an overview). SVIO
deposits in China are possibly related to a wide range of geodynamic
settings and depositional environments, such as island-arcs, rifts and
mid-ocean ridges and oceanic islands. It is noteworthy that most of
the SVIO of China are composed predominantly of high-grade iron
oxide ores, thereby contributing a considerable amount of iron for the
local industry (Jiang and Wang, 2005; see also Hu et al., 2011).
However, although these SVIO deposits have attracted a substantial
number of petrologic and geochemical studies (e.g., Jiang and Wang,
2005), their metallogenesis and the genetic relationship with associated
submarine volcanism are still poorly understood, with various genetic
models proposed, including sea floor volcanic systems, skarn and
exhalative-sedimentary (e.g., Feng et al., 2009; Hua, 1985; Shan et al.,
2009; Zhang et al., 1987).
Fig. 1. Distribution of Chinese submarine volcanogenic iron oxide deposits.
Base map modified from Zhao et al. (2004).
499
The previous studies of SVIO deposits of China have shown some
similarities as well as differences from their subaerial counterparts
(e.g. Jiang, 1983; Wang and Chen, 2001). For example, ores formed by
eruption of iron oxide melt can be compared with the Kiruna style min-
eralization, such as the El Laco deposit in Chile (Henríquez et al., 2003).
On the other hand, leaching of ore-bearing pyroclastics by deep sea
water as one of the major sources of iron for the SVIO deposits is seldom
seen in terrestrial environments. In this paper we present an overview
of the geological characteristics, and geodynamic mechanisms of the
Chinese SVIO deposits, comparing them with the actively forming iron
deposits along modern subduction zones, mid-ocean ridges, and back-
arc basin in order to refine our understanding of the metallogenesis of
SVIO deposits. Furthermore we also provide a comprehensive overview
based on published works on submarine volcanic processes and the re-
lated iron oxide deposits. At the end of the paper, we propose a genetic
model which links the origin of these deposits to the space–time evolu-
tion of the submarine volcanoes, and integrated them on the basis of
principal volcanic lithofacies variation according to their closeness to
vent, i.e. central, proximal and distal facies.
It is worthwhile to point out that, in spite of the ancient Algoma-type
BIFs being closely related to submarine volcanism (Mücke et al., 1996),
in most cases they have been subjected to varying degrees of alteration,
deformation, and metamorphism resulting in the destruction of the
original textures and structures. The origin of the Algoma BIF deposits
is therefore beyond the scope of this paper and will not be addressed.
2. Distribution of SVIO deposits and geological setting
The tectonic framework of China is dominated by three major Pre-
cambrian Cratons, the North China, South China (Yangtze + Cathysia)
and Tarim Cratons (Fig. 1), surrounded by fold belts and accretionary
orogens including accreted island arcs, back-arcs and oceanic litho-
sphere (Zhai and Santosh, 2011, 2013).
500 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Submarine volcanogenic iron oxide (SVIO) deposits, one of the most
important iron deposit types in China, have been recognized to be
widely distributed in volcanic provinces, mostly located in western
China. These deposits cover a considerable age range, from Proterozoic
to Mesozoic, but with more than 70% of SVIO deposits formed in
the Paleozoic, especially in Late Paleozoic. Several important SVIO-
metallogenic provinces have been recognized in the Western Tianshan,
Eastern Tianshan, Altay, Kaladawan area at eastern part of the Altyn
Tagh Mountain and western margin of Yangtze Block (Fig. 1). The geo-
logical settings of the main SVIO-metallogenic provinces are summarized
in the sections that follow.
2.1. Western Tianshan
The Chinese Western Tianshan Mountain is located along the south-
western margin of the Central Asia Orogenic Belt (CAOB), and
represents a Neo-Proterozoic–Paleozoic orogenic belt extending from
the Siberian Craton in the north to the Tarim Craton in the south
(Kröner et al., 2007; Rojas-Agramonte et al., 2011; Windley et al.,
2007; Wong et al., 2010; Xiao et al., 2004, 2013). The Chinese Western
Tianshan Mountain is a Late Paleozoic accretionary orogenic belt
(Fig. 2; Allen et al., 1992; Gao et al., 1998, 2009) where the passive
margin of the northern Tarim plate finally amalgamated with the
active margin along the southern Siberia plate. The Late Paleozoic
tectonic evolution of the Chinese Western Tianshan Mountain can be
broadly subdivided into two stages (Chen et al., 1999; Gao and Klemd,
2003; Gao et al., 1998): 1) dominant subduction, expressed by the
southward subduction of the North Tianshan Ocean (e.g. Wang et al.,
2008) or northward subduction of the South Tianshan Ocean (Gao
et al., 1998; Long et al., 2008) beneath the Yili block, and north-
directed A-type subduction of the Tarim Plate, followed by exhumation;
Fig. 2. Geological map of the Tianshan Orogen showing the Awulale Metallogenetic Belt, and showing the locality of the several submarine volcanic iron ore deposit.
Modified after Zhang et al. (2012).
2) dominantly a transition from subduction to post-collisional exten-
sion at ca. 320 Ma (Gao et al., 2009; Sun et al., 2008).
The exposed strata include Proterozoic, Silurian, Devonian, Carbonif-
erous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic and Quaternary (e.g. Sun et al., 2008).
Among these, the Carboniferous and Silurian rocks are most widely
distributed. Magmatism, both intrusive and extrusive took place
throughout the Early Paleozoic and Late Paleozoic. Early Carboniferous
(Mississippian) and Early Permian volcanic rocks are also well
developed. Most of the igneous rocks are intermediate–felsic, or inter-
mediate–mafic. High grade SVIO deposits, most of which were discov-
ered in the Awulale Metallogenic Belt, are spatially and temporally
associated with the submarine volcanic rocks of Mississippian
Dahalajunshan Formation. The tectonic setting for these volcanic rocks
is still controversial with two contrasting models currently proposed
for the Dahalajunshan Formation, 1) extensional setting (e.g., Che
et al., 1996; Xia et al., 2004) and 2) Late Paleozoic continental arc setting
related to the southward movement of the North Tianshan Ocean
(Wang et al., 2008) or northward subduction of South Tianshan Ocean
(Gao et al., 1998; Long et al., 2008) beneath the Yili block, respectively.
Based on recently published age data, more researchers favor the
second model, which relates the formation of the volcanic host rocks
of the submarine iron ore deposits in the Western Tianshan to a Late
Paleozoic subduction process (Zhang et al., 2012). More detailed
descriptions of the iron deposits associated with submarine volcanic
rocks in the Chinese Western Tianshan Mountain can be found in
some papers in this volume.
2.2. Eastern Tianshan
The SVIO in the Eastern Tianshan forms a belt, located between the
Junggar block and Tarim block (Fig. 3). The Paleozoic tectonic evolution
history of the Eastern Tianshan remains controversial. Some researchers
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Fig. 3. The tectonic framework and distribution of iron ore deposits in the Eastern Tianshan Mountains.
Modified from Wang et al. (2006a,b).
have suggested that the Eastern Tianshan results from the southward
subduction of the Junggar Ocean along the Bogda–Haerlike zone (Qin,
2000; Zhang et al., 2004), while others have proposed a northward
subduction of the south Tianshan ocean instead (Wang et al., 2006a,b).
The Eastern Tianshan area is bound to the north by the Turpan–Hami
(usually abbreviated to Tuha) basin, which is a part of the Junggar block,
and to the south by the Aqikekuduke fault, which separates this north-
ern belt of the Tianshan from the Central Tianshan.
Geological mapping and geochemical surveys, have identified three
main tectonic domains, in the Eastern Tianshan: 1) Dananhu–Tousuquan
arc in the north (north belt), 2) Jueluotage ductile shear zone in the
middle, including the Kushui–Gandun back-arc basin border facies
(middle belt) and 3) Yamansu back-arc basin (south belt), and Central
Tianshan Microblock in the south (Fig. 3; Qin et al., 2002, 2003). The
Jueluotage belt can be further subdivided, from north to south, into
Wutongwozi–Xiaorequanzi intra-arc basin, Dananhu–Tousuquan island
arc, Kangguer–Huangshan ductile shear zone and Yamansu (Kumutag–
Shaquanzi) back-arc basin (Qin et al., 2002). The Bogda–Haerlike belt is
made up of well developed Ordovician–Carboniferous volcanic rocks
intruded by Late Paleozoic granites and mafic–ultramafic complexes
(Gu et al., 2001; Li et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2013). The typical high grade
iron ore deposits associated with submarine volcanic rocks, such as
Yamansu, Kumutag, Bailingshan and Hongyuntan deposits are found in
the Yamansu back-arc basin (Fig. 3).
The Yamansu back-arc basin lies between the Aqishan–Yamansu
fault (or Kushui fault), which marks the southern boundary of the
Kanggurtag shear zone, and the Aqikekuduke fault. The exposed rocks
comprise a 5 km thick succession of Lower Carboniferous Yamansu For-
mation bimodal volcanic rocks, Middle Carboniferous flysch of the
Shaquanzi Formation, and Upper Carboniferous clastic rocks, andesitic
tuff, and intercalated carbonate rocks of the Tugutublak Formation.
The Carboniferous rocks are overlain by the Permian marine and terres-
trial clastic rocks which are intercalated with bimodal volcanic rocks
501
and carbonate rocks. Carboniferous–Permian magmatism was exten-
sive and resulted in the emplacement of high-Na, relatively oxidized,
calc-alkaline to alkali magmas (Qin et al., 2002, 2003).
2.3. Altay
The ~500 km-long Altay orogenic belt in NW China (Xinjiang Uygur
Autonomous Region) is separated to the southwest from the Junggar
terranes by the Erqis (also known as Ertix, Irtysh) strike-slip fault
(Fig. 4; Yu et al., 1993; Qin and Dong, 1994). The geodynamic evolution
of the Altay orogeny remains controversial. Felsic magmatism and
translithospheric strike-slip movements suggest that the collision of
the Siberian Plate and Kazakhstan Block (Junggar Terrane) occurred
between the Early and Late Carboniferous, resulting in the accretion of
island arcs and other terranes, which constitute the Altay orogenic
belt (Li and Poliyangsiji, 2001; Li and Zhao, 2002; Xu et al., 2003; Yang
et al., 2007). Paleontological and paleomagnetic studies argue for an
Early Permian collision (Cocks and Torsvik, 2007). Xiao et al. (2008)
proposed that the formation of the complex orogenic collage between
the Siberian Plate and Kazakhstan Block occurred between Late Permian
and Triassic times. Nevertheless, more recent studies suggest Late
Silurian to Early Devonian magmatism at the southern margin of the
Chinese part of the CAOB occurred in an active continental margin
setting (c.f. Chai et al., 2009).
The Early Paleozoic–Late Paleozoic Altay orogeny in NW China is
further subdivided into the North Altay, Central Altay and South Altay
(Xiao et al., 1992; Yang et al., 2007; Ye et al., 1997). The South Altay is
characterized by Middle-Ordovician low-grade metamorphosed rocks
(Habahe Group), Late Silurian to Early Devonian Kangbutiebao Forma-
tion containing submarine volcanic and sedimentary rocks of low
grade metamorphism, and the Middle Devonian Altay Formation,
consisting of sedimentary rocks intercalated with low-grade meta-
volcanic rocks. In addition, Ordovician volcanic rocks and sedimentary
502 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Fig. 4. Regional geological map of the Altay orogeny in NW China (Xinjiang) and distribution of the iron, gold and base metal deposits ores.
Modified from Xu et al. (2010).
clastic rocks, Silurian Kulumuti Group crystalline schists and migmatites
are also present but less commonly exposed in the area. Voluminous
Early and Late Paleozoic syn-orogenic and post-orogenic granitoids
(Tong et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2007) and Cambrian to Permian volcanic
rocks are recognized in the Altay (Windley et al., 2002). The rocks of the
Kangbutiebao Formation are distributed in the Chonghu'er, Kelang
and Maizi volcano-sedimentary basins, all have undergone regional
greenschist to lower amphibolite facies metamorphism. The Fe ore de-
posits in the Kangbutiebao Formation include the Mengku and Abagong
Fe and Fe–P deposits, which consist of mafic to silicic volcanic rocks and
metasedimentary rocks. Specifically, the Mengku deposit is hosted in
the lower part of Kangbutiebao Formation, whereas the Abagong
deposit is hosted in the upper part.
2.4. Kaladawan area
The Kaladawan area in the eastern part of the Altyn Tagh Mountain,
which is situated between the Tarim Basin and the Qaidam Basin in
northwestern China (Fig. 5; Guo et al., 1999), is located between the
NE-trending Altyn Tagh strike-slip fault and the E–W-trending
Northern Altyn Tagh fault. The tectonic evolution of Altyn Tagh Moun-
tain is still debated (Sobel and Arnaud, 1999; Yin et al., 1999). The
Altyn Tagh has an Archean–Paleoproterozoic basement (Cui et al.,
1999), overlain by Middle Proterozoic rocks, later affected by
Neoproterozoic–Early Paleozoic within plate extension (Guo et al.,
1999), followed by Early Paleozoic subduction (Sobel and Arnaud,
1999; Xu et al., 1999), Late Paleozoic rift extension, orogeny and related.
Triassic extension with emplacement of alkali intrusions (Yin et al.,
1999), as well as sinistral strike-slip movement occurred due to the
far-field effect of the Indian–Eurasian collision during the Cretaceous
in Altyn Tagh fault belt, which exerted a regional compressive regime
in the Kaladawan area (Chen et al., 2002; Cui et al., 2002; Guo et al.,
1999).
In the Kaladawan area, the basement consists of Archaean high-
grade metamorphic rocks such as the Dagelagebulake Formation,
including granulite, gneisses, amphibolites and migmatites. Cambrian
meta-volcanic rocks constitute the major exposure in the area, and are
overlain by Upper Carboniferous clastic and carbonate sequences. Addi-
tionally, the Upper Oligocene Ganchaigou Formation, Middle Oligocene
Youshashan Formation and Quaternary sediments (Fig. 5) occur in the
southern part. The Cambrian rocks comprise the Zhuabulake Formation
and the overlying Simierbulake Formation The former covers most of
the area, consisting of dark mudstone, carbonaceous phyllite, siltstone,
light gray slate, mica schist, quartz schist, and marble, meta-dacitic
rocks, felsic tuff and basalt. The basalt is the major host rock of iron
mineralization, is interbedded with sedimentary rocks, and exhibits
aphanitic texture and pillow structures. In the middle-northern part of
the area, the major rock types are sericite-schist, sericite–quartz-schist,
phyllite, slate and intermediate–felsic volcanic rocks interbedded with
marble and quartzite units. The Upper Carboniferous Yingebulake
Formation is made up of sandstone, siltstone, limestone and shale, and
is locally exposed. Siltstone, mudstone and conglomerate constitute
the Oligocene succession, which occurs only in the southeastern part
of the area. The Cambrian and Carboniferous sequences are intruded
by gabbro, diorite, granodiorite and granitic porphyry (Chen et al.,
2009). In recent years, a number of SVIO deposits and occurrences
have been identified in this area thanks to high-resolution aeromagnetic
surveys (Chen et al., 2009). These deposits are exclusively found in the
Early Paleozoic volcanic rocks, and it has been suggested that the volca-
nic rocks formed in an Early Paleozoic arc setting (Cui et al., 2010).
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Fig. 5. Geological map and distribution of iron deposits in the Kaladawan area, eastern part of the Altyn Tagh Mountain.
(Modified from Chen et al. (2009).
2.5. Southwest margin of Yangtze Block
South China comprises the Yangtze Block to the northwest and
the Cathaysia Block to the southeast, which were amalgamated along
a Neoproterozoic collisional belt (Fig. 6; Chen et al., 1991; Li and
McCulloch, 1996; Zhang and Zheng, 2013). To the north, the Yangtze
Block is separated from the North China Block by the Qinling–Dabie oro-
genic belt, which was formed by the closure of the easternmost part of
Paleotethys in the Triassic (Mattauer et al., 1985; Wu and Zheng,
2013). To the west, it is bound by the Tibetan Plateau. In the western
part of the Yangtze Block, Mesoproterozoic granitic gneisses and
metasedimentary rocks are intruded by Neoproterozoic (~800 Ma)
arc-related granites (Zhou et al., 2002b) and overlain by a series of
Neoproterozoic (~600 Ma) to Permian marine and terrestrial rocks.
During the Cenozoic, the western part of the Yangtze Block was
subjected to strike-slip faulting and thrusting, while the eastern part
was dominated by block faulting and shallow-level shearing, e.g. Ceno-
zoic Ailaoshan–Red River Shear Zone (Burchfiel et al., 2008).
The Neoproterozoic tectonic evolution of South China has long been
a matter of debate. Some workers suggested that the Neoproterozoic
(ca. 825 Ma) magmatism in South China was produced by a mantle
plume that heralded the pre-breakup of Rodinia (Li et al., 1995, 1999).
On the other hand, Zhou et al. (2002a,b) argued that the Neoproterozoic
igneous assemblages along the western margin of the Yangtze Block
represent part of a magmatic arc, suggesting the presence of a major
subduction zone during the Neoproterozoic. The dominant mineral de-
posits associated with Proterozoic rocks in the southwestern margin of
Yangtze Block are precious and base metal (Fig. 6).
503
The Early–Middle Proterozoic Dahongshan Group comprises lime-
stone, sandstone, basalt and pyroclastic rocks, in which the volcanic
units represent an Early–Middle Proterozoic volcanic activity along the
western margin of Yangtze Block. The age of this volcanism is
about 1700 Ma (Rb–Sr isochron) and 1900 Ma (single zircon U–Pb)
(Greentree and Li, 2008; Hu et al., 1991). The Dahongshan Group con-
formably overlies the basement, with the Archean Dibadu Formation
dominated by basaltic–andesitic volcanics with a limestone–sandstone
sequence. Because of the small outcrops, and the metamorphic
overprinting, it is difficult to identify the original depositional
structures. Several studies have demonstrated that Paleoproterozoic
subduction occurred in the western margin of Yangtze Block, and the
basaltic–andesite volcanics were formed during paleo-Qinghai–Tibet
oceanic plate subduction under the Yangtze plate (e.g. Zhang et al.,
2001).
3. Geology of Chinese SVIO deposits
Eruptions on the seafloor and submarine magmatism constitute by
far the largest proportion of the Earth's volcanism. Submarine volcanic
eruptions occur at divergent plate boundaries (e.g. Buck et al., 1998;
Head et al., 1996; Macdonald, 1998; Perfit and Chadwick, 1998) and in-
traplate regions, commonly building seamounts (e.g. Keating et al.,
1987; Schmidt and Schmincke, 2000; Wessell and Lyons, 1997). Similar
to their subaerial counterparts, central-type submarine volcanism can
produce not only multiple facies, such as lavas, pyroclastic rocks,
volcano-sedimentary (volcaniclastics) rocks, but also show similar spa-
tial distribution of the volcanic products around an eruptive centre.
504 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Fig. 6. Geological map showing the Precambrian rocks and distribution of iron ore and
copper deposits in the southwestern margin of Yangtze Craton.
Modified from Qian and Shen (1990).
SVIO deposits have been identified to be associated with different facies,
and as such they tend to have complex geological characteristics. There-
fore, detailed investigations of the SVIO deposits of China are critical to
unravel the complexities of both individual and regional-scale
metallogenic processes. In this paper, we classify the SVIO deposits in
China into groups according to the types of host rocks, namely: lavas,
pyroclastic rocks, volcano-sedimentary rocks, and ore systems of uncer-
tain or polygenetic origin. Typical examples are briefly described in the
following sections.
3.1. Submarine lava-hosted type
Geologic relationships suggest that this type of SVIO deposits con-
tributes most reserve of SVIO ores, and usually occurs as intercalated
layers or lenses within submarine volcanic rocks, with or without signif-
icant occurrence of skarn minerals. Particularly, the submarine
lava-hosted iron ores have been identified at Dahongshan in Yunnan,
which probably because of the role played by volcano-sedimentary
processes in the metallogenesis at Dahongshan, we will discuss it sepa-
rately in the section on uncertain or polygenetic SVIO deposits. Other
typical lava hosted type SVIO deposits include Yamansu in Eastern
Tianshan, as well as the several iron deposits in Kaladawan area and
Chagangnuoer and Zhibo in the Western Tainshan. Below, we summa-
rize the salient features of the Yamansu deposit.
3.1.1. Yamansu
The Yamansu Fe–Cu deposit in Eastern Tianshan contains a reserve
of 32 Mt with an average grade of 51 wt.% Fe, and 20,000 t with a
mean of 0.06 wt.% Cu (Mao et al., 2005). The Yamansu iron deposit
occurs about 80 km south of Hami City. Regionally, the exposed strata
consist of Lower Carboniferous Yamansu Formation, Upper Carbonifer-
ous Shaquanzi Formation, and Lower Permian Aqikebulake Formation.
Around the Yamansu open pit, the Yamansu Formation comprises inter-
mediate–basic lava and pyroclastic rocks, limestone and minor felsic
rocks (Fig. 8). The Shaquanzi Formation mainly comprises flysch, and
is overlain by the Lower Permian marine and terrestrial clastic rocks,
which are intercalated with bimodal volcanic rocks and carbonate
rocks. A number of faults have been recognized surrounding the depos-
it, and they include five NNE to ENE-trending faults (Fig. 8a). The lava
flows are predominantly basaltic with minor andesite in the Yamansu
deposit. The basaltic and andesitic lavas display a gradational contact,
and the two rock types cannot be easily distinguished in hand specimen.
These flows are generally several meters thick, rarely up to 100 m. The
lava flows are interbedded within pyroclastic rocks. No intrusions have
been identified at the Yamansu deposit, except for the subvolcanic
pyroxene-diorite porphyry exposed about 500 m southwest of the
orebodies (Fig. 8a). However, a gravity survey suggests that some bur-
ied intrusive rocks might be present at depth (Mao et al., 2005). Several
ancient volcanic edifices were recognized adjacent to the deposit on the
basis of remote sensing and facies analysis of the volcano-sedimentary
rocks. The Yamansu volcanic lavas are considered to be located within
or adjacent to the volcanic center (Bureau of Geology and Mineral
Resources of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, BGMRXUAR, 2010).
Eighteen orebodies have been recognized in the deposit and occur as
EW-trending stratiform, banded podiform to lenticular bodies (Fig. 8).
Nos. 1, 2, 4, 7 and 8 orebodies are the largest, and Nos. 1 and 2 orebodies
are the most economic. No. 1 orebody is N940 m long, and dips south-
wards with the dip angle of 43° at surface (980 m above sea level) to
72° at 420 m above sea level. The average width of the No. 1 orebody
is 8.6 m. The No. 2 orebody strikes ~ 1300 m discontinuously, dips
southwards at 59° and is 7–17 m wide. Country rocks to orebodies
are mainly mafic lavas and pyroclastic rocks intercalated with lime-
stone of Yamansu Formation (Fig. 8b). The orebodies are mostly
conformable with their country rocks (Fig. 8b). Based on mineral as-
semblages, three types of ores have been identified: garnet–magnetite,
garnet–magnetite–pyrite and magnetite–pyrite (Bureau of Geology and
Mineral Resources of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, BGMRXUAR,
2010). Field evidence and petrographic observation indicate four
stages of mineralization: (1) prograde stage: garnet + albite + apatite,
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Fig. 7. SiO2–TFeO/MgO diagrams showing the magmatic differentiation of iron ore hosting rocks.
Data source: Chagangnuoer (Wang and Jiang, 2011), Altay (Mengku + Abagong; Zhang et al., 1987), Kaladawan (Cui et al., 2010),
Dahongshan (Qian and Shen, 1990).
(2) retrograde stage: magnetite + epidote + chlorite + quartz +
amphibole + apatite, (3) sulfide stage: pyrite + chalcopyrite +
pyrrhotite + chlorite + quartz + calcite +galena + sphalerite, and
(4) supergene stage: hematite + malachite + siderite + quartz +
calcite (Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Xinjiang Uygur
Autonomous Region, BGMRXUAR, 2010). Magnetite is the predominant
ore mineral which occurs together with minor hematite, pyrite and chal-
copyrite. The gangue minerals consist of garnet, hornblende, biotite,
chlorite, epidote, quartz, calcite and other calc-silicate minerals (Mao
et al., 2005). Ore textures include massive, banded, disseminated and
irregular. The sulfide stage is dominated by pyrite, chalcopyrite and
pyrrhotite. Pyrite occurs as cubes in massive veins (~5 mm) or as isolat-
ed grains with amphibole and plagioclase, which often display cavities
and embayed margins. Calcite and minor quartz are the main gangue
minerals in this stage. They usually cut the earlier formed minerals like
garnet and amphibole as veins or stockworks. Hematite, siderite and
malachite are restricted to the supergene stage.
Skarn is ubiquitous and intensively developed in the Yamansu
deposit, with a strike length of ~1000 m, a depth in excess of 600 m
and an average width of 120 m as demarcated from surface mapping
and diamond drilling (Fig. 8b). The skarn shows a distinct boundary
with the country rocks. The dominant skarn minerals are garnet with
subordinate amphibole, epidote, chlorite, pyroxene, albite, as well as
magnetite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite. The prograde stage is
characterized by formation of a large amount of garnet. In contrast,
pyroxene is very limited (~5%) and typically occurs as random pods
505
(Ding, 1990). The retrograde stage is characterized by hydrous alteration,
and dominated by epidote, and minor amphibole and chlorite, which
replace the prograde minerals to variable degrees. The epidote is closely
associated with the magnetite (Bureau of Geology and Mineral
Resources of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, BGMRXUAR, 2010).
The amphibole veins commonly cut across garnets, indicating that
amphibole formed later than garnet. During the late retrograde stage, a
large quantity of magnetite, and epidote, amphibole, chlorite and garnet
formed. Epidote is the most common mineral in the strongly retrograde
altered rocks. Field relations and petrographic studies on the mineral
paragenesis reveal that the skarn at Yamansu is similar to other
conventional iron-bearing skarn deposits (Einaudi, 1981).
Whole rock K–Ar ages have a range of between 360 and 190 Ma,
whereas a Rb–Sr isochron age of 286 Ma was obtained from mineral-
ized quartz veins from a similar skarn deposit (Bailingshan), also in
the Aqishan–Yamansu rift belt (Mao et al., 2005). Recently, Hou et al.
(2013) conducted laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (LAICP-MS) U–Pb zircon dating of the basalts and skarns
yield almost coeval ages of 324.4 ± 0.94 and 323.47 ± 0.95 Ma,
respectively.
3.2. Volcano-sedimentary rocks hosted
The iron oxide mineralization of this type shows a strata-bound
characteristic, locally occurring in specific beds. The ores display
dominantly fine grained texture and banded and laminar structures,
506 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517

Fig. 8. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of Yamansu Fe–Cu deposit.
Modified from Mao et al. (2005).

which are features common for sedimentary deposits. Based on their
proximity to the source (vent area), these deposits can be classified
into two sub-types. In the first type, the mineralization is located near
the eruptive centers of submarine volcanics and is defined by volcanic
domes or coarse-grained pyroclastic breccias, tuff and lava. Quartz,
sericite, and chlorite alteration is common adjacent to or beneath the
deposits, indicating a possible paragenetic relationship with iron oxide
(Lowman and Bloxam, 1981). This type had been described in the last
section. The second category of orebodies is distributed in the peripher-
al zone of the volcanic center, and exhibits layered or stratiform shape.
They are exclusively hosted by pyroclastic rocks (e.g. tuffaceous rocks)
or sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, dolomite and limestone, and
chert. The Abagong deposit in Altay and Songhu deposit in Western
Tianshan are typical examples for this type.
3.2.1. Abagong iron
The Abagong high grade iron deposit (44.18 wt.%–67.21 wt.%), with
accompanying P2O5 (3.8 wt.%–10.8 wt.%) mineralization, is located in
Late Silurian–Early Devonian felsic volcanics along the southern margin
of Altay, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. The mineralization occurs
as structurally-controlled lenses, veins and stratiform bodies (Li and
Chen, 2004; Fig. 9). The iron ores are predominantly hosted in the
Kangbutiebao Formation which, as mentioned previously, comprises
volcanic and pyroclastic rocks intercalated with sedimentary rocks,
metamorphosed to greenschist and up to amphibolite facies after
emplacement. The mafic volcanic rocks of Kangbutiebao Formation
have a tholeiitic composition (Fig. 7b), but the main host rocks are
metarhyolites, typically with a polygonal granoblastic texture (felsitic,
high-temperature static recrystallisation), but locally overprinted by
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517 507

Fig. 9. Geological map (a) and cross-section (b) of Abagong iron (apatite) deposit in Altay, Xinjiang.
After Yang et al. (2011).

regional planar fabrics, probably associated with multistage strike-slip
movements of the Abagong Fault (c.f. Pirajno et al., 2011).
The length of orebodies ranges from 200 to 1800 m, with thickness
in the range of 1.4–16.5 m (Pirajno et al., 2011). Magnetite dominates
the proportion of ore minerals, coexisting with considerable amounts
of apatite, fluorite and lesser pyrite. Wall rock alteration minerals in-
clude tremolite, actinolite, chlorite, albite, kaolinite, quartz, phlogopite,
epidote and calcite. All of these minerals are also present in the Fe–P
ores of the Kiruna district, where they were considered part of a skarn
association (e.g. Nyström and Henríquez, 1994). However, at Abagong
no skarn was noted. The nature of the Abagong mineralisation is poorly
known, with only conference abstracts, specifically addressing this de-
posit (e. g. Liu et al., 2009a,b) or simply reporting the associated
lithologies (e.g., Li and Chen, 2004; Chai et al., 2009; see Pirajno et al.,
2011 for an overview on Abagong Fe–P deposit). From these authors it
can be surmised that the Abagong mineralisation occurs primarily as
structurally-controlled lenses and veins. Liu et al. (2009a), on the basis
of REE composition (LREE-enriched, marked negative Eu anomalies) of
the apatites as well as the magnetite–apatite ore association, classified
Abagong as a Kiruna-style mineral system. The host rocks of the
Kangbutiebao Formation have been studied in some detail by Chai
et al. (2009), who performed SHRIMP U–Pb analyses of zircons from
the metarhyolites, yielding ages ranging from 412.6 ± 3.5 Ma to
406.7 ± 4.3 Ma. One important conclusion reached by Chai et al.
(2009) is that the magnetite–apatite ores postdate the rocks of the
Kangbutiebao Formation, which they suggested may have formed in a
508 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
subduction-related setting. The Early Devonian silicic magmatism, now
represented by metarhyolites, would have been formed by partial melt-
ing of continental crust, whereas mafic rocks resulted from a heat source
related to mafic underplating, which then caused partial melting of the
overlying continental crust. However, till now, no explanation was of-
fered for the magnetite–apatite ores, except that these resemble
Kiruna-style mineral systems. We admit that the Kiruna-type label is
probably correct, but it must be borne in mind that the origin of
Kiruna-type Fe–P ores is controversial, although a magmatic origin is
perhaps undisputed, but details have remained conjectural since their
first discovery in Sweden, some 300 years ago (Pirajno et al., 2011).
Thus, the door to the Abagong Fe–P mineralization remains open
and further work is needed to unravel its origin and ore system
classification.
3.2.2. Songhu
The Songhu iron deposit is located at the eastern part of the Awulale
Metallogenic Belt. More specifically the deposit is within the Yili micro-
block of Kazakhstan plate, and belongs to the Awulale–Yisjilick Late
Paleozoic rift system. Rocks exposed in the mining area include
Middle–Upper Devonian Kansu Formation, Carboniferous Awulale
Formation and Tuergong River Formation, Middle–Lower Jurassic
Fig. 10. Geological map and the insert maps are plane (a) and cross section (b) of No.1 orebody in Songhu iron deposit in Awulale Metallogenic Belt in Western Tianshan Mountains.
Modified from Shan et al. (2009).
Kashi River Formation, and Quaternary sediments (Fig. 10). The Kansu
Formation consists predominantly of tuff, tuffaceous siltstone interca-
lated with few limestone, and dacite. The Awulale Formation can be di-
vided into three members. The first member comprises felsic volcanic
and pyroclastic rocks, such as volcaniclastic and rhyolitic rocks; the
member is composed of limestone, silty mudstone, and sodic rhyolite
and associated volcaniclastics. The lower part of the third member is
limestone and the upper part consists of andesitic pyroclastic rocks.
Iron oxide ores have been recognized in these rocks (Fig. 10) and exhibit
sharp contacts with the wall rocks. The Tuergong River Formation is
locally exposed, and consists of tuffaceous conglomerate, intermedi-
ate–felsic tuff. The Kashi River Formation unconformably overlies
the Awulale Formation and consists mainly of conglomerate, sandy
conglomerate and sandstone.
The structurally-controlled Songhu iron ore deposit, is hosted by the
pyroclastic rocks intercalated with carbonate, and is located in the
northern limb of the Gongnaisi syncline. The orebodies are layered or
lensoid in shape, conformable with the host rocks. Ore types mainly
consist of massive and disseminated. Mineral assemblages comprise
magnetite and hematite with subordinate amounts of pyrite and chal-
copyrite, and gangue minerals are predominantly composed of tremo-
lite, actinolite, epidotite, chlorite, garnet, quartz and calcite. Wall rock
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
alteration minerals include epidote, chlorite, carbonate and lesser mag-
netite and pyrite (Shan et al., 2009).
3.3. Uncertain or polygenetic iron ore systems
This type of iron ores shows more variable characteristics compared
to those discussed above. Particularly, apart from the submarine volca-
nic activities, other processes including volcano-sedimentary, post-
magmatic hydrothermal activity etc. probably played important roles
during the iron mineralization. Notably, the large scale mineralization
in these complex deposits dominantly occurs in close proximity to sub-
marine volcanic center or directly above the volcanic vent. The Mengku
iron ore deposit in Altay, Dahongshan iron–copper deposit in South-
western margin, and Kaladawan iron ore district are probably typical
examples for this type. At least two distinct submarine volcanic process-
es were involved in the formation of iron ores. A brief description of the
salient features of some of these deposits is given in the following
sections.
3.3.1. Mengku
The Mengku Fe deposit had resources estimated at about 110 Mt of
ore with grades ranging from 24 to 57.6 wt.% (Wang et al., 2003), but
more recent data indicate a total resource of 200 Mt (Yang et al.,
2010), with one orebody (No. 1) containing 35 Mt, grading 41 wt.% Fe
(Xu et al., 2010). Wang et al. (2003), Yang et al. (2010) and Xu et al.
(2010) reported on this deposit and reviewed in Pirajno et al. (2011).
The Mengku deposit is on the northwestern limb of anticline of Upper
Silurian rocks of the Kulumuti Group and Lower Devonian rocks of the
Kangbutiebao Formation (Fig. 11). The Kulumuti Group is 6000 m thick
and comprises metasandstone, phyllite, slate, biotite schist, two-mica
schist, gneiss and migmatite; the Kangbutiebao Formation totals
1300 m in thickness and comprises brown marble, banded inpure mar-
ble (Lower Member), hornblende granulite, leptite, hornblende gneiss,
amhibolite (Middle Member) and the main host of the Fe ore (Upper
Member), which consists of hornblende–biotite–quartz schist, marble,
hornblende–albite granulite and hornblende gneiss. Also in the host
sequence is a Na-rich metarhyolite (Xu et al., 2010). The upper units of
the Kangbutiebao Formation consist of a 700 m-thick sequence of
metasandstone, biotite–quartz schist, hornblende–garnet schist, marble
and felsic metavolcanic rocks. Granitic rocks of assumed Late Paleozoic
age are exposed in the deposit area, comprising gneissic granite, alkali-
feldspar granite, biotite granite, two-mica granite and quartz diorite.
One of the local granites is the Mengku pluton, with U–Pb zircon ages
of ca. 404 to 400 Ma (Yang et al., 2010).
The Mengku deposit comprises twenty nine orebodies, ranging in
shape from podiform to lenticular to irregular and striking 120°–110°.
The Fe ore is arranged in a synclinal structure within the northeastern
limb of the above-mentioned regional anticline (Fig. 11), where it
forms at least 20 stratiform lenticular orebodies. The Fe mineralisation
is characterized by banded, massive, disseminated, brecciated and
veins styles, with seven recognized ore types that include: diopside–
magnetite, garnet–magnetite, diopside–amphibole magnetite, quartz–
albite–magnetite–hematite, apatite–magnetite and quartz–pyrite–
magnetite. The main ore minerals are magnetite, pyrite, chalcopyrite
and pyrrhotite. The wallrocks exhibit skarn assemblages, such as garnet,
diopside, actinolite, tremolite, scapolite, epidote and chlorite. At least
four stages of skarn have been recognized (Xu et al., 2010), namely:
1) prograde stage with clinopyroxene–garnetealbite–scapolite–apatite;
2) retrograde stage with magnetite–clinopyroxene–garnet–amphibole–
scapolite–apatiteepidote–chlorite–quartz; 3) sulfide stage with pyrite–
chalcopyrite–pyrrhotite–garnet–chlorite–quartz–calcite; and 4) super-
gene stage with hematite–goethite–malachite–quartz–calcite. These
four paragenetic stages conform to other Fe skarn deposits (Pirajno,
2009). The Mengku iron skarn, and probably other skarns in the
same metallogenic belt (Fig. 4), were formed in a continental margin
setting, during Early–Middle Palaeozoic subduction under the Altay
509
microcontinent (Yang et al., 2010). The intrusion of the Mengku granite
(400 Ma), north of orebody No. 1 (404 Ma) and the Qiongkuer granite
(399 Ma) in the Mengku area into the Kangbutiebao Formation (Yang
et al., 2010), resulted in the development of skarns near and along the
contacts of the plutons, apophysis and dykes with the Kangbutiebao
Formation volcanic rocks and limestone. Following the development of
these skarns, iron oxides (mostly magnetite) precipitated from the
hydrothermal fluids to form the Mengku skarn-type iron deposit.
3.3.2. Dahongshan iron–copper ore deposits
The Dahongshan deposit is located 300 km from the city of
Kunming, Yunnan Province, and is estimated to contain ca. 350 Mt of
ores with an average Fe grade of 60 wt.% after beneficiation (Qian and
Shen, 1990). The Dahongshan Group hosts the mineralization and it
consists of the Paleoproterozoic metamorphic submarine volcanic
rocks and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 12; Qian and Shen, 1990).
The Dahongshan Group consists of volcanic and sedimentary rocks
that were metamorphosed to between upper greenschist and lower
amphibolite facies. Metamorphic grade and intensity of deformation
vary regionally, but most outcrops show strong schistosity and some
rocks are tightly folded. The Dahongshan Group metasedimentary
rocks include coarse to fine-grained siliciclastic rocks, carbonate and
volcaniclastic rocks. Siliciclastic rocks include quartzite, mica schists
and polymictic meta-conglomerates. Unimodal cross-bedding is clearly
visible in quartzite, suggesting fluvial sediment transport from a present
day north-westerly direction. Volcaniclastic rocks such as volcanic brec-
cia, conglomerate, tuff and volcanic sandstone are found within the
Manganghe and Hongshan Formations (Greentree and Li, 2008). All
carbonate units were metamorphosed to marble, with compositions
varying from pure dolomitic marble to those containing garnet or
amphibole. The presence of hornblende and garnet suggests that the
protoliths contained some detrital materials. Petrogenic studies of the
metavolcanic rocks have used both major element (e.g., Hu et al.,
1991; Qian and Shen, 1990) and trace element (Xu, 1999) geochemis-
try. Major element geochemistry (e.g., SiO2, K2O and Na2O) is known
to be an unreliable indicator of lithology and tectonic setting in
areas with complex hydrothermal alteration and metamorphism
(e.g., Pearce and Cann, 1971, 1973; Winchester and Floyd, 1977). Xu
(1999) argued that the more immobile trace elements (e.g., HFSE and
LREE) still preserve the original composition of the metavolcanic rocks
in the Dahongshan Group. Using the more immobile trace element geo-
chemistry, Xu (1999) suggested that the volcanic rocks had a tholeiitic
composition, similar to modern mid-ocean ridge basalts (Fig. 7d).
The iron oxide and iron–copper orebodies occur in the vicinity of the
volcanic center, and host at least 43 individual iron oxide and copper
(gold) mineral occurrences. Most high grade orebodies occur in the
Na-rich metamorphic volcanic rocks and in the transitional belt from
volcanic rocks to sedimentary rocks. Furthermore, petrochemical inves-
tigations have shown that the iron–copper deposit is closely related to
Na-rich volcanic rocks (Qian and Shen, 1990). Additionally, siderite
deposits have also been recognized in the metamorphic Na-rich volca-
nic rocks. 40Ar/39Ar dating of rocks from these deposits suggests that
the mineralization occurred during ca. 780–800 Ma, during a period of
plume-related magmatism on the South China Block (Greentree et al.,
2006).
3.3.3. Kaladawan iron ore district
A number of iron ore deposits have been discovered in the Cambrian
Zhuabulake and Simierbulake Formations (Fig. 5), such as the
Baijianshan, 88, and 7918 iron deposits (Fig. 13). These deposits define
an ore belt which extends 12 km. Basalt is the major host rock of these
deposits, interbedded with sedimentary rocks, and exhibits aphanitic
texture and massive, layered, amygdaloidal and pillow structure.
The volcanic rocks exhibit a tholeiitic differentiation trend in the SiO2–
TFeO/MgO diagram (Fig. 7c). All the deposits in this district share many
similarities in their geological characteristics, such as their conformable
510 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517

Fig. 11. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of Mengku iron deposit in Altay, Xinjiang.
Modified from Xu et al. (2010).

occurrence within basalt and marble, although some granitic intrusions
are also exposed in some deposits. Wall rock alteration assemblage pre-
dominantly includes garnet + epidote. In the 7918 deposit for example,
the iron ores occur as stratified or stratoid beds, and are in conformable
contact with the wall rocks including basalt and marble. The length of
the main orebody (Fe at 41 wt.%) is ~580 m with an average thickness
of 12.5 m. The ore types include banded, massive and disseminated,
and ore minerals mainly composed of magnetite.
4. Discussion
4.1. Origin of skarn in the Chinese SVIO deposits
As described in Section 3, skarn minerals, e.g. diopside and garnet,
are extensively developed in some of the Chinese SVIO deposits, and
are very closely associated with iron oxide minerals. The common
feature of these deposits is that the host rocks contain carbonate. This
feature has led to a debate on the genesis of some of these deposits,
especially those with considerable amount of skarn minerals
(e.g. Yang et al., 2010).
As has been recognized in earlier studies (e.g. Knopf, 1918), the
formation of a skarn deposit is a dynamic process. In most large skarn
deposits there is a transition from early/distal metamorphism resulting
in hornfels, reaction skarn, and skarnoid, to later/proximal metasoma-
tism resulting in relatively coarse-grained ore-bearing skarn. Due to
the strong temperature gradients and large fluid circulation cells caused
by magma intrusion (Norton, 1982; Salemink and Schuiling, 1987), the
formation of skarn can be considerably more complex than the simple
model of isochemical recrystallization typically invoked for regional
metamorphism. For example, early metamorphism and continued
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Fig. 12. Geological map of Dahongshan Fe–Cu deposit, Southwestern margin of Yangtze Craton. The numbers with circle indicate the numbers of the faults.
Modified from Qian and Shen (1990).
metasomatism at relatively high temperature (Wallmach et al., 1989,
describe temperatures N 1200 °C) are followed by retrograde alteration
as temperatures decline. The shallowest (and youngest) known skarns
are presently forming in active geothermal systems (Cavarretta et al.,
1982; McDowell and Elders, 1980) and hot spring vents on the seafloor
(Zierenberg and Shanks, 1983). These skarns represent the distal
expression of magmatic activity, and locally, those skarns have some
features of igneous rocks, and have been interpreted to be of magmatic
origin in some Chinese literature (e.g., Wu et al., 1996). However, the
link between space and time is a common theme in these iron ore
deposits and requires careful interpretation of features which may
appear to occur only in particular localities (e.g. Barton et al., 1991).
For example, the Yamansu iron deposit contains considerable
amount of stratiform skarn. Some authors suggest that the skarns
could be genetically related to a buried intrusion (e.g. Mao et al.,
2005), whereas others consider them to be related to coeval submarine
volcanism (Jiang, 1983). Recently, we conducted the laser ablation in-
ductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LAICP-MS) U–Pb zircon
dating of the basalts and skarns and yielded almost coeval ages of
324.4 ± 0.94 and 323.47 ± 0.95 Ma, respectively (Hou et al., 2013).
This suggests that the hydrothermal fluids that generated the skarns
could be a mixture of evolved magma-derived fluids and convecting
sea water driven by the heat from the shallow active magma chamber.
4.2. Metallogenesis of Chinese SVIO deposits
Like its subaerial counterpart such as the Kiruna style iron deposit,
the origin of Chinese SVIO deposits is uncertain and remains controver-
sial (e.g., Jiang, 1983; Jiang and Wang, 2005). Except for those of skarn-
related origin as mentioned above, the Chinese SVIO deposits have been
interpreted variously including magmatic origin (liquid immiscibility)
511
(e.g. Zhang et al., 1987), exhalative-synsedimentary (Yuan, 2003), or
epigenetic-hydrothermal associated with igneous intrusion (e.g., Yang
et al., 2007) or active deep-seated magma chamber (Hou et al., 2013).
Some of the SVIO deposits are clearly of magmatic origin or formed
initially through magmatism, as evidenced from their geological and
geochemical features, such as high proportion of apatite in the magne-
tite ores (e.g., Abagong in Altay). Although this deposit displays
signature of magmatic origin (Jiang, 1983), the mechanism by
which the ore-bearing melt formed is still unclear (Pirajno, 2009).
Moreover, the model involving ore-bearing extrusive activities is main-
ly inferred from the studies of the SVIO deposits occurring near the vol-
canic center, such as the Chagangnuoer and Zhibo iron deposits in
Western Tianshan (Wang and Jiang, 2011). Hence, a magmatic model
alone cannot entirely account for all the geological–geochemical signa-
tures recognized in these deposits. Specifically, many of the Chinese
SVIO deposits show signatures of hydrothermal activities, as reflected
by the low temperature mineral assemblage, mainly involving enrich-
ment of iron in the existing iron ores, and significant presence of subma-
rine tuff or tuffaceous rocks in the close proximity of the orebodies.
Since it has been widely accepted that the hydrothermal
minerals formed later than the magmatic ones (e.g. Hedenquist and
Lowenstern, 1994), we infer that the SVIO deposits which occur near
the volcanic center probably formed initially as a result of multi-stage
and multiple processes, such as ore-bearing magma eruption, sedimen-
tation of volcanic pyroclastic rocks, and even exhalation–sedimentation.
Most of the SVIO deposits discussed here occurring away from the
volcanic center show significant features of exhalation–sedimentation
instead of the involvement of ore-bearing magma eruption. For exam-
ple, the presence of sulfide, chert and jasper in the ores belongs to
Si–Fe–Mn formation which is commonly regarded as the evidence for
a seafloor-exhalation–sedimentation origin (Slack et al., 2009).
512 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Fig. 13. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of 7918 iron deposit in Kaladawan area, eastern part of the Altyn Tagh Mountain.
Modified from Chen et al. (2009).
Thus, even though all the iron oxide deposits described in this paper
are classified as SVIO deposits, they probably formed by different pro-
cesses related to submarine volcanism and subsequent hydrothermal
events. Therefore, the origin of the SVIO deposits occurring near the vol-
canic center or vent is dominated by magmatic-hydrothermal process,
whereas for those away from the center, the main mechanism was con-
trolled by exhalation–sedimentation, probably aided by sea water. In
addition, most of these SVIO deposits were subsequently overprinted
by metamorphism, deformation, post-magmatic hydrothermal event
and supergenesis (Jiang and Wang, 2005). For example, the Mengku
iron deposit in the Altay was influenced by post-magmatic hydrother-
mal event possibly caused by the emplacement of two major intrusions
of biotite granite and tonalite (Yang et al., 2010).
4.3. Relationship between nature of magmas and enrichment of iron
In general, the formation of ore-bearing magma can be attributed to
magmatic differentiation, either following a Fenner trend of differentia-
tion (Fenner, 1929) or immiscility of iron oxide melt (Veksler et al.,
2006). As many authors have pointed out, the magma differentiation
trends (Bowen or Fenner trend) are controlled by the onset of magne-
tite fractionation, which in turn is controlled by oxygen fugacity
(Osborn, 1959). Increasing oxygen fugacity (fo2) can cause marked Si
enrichment and Fe depletion in residual liquids in response to the frac-
tionation of magnetite in the early stage (Toplis and Carroll, 1995). In
contrast, low fo2 delays the onset of magnetite crystallization leading
to prolonged Fe-enrichment in magma, exhibiting a Fenner trend
(Jang et al., 2001). Such a trend is evident in most of the SiO2–TFeO/
MgO plots of these rocks, with tholeiitic affinity for the less evolved
magmas (Fig. 7), and clinopyroxene + plagioclase fractionation is
widely recognized for the basic and intermediate volcanic rocks. These
iron-rich magmas could lead to the generation of an iron oxide fraction
(ore-bearing magma) through liquid immiscibility (Veksler et al., 2006)
or produce magnetite ores by fractional crystallization (Jang et al.,
2001).
Although the iron mineralization is genetically related to the magma
differentiation, specific mineralization patterns are seen in different de-
posits. For example, in the Abagong deposit, the presence of consider-
able amount of apatite in the massive iron ores is similar to the Kiruna
deposit (Frietsch, 1978; Nyström and Henriquez, 1994) and the
‘porphyry iron deposit’ in the Middle-Lower Yangtze Valley in eastern
China (Hou et al., 2009). Hence, the iron ores in Abagong might have
formed as a result of liquid immiscibility which was probably triggered
by the enrichment of phosphorous in the extremely evolved magma
system (Suk, 1998). However, due to the lack of isotope composition
of the apatite, it is not clear whether the enrichment of phosphorous
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
is caused by crustal contamination (Hou et al., 2010) or the fractionation
of anhydrous silicate phases increasing the phosphorous contents in the
residual magma (Green and Watson, 1982; Spengler and Garcia, 1988).
In addition to the evidences for the involvement of magmatic pro-
cesses, these deposits also show robust signatures for a hydrothermal
origin, such as the extensive occurrence of low-temperature hydrother-
mal minerals, e.g. albite and chlorite. This type of deposits is predomi-
nantly spatially and temporally associated with intermediate to basic
submarine volcanic rocks. Because basic and intermediate rocks contain
much higher Fe contents than felsic rocks, they could provide sufficient
iron sources for the iron mineralization. Hence, we consider large hy-
drothermal circulation systems, particularly in the vicinity of volcanic
center where seawater infiltrates down through fractures and returns
at high temperatures, possibly driven by the active magma chamber,
could form iron-rich fluids by leaching the relatively iron-rich volcanic
rocks. For example, the extensive albite alteration in Dahongshan
deposit probably resulted from sodium alteration and Fe loss of basalts
by leaching of hydrothermal fluids (seawater-dominant) (Qian and
Shen, 1990).
4.4. Significance of volcanic sedimentation
The major involvement of subaqueous sedimentation of iron-rich
material during the mineralization could be one of the most
distinguishing signatures from its terrestrial counterpart (Carey and
Sigurdsson, 2007). The submarine eruption of ore-bearing magma or
iron-rich magma and hydrothermal vent gas/fluids give rise to eruption
columns that are a dispersion of gas and solid particles containing
ore-bearing brine, pumice, volcanic debris and pyroclastic. A common
assumption about submarine volcanic eruption is that the pressure of
the overlying water column is sufficient to suppress juvenile gas exsolu-
tion so that magmatic disruption and pyroclastic activities do not occur,
except at sufficiently shallow depths (e.g. Batiza and White, 2000). This
depth is generally recognized to be about 200–1000 m and less,
depending on magma composition and volatile content (c.f. Head and
Wilson, 2003) and is referred to as volatile fragmentation depth
(Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). Most pyroclasts will begin to fall in the
immediate vicinity of the vent (within a few meters radius) due to the
negative buoyancy (Head and Wilson, 2003). Hence, SVIO deposits
probably form by the fallout of these ore-bearing or iron-rich materials
to the sea floor downcurrent from the umbrella region of submarine
eruption columns (Cashman and Fiske, 1991), or fractional precipitation
of iron which had been introduced locally into the bottom water by
hydrothermal solutions of volcanic origin, and by leaching from the rel-
atively iron-rich volcanic rocks, such as deep-sea basaltic lavas (Bonatti
and Joensuu, 1966).
However, if the ore-bearing magma is insufficiently differentiated
and lithologically monotonous with lower alkalis content, it is consid-
ered to be unfavorable to form iron-rich magma, as evident by the ab-
sence of large-scale and high-grade iron ore deposits near volcanic
center (Jiang and Wang, 2005). Instead, in this case, high-grade iron
ore deposits are always recognized to be associated with pyroclastic-
sediments away from the volcanic center, such as Songhu and
Shikebutai deposits. In fact, at the high temperature stage, regardless
of its composition, the magma contains many volatile components
(Pearce and Peate, 1995). With effusive activity, lavas rich in volatiles
such as F, Cl and CO2, are discharged. Volcaniclastic formation depends
on several factors, including magma composition, volatile concentra-
tion, eruption depth and rate and magma–water interaction mecha-
nisms (e.g. Carey, 2000; Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Gamberi, 2001;
Orton, 1996). The processes that might be responsible for this fragmen-
tation are magmatic explosivity, contact-surface steam explosivity, bulk
interaction steam explosivity, cooling-contraction granulation, or any
combination of these (c.f. Fouquet et al., 1998). Nevertheless, these
activities lead to the breakdown of primary volcanic rocks.
513
It has been found that suspended matter is typically enriched in Fe
(e.g. Ferguson and Lambert, 1972). It is believed that most of the Fe,
SiO2 and Mn entering sea water in hydrothermal solutions precipitates
as colloidal SiO2 and hydrated Fe (Mn) oxides which are advected by
bottom currents and deposited as crusts and sediments (Toth, 1980).
Therefore, the deposition of Fe in ore concentrations could occur at con-
siderable distances from the volcanic vent or center (Lisitzin, 1996).
Since the concentration occurs in calm and depressed areas, it can be
inferred that euxinic to oxidizing basin environments is favorable for
the formation of these deposits which are in association with clastic
and pelagic sediment, tuff, volcanic rocks and a variety of clay minerals
(de Ronde et al., 2005; Mottl, 1983; Yang and Scott, 1996). However,
such mechanism is still inadequate to explain the formation of high
grade iron ores because the suspended matter generally contains
other particles or minerals such as carbonates and silicates. Hence, the
high grade iron ores require more efficient mechanism for the enrich-
ment of iron content. For example, leaching of the pyroclastics and de-
bris relatively enriched in iron by deep sea water or hydrothermal
circulation could be a major source of iron for these high grade ores
(e.g. Brusnitsyn and Zhukov, 2012). This process also involved the alter-
ation of pyroclastic rocks under the influence of hot water and steam on
a large scale (Fontboté, 1990). The principal factors determining the
extent are temperature and the sanity of leaching fluids (Dekov et al.,
2010).
4.5. Volcanic facies and metallogenic model
As previously studied (e.g., Chai et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2011; Cui
et al., 2010; Greentree et al., 2006), the Chinese SVIO deposits might
have formed along divergent plate boundaries and in intraplate areas,
such as island arc, back-arc basin and rift etc. Under the submarine en-
vironment in the different tectonic settings, in addition to effusive flows,
submarine eruptions can produce pyroclastic deposits (e.g. composed of
‘solid fragments ejected from volcanoes’; Cashman et al., 2000) and
hyaloclastic deposits (e.g. consisting of ‘fragments of volcanic glass
formed by non-explosive shattering’; Batiza and White, 2000). During
eruptions, large volumes of lava, pyroclastic and hydroclastic sediment
are released far more rapidly than any process of production of
epiclastic particles (Houghton and Landis, 1989). The episodic nature
of eruptions may profoundly disrupt flow and sedimentary environ-
ments and processes resulting in rapid changes in the depositional sys-
tems through time. Therefore, the host rocks comprise compositionally
and texturally diverse lavas and pyroclastic rocks, most of which were
emplaced in submarine environments and distributed around the vol-
cano core or volcanic center at different distances (Williams and
McBirney, 1979). Thus, the volcanic facies architecture reflects the con-
trasting character and geometry of primary volcanic and pyroclastic fa-
cies which are strongly controlled by eruption style and emplacement
processes (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984) and the related mineralization.
As shown in Fig. 14, the volcanic facies vary according to their close-
ness to the source, i.e. central, proximal and distal facies (Williams and
McBirney, 1979). For example, the rocks of central facies are always rec-
ognized by lava domes and thick, banded lavas, lag-fall breccias of pyro-
clastic flows, abundant dykes and sills, circular to elongate stocks,
breccia pipes and hydrothermally altered rocks. The shapes of orebodies
are controlled by the submarine volcanic edifice (Fig. 14). The proximal
facies rocks around a volcanic center deposited from pyroclastic flows,
lava flows, debris flows/avalanches, fallout processes and their erosional
products. As distance from the source increases within this facies, there
is an increase in the amount of re-sedimented epiclastic and pyroclastic
debris. Particularly, the pyroclastic flow units (main body) in this zone
are commonly underlain by surge deposits (lens-like) and overlain by
fine-bedded ash deposits, and block and ash flows from dome collapse
formed monolithic, massive, poorly sorted clastic debris which is
reworked by seawater, and contain debris avalanche deposits–mounds
(block facies) and more normal laharic material. The distal zone is the
514 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Fig. 14. Proposed genetic model for the iron ore deposits based on facies variations in submarine volcanic rocks from a large central vent composite volcano. Central zone is also known as
the vent facies. Products of each zone/facies are listed in the illustration.
Modified from Williams and McBirney (1979).
base of volcano and beyond. Therefore, rocks here are characterized by a
much greater lateral continuity than those of the proximal and central
facies. Finely bedded tephra composed dominantly of fine-coarse ash,
outward increasing ratio of glass to crystals are recognized in this
zone where the pyroclastic flows will be thinner here than in proximal
areas, and no surge deposits, ash fall commonly occurs above flows.
Moreover, considering the involvement of sea water during the
mineralization process, with increasing distance from the center of the
volcano, the dominant mechanism by which iron oxide enrichment oc-
curs in the deposit changed from magmatic, hydrothermal to sedimen-
tary. Consequently, the characteristics of iron ore deposit have also
perceptibly changed. For example, the iron ore deposit occurring within
lava has been mainly discovered in the central zone (e.g. Abagong and
Yamansu), and seldom recognized in the distal zone (Jiang, 1983). The
main reasons for this are: the massive orebodies were formed by immis-
cible oxide melt separated from the silicate melt within crust-level
magma chamber beneath volcano center, and the brecciated ores
could be attributed to the eruption of ore magma and an explosion of
the magmas at the volcano center near seafloor responsible for fluid
exsolution developed by decompression and rapid condensation. The
volcanic central zone is defined as the area overlain by lava and
coarse-grained pyroclastic rocks rather than the location of the volcanic
vent (Williams and McBirney, 1979). The active magma chamber,
which occurs as subvolcanic edifice presently, is difficult to identify as
the original feature had been more or less changed by the subsequent
tectonic activity. Presently, the central facies rocks could serve as a po-
tential surface indication of potentially economic SVIO mineralization.
For example, the deep-seated subvolcanic rocks are possibly host
rocks for contact metasomatism (i.e. Fe-skarn) mineralization, especial-
ly where the intrusions were emplaced into the carbonate strata
(e.g. Einaudi, 1981). In contrast, the proximal and distal zones are dom-
inated by fine-grained pyroclastics and volcanic sediments. The iron
ores in these zones mainly are hosted in volcanic sediments and
volcanic sedimentary–volcanic hydrothermal (Fig. 14), where the band-
ed ores hosted in the well sorted volcanic sedimentary rocks, such as
tuffaceous rocks are commonly seen. However, the origin of these
deposits is complex due to the episodic nature of eruptions
(c.f. Hildenbrand et al., 2008) which could also lead to the development
of ephemeral subvolcanic magma reservoirs (Zellmer et al., 2005). Thus,
these volcanic processes, combined with the related hydrothermal ac-
tivities and transformation led to a complex metallogenesis for the
SVIO deposits. For the SVIO deposits located near plate boundary, subse-
quent tectonic processes such as regional metamorphism (medium to
high grade), and contact metamorphism probably played important
roles. In the proximal and distal zones, the involvement of sea water
plays a more important role associated with the deformation and meta-
morphism, resulting in changes in the shape, nature of metal distribu-
tion and types. Therefore, our genetic model which correlates the
origin of these deposits with the space–time evolution of the submarine
volcanoes and principal volcanic facies variation offers a better under-
standing of the metallogenesis of SVIO deposits, aiding in their further
exploration in China and around the world.
5. Conclusions
The submarine volcanic iron oxide deposits are one of the most
important base–metal ore deposits in China, and typically occur within
or near the paleo-seafloor in submarine volcanic environments. These
deposits are hosted in subvolcanic intrusion, lava, volcanic pyroclastic
and volcaniclastic-sedimentary rocks, or a combination of these. The
iron orebodies hosted in different volcanic facies exhibit different signa-
tures and reflect their closeness to the volcanic center. Thus, the iron
ores formed by ore magma eruption are predominantly discovered in
the vicinity of volcanic center. Most of these deposits are characterized
by widely developed skarns, which could be interpreted as a
distal expression of magmatic activity and exposed igneous rocks.
 T. Hou et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 57 (2014) 498–517
Metamorphism and continuous alteration at relatively high tempera-
ture were followed by retrograde alteration as temperatures declined.
Geological and geochemical evidence suggest that these deposits
were formed as a result of continuous submarine magmatic activities
including the subaqueous volcanic explosions, lava eruption, volcano-
sedimentary processes, and related post-magmatic hydrothermal activ-
ities. In combination with their geological characteristics, geodynamic
mechanisms and metallogenesis, we propose a genetic model in
which the origin of these deposits is related to the space–time evolution
of the submarine volcanoes. We integrate the deposits by principal
volcanic facies variation into central, proximal and distal facies provid-
ing further insights into their metallogenic history and exploration
potential.
Acknowledgments
Financial support for this work was supported by Projects
2012CB416806 of the State Key Fundamental Program (973), Special
Fund for Scientific Research in the Public Interest (200911007-25),
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities National Nat-
ural Science Foundation of China (No. 40925006), and 111 Project
(B07011).
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