Int. J. Mach. Learn. & Cyber.
DOI 10.1007/s13042-013-0185-1
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Computational awareness for smart grid: a review
Chun-Wei Tsai • Alexander Pelov •
Ming-Chao Chiang • Chu-Sing Yang •
Tzung-Pei Hong
Received: 15 January 2013 / Accepted: 16 July 2013
 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract Smart grid has been an active research area in
recent years because almost all the technologies required to
build smart grid are mature enough. It is expected that not
only can smart grid reduce electricity consumption, but it
can also provide a more reliable and versatile service than
the traditional power grid can. Although the infrastructure
of smart grid all over the world is far from complete yet,
there is no doubt that our daily life will benefit a lot from
smart grid. Hence, many researches are aimed to point out
the challenges and needs of future smart grid. The question
is, how do we use the massive data captured by smart
meters to provide services that are as ‘‘smart’’ as possible
instead of just automatically reading information from the
meters. This paper begins with a discussion of the smart
grid before we move on to the basic computational
awareness for smart grid. A brief review of data mining and
C.-W. Tsai
Department of Applied Informatics and Multimedia,
Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science,
Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
A. Pelov
Department of Networks, Security and Multimedia,
IMT/TELECOM Bretagne/IRISA, Cesson-Sévigné, France
M.-C. Chiang
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, ROC
C.-S. Yang
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Cheng Kung
University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
T.-P. Hong (&)
Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering,
National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, ROC
e-mail: tphong@nuk.edu.tw
machine learning technologies for smart grid, which are
often used for computational awareness, is then given to
further explain their potentials. Finally, challenges, poten-
tials, open issues, and future trends of smart grid are
addressed.
Keywords Smart grid
Data mining

Machine learning
1 Introduction
Finding the way to improve the quality of our daily life and
reducing the consumption of natural resource is definitely
the challenges of this generation. Our parents and we
aspired to create a better life for ourselves and our off-
spring. However, most of the resources are over-consumed.
Specifically, the emission of carbon dioxide is almost out
of control. Therefore, a well known fact is that the global
warming problem has quickly deteriorated our environ-
ment. In addition, the ugly truth has been pointed out by
several researchers [1–4]. They believe that most natural
resources will be consumed very soon if we do not change
the way we consume the natural resources. Before the
sustainable energy can be used to fully replace the energy
created today, how to reduce the energy consumption or
enhance the energy efficiency has become an emerging
issue [5].
Although the slogan, which states that human has the
responsibility to resist changing the environment by
reducing the use of fuel to further decrease the emission of
CO2, is loud and clear, reducing the energy consumption is
much more fascinating, for it can not only save money but
also save the world at the same time. Changing the
behavior or strategy for using the electrical devices to save
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the energy consumption is something an end user is able to
do. For example, Gustafsson and Gyllenswärd [6] pre-
sented a power-aware cord to make it possible for the user
to detect and adjust the way they use the electrical devices,
by using different colors of wire cord to show whether an
appliance is powered or not. When we look back at the
infrastructure, the power (electric) grid in many countries
were built many decades ago for which most grid com-
ponents are clapped-out [7] because they are not designed
for the sustainable energy. This is definitely a problem that
needs to be solved. Because smart grid [8–11] can provide
two-way communication [12], many things that are
impossible previously can now be easily realized, such as
monitoring the usage of electrical devices and adjusting the
strategy of using these devices. In other words, it has
become one of the important ways to enhance the energy
efficiency.
To make the motivations to modernize the electric grid
by installing the latest equipment more clear, Arnold [11]
presented five reasons: (1) to make the power system more
cost-effective, (2) to provide more information and auto-
matic tools to the user to control the costs or the ways they
use the power system, (3) to reduce the emission of gas, (4)
to provide more reliable service, and (5) to prepare for the
power grid to support the electric vehicles. In a later study,
Gao et al. [13] presented the requirements of the desired
smart grid, which are: advance metering infrastructure
(AMI), wide area situation awareness, IT network inte-
gration, interoperability, demand response, and consumer
efficiency.
Because smart grid has many more benefits than tradi-
tional power grid for our daily life, companies, and gov-
ernment, many projects (e.g., EPRI intelliGrid, EPRI
advanced distribution automation, and modern grid initia-
tive) [11] and countries invest in the researches of smart
grid. To facilitate establishment of the environment of
smart gird, several standards [14], by National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) of USA, European
Standards Organisations [15], Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE), International Electrotechni-
cal Commission (IEC) [16], have been developed. The
design and implementation of the architectures of smart
grid from different aspects has been presented [9, 16, 17].
The frameworks for traditional power grid [9] and smart
grid [14] are as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively.
Compare with the traditional power grid and smart grid,
most of the researches on smart grid imply that the smart
meter system1 is the key point of smart grid because they
play the critical role in letting this kind of system be
capable of bidirectional communication of data [10].
1
The smart meter system usually includes smart meter, communi-
cation infrastructure, and control devices.
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Given that the standards, technologies, devices, systems,
infrastructures of smart grid are almost mature, several
organizations, governments, and companies have started
designing and developing their smart grid systems all over
the world, which can be easily seen from the smart
metering projects map of Google maps system [18]. Also,
the development, limitations, and requirements of smart
grid are now much more clear. Some of the services and
applications (e.g., self-healing of the power grid) that
cannot be realized before now can be expected. To achieve
these fantastic services and applications [19–25] on smart
grid, computational awareness [26–34], data mining [35–
50], and machine learning [51–65] technologies. In this
paper, a brief review from the perspective of awareness and
intelligence of smart grid will be presented, which differs
from the other existing smart grid surveys, i.e., communi-
cations [13, 20, 24, 25] or transportation [61].
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows.
After a brief discussion of smart grid in Sects. 1, 2 dis-
cusses the current opportunities, challenges, and basic
computational awareness of smart grid. Section 3 proceeds
to describe how to use the data mining technology to
evolve smart grid from awareness to intelligence. Several
metaheuristic algorithms are then given in Sect. 4 to show
other intelligent methods for smart grid. The changes and
potentials of smart grid itself, some open issues, and future
trends are presented in Sect. 5. In addition to the discussion
about what we can and what we will with smart grid in
Sects. 5, 6 gives a further summarization of computational
awareness for smart grid.
2 The awareness of smart grid
In order for the smart grid to provide useful information to
the user or service provider to make better decisions or
automate the decision making processes, the computational
awareness and intelligence technologies are obviously an
essential part of the smart grid to the success. The context
awareness [29], energy awareness [27], resource awareness
[30, 31, 32, 66, 67], fault awareness [33, 34], and user
awareness [6, 68, 69] are the current trends of the com-
putational awareness. Some studies [70] refer to this con-
cept as an application for system of systems (SoS). As for
system of smart grid, computational awareness [29, 35] and
computational intelligence are closely linked and basically
inseparable because by awareness of smart grid, it can be
interpreted as collecting the data from the environment and
context, extracting the useful or important information
from these data, and then making the decision based on the
information extracted while the relevant computational
intelligence technologies can be used to enhance the per-
formance of the decision making process.
Int. J. Mach. Learn. & Cyber.

Industrial Business
Consumers

Markets Operation Center Power Station Power Transformers Transmission Transmission Substation Distribution Residential Consumers

Fig. 1 Example showing the traditional power system

Operation Center
Service Provider

Markets

Industrial Business
Consumers

Power Station Power Transformers Transmission Transmission Substation Distribution Residential Consumers

Fig. 2 Example showing the smart grid system

2.1 Scenarios by computational awareness for smart
grid
In this section, three typical scenarios from different per-
spectives (i.e., from the perspectives of utility companies,
customers, and both) are given to show that computational
awareness of smart grid can be used to provide better
solutions compared with the current power grid.
2.1.1 Self-healing scenario
Disruption caused by the power grid is one of the most
emergent problems. A small scale disruption may lead to
the problem of not being able to serve power to the resi-
dents who live in a small region. A large scale disruption,
however, may force factories or organizations to unex-
pectedly shutdown their production lines or works. With
this usually come damages that may cost a lot of money.
Several different kinds of concepts and methods [8, 33, 34,
45, 47, 50] have been presented to self-heal the smart grid
environment, such as agent-based system [71]. The
following scenario shows one possible way of self-healing
the smart grid.
1. Collect data from the power management system and
extract useful information from these data.
2. When the power management system notices any
transmission problems, such as sudden outage or peak
load occurring on particular lines or regions.
3. The system needs to determine the power of which
region has to be cut [8] or changes the routing paths of
power transmission either automatically or semi-auto-
matically (i.e., based on the knowledge of experts).
4. Restore the power system.
2.1.2 Energy consumption reduction on home family
scenario
With computational awareness, the residential customers
will no longer need to wait until they received the bills to
adjust their using behavior because smart meters for some
modern appliances can provide real time information for

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their using behavior [41, 42]. Thus, the using behavior can 2.2 The computational awareness framework for smart
be easily recognized; thus, the energy consumption on our grid
daily life can be reduced.
In order to make our daily life more comfortable, to use
1. The smart home system will play the role of collecting
energy more efficiently, and to reduce the emission of CO2,
data from smart meter, socket, power cord, device, or
computational awareness, such as energy awareness [27], is
even the appliances themselves and then extracting the
now essential to make smart grid a more smart system.
useful information from them.
Also, in addition to context awareness [28, 29] and resource
2. The data mining and computational intelligence tech-
awareness [30–32], through cognition of the events the
nologies will be used in analyzing this information.
system faced, other types of awareness can provide the
3. The web-based interface, the APP of smart handheld
proper activities or responses, such as location awareness
device, and the display of appliances can then show the
can be used to locate faults on the system [33, 34]. In the
current usage of the power at home. In addition, the
early researches [8, 59], several computational awareness
suggestions to adjust the appliances will also be
and intelligence technologies for smart grid have been
displayed.
discussed and presented, such as self-healing, predicting the
4. When the users receive this information, they can
loading from industrial and residential customers, and
adjust their using behavior or they may allow the smart
adjusting the routing paths for power transmission.
home system itself to manage the appliances based on
According to [72, 73], computational intelligence technol-
the predefined preference of the users, such as turning
ogies are capable of making smart grid robust, adaptive, and
the light off when they leave a particular space.
optimally coordinated or making accurate decision. More
recently, Cecati et al. [26] summarized the major functions
2.1.3 Demand response scenario a smart grid is supposed to have. They are fault and stability
diagnosis, reactive power control, demand side manage-
Analyzing the response of demand [23] to the smart grid ment, distributed generation for emergency, system resto-
is a new trend to plan for the electricity pricing mech- ration, and network reconfiguration.
anism because information, such as duration of phone As shown in Fig. 3, a unified framework for computa-
calls and time to charge an electric vehicle [43, 49], can tional awareness is presented in this paper to depict how to
be easily extracted and calculated. For this reason, dif- apply data preprocessing, data mining, and computation
ferent pricing strategies will be used in different situa- intelligence technologies to smart grid. In this framework, the
tions to avoid the peak hours and the costs incurred. For input data at the very first stage may come from different kinds
instance, the electricity supplied during the peak hours of resources of the environment of smart grid, such as smart
and during the off peak hours should have different meter, appliance, sensor, user interface, power line commu-
prices. nication (PLC), or advanced metering infrastructure (AMI).
Because these data are collected from different devices, how
1. The power grid system will collect all the data from
to collect the data and integration them into a unified format
the whole infrastructure.
has been an important issue as far as the early researches on
2. For the amount of data is too large to be easily handled
smart grid are concerned. Because the early smart grid is too
and analyzed, sampling, data reduction, or selection
slow to transmit a large amount of real time data, the sampling
can be used to extract useful information.
method is commonly used to record the data capturing from
3. The data mining and computational intelligence tech-
different devices. Also, the traditional dimensional reduction
nologies can then be used to analyze the information.
methods, such as principal components analysis [48], are used
4. The electricity pricing mechanism will then be created
to reduce the overall data size to make it possible to be
based the results obtained from data mining and
transferred over power line or other wireless communication
computational intelligence technologies to decrease
mechanisms. Some information retrieval technologies are
the overall cost of customers and power companies as
used to extract the data, such as filtering out the noisy patterns.
well as increase the reliability of a power system.
The relationships between patterns are certainly another major
5. The cost, using behavior, and reliability of smart grid
concern of data mining for smart grid. For instance, how the
will be fed back to the data mining and computational
similarity between patterns is computed and how the patterns
intelligence technologies to dynamically adjust and
in the smart grid environment are weighted need to be taken
plan the pricing strategy to conform to the real
care of before data mining or machine learning technologies
situations and to enhance the performance of a power
are performed on the data.
system.

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Data Collection
Data Reduction
Data Extraction
Input Data Preprocessing
Fig. 3 Framework for the computational awareness of smart grid
To collect and return the load data of the power grid to
the power company, it has to be able to read the meter
data and monitor the power quality both remotely and
automatically. However, this is far from accomplished
from the viewpoints of researchers, power companies,
and even customers. How the performance of the smart
grid environment is enhanced, such as self-healing to
provide more reliable service for the power grid, has
become a promising research issue on smart grid. For this
reason, in addition to using the predefined rules to
determine the response for the sudden outage or situa-
tions predicable by human, data mining and computation
intelligence technologies are adopted by the researches
on smart grid to make the system more intelligent so that
it can provide more useful information to help the user to
make final decisions. That is why the predefined rules,
data mining and computational intelligence technologies
are all components of this framework. The details of data
mining and computation intelligence will be given in
Sects. 3 and 4 The final stage, i.e., the output data, cannot
be considered the least important part because many
semi-automatic applications need to use these results to
make the final decision. In other words, the interface has
to display the information the users need to help them
make a better decision rather than providing messy
information to confuse them. The feedback method is
another important component of this framework because
some smart grids are designed in such a way that they are
capable of incremental learning in the sense that the
learning process has to be iterated several times.
3 The data mining technologies for smart grid
In this section, we will begin with the background of data
mining, especially data clustering and classification.
Then, we will move on to clustering and classification
technologies for smart grid to show how these two
technologies can be used to make smart grid thinking
smarter.
Predefine Rules
Data Mining Tools
Computational
intelligence Tools
Activity Output Data
Fig. 4 Outline of the clustering process [77]
Fig. 5 Outline of the classification process [77]
3.1 Background
It is generally believed that data selection, preprocessing,
transformation, data mining, and interpretation/evaluation
are the five representative stages for knowledge data dis-
covery (KDD) [74–76]. Among them, data mining is a
required stage to make KDD smarter in analyzing the data.
In other words, data mining is responsible for extracting
information hidden information the input data. Note that
the other stages of KDD may also affect the search per-
formance of mining. For instance, the smart meter on an
advanced metering infrastructure will collect a large
amount of data which may be large enough to become a big
data problem. To handle and process this kind of data, the
preprocessing stage becomes crucial.
Clustering [78, 79] is one of the fundamental analysis
technologies for data mining, which is also referred to as
unsupervised learning because no a priori knowledge is
required. As shown in Fig. 4, the major goal of clustering is
partitioning a set of unlabeled input data into the desired or
proper number of groups based on some predefined simi-
larity metrics. As shown in Fig. 5, like clustering, classi-
fication [80] is used to divide the input pattern into two or
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more groups. Unlike clustering, classification uses a set of
labeled data (as the a priori knowledge) to create the
classifier to classify the other patterns, which may be
labeled or not. For this reason, classification is also referred
to as supervised learning because the system has to know
something about the input data before it is used to classify
the input data.
3.2 Clustering algorithms for smart grid
As mentioned in the last section, to face brand-new envi-
ronment or data the structure of which are unknown,
clustering [35–41] is definitely one of the important tech-
nologies for smart grid. Hence, some existing clustering
algorithms have been used in analyzing the data collected
from smart grid, and the ideal goal is to find information
hidden in the input data to enhance the environment.
Many researches [36, 37, 81] have applied the clustering
technology to analyze the load data to create the customer
profile or to better understand the customer profile. For
instance, Gullo et al. [36] first used a top-down clustering
algorithm (called TS-Part) based on standard k-means to
analyze the load data and then used the results thus obtained
to make a proper tariff policy. To solve the problem of
determining the number of groups for a clustering process,
TS-Part is conceptually like bisecting k-means [81], which
starts off with a single cluster and then splits it into different
groups. The number of clusters will increase on the fly until
the predefined number of clusters has been reached.
Moreover, the inter-cluster and intra-cluster distances are
used to measure the quality of the clustering results, which
explains why TS-Part can provide better results.
Kim et al. [37] analyzed the load of customers and
compared the performance of different clustering algo-
rithms for smart grid, including hierarchical clustering, k-
means, fuzzy c-means and two-stage fuzzy. Although most
experimental results show that k-means outperforms the
other clustering algorithms compared in this paper, the
detail discussions are not provided. From the business
perspective, Flath et al. [38] showed several different cases
by using data mining to analyze the load profile, such as
profile for industrial client, profile for resident client, pro-
file for transformer substations, and profile for different
types of time (i.e., week days, weekend, or different sea-
sons), which explains that although most mining tools are
either automated or semi-automated, domain knowledge is
still needed to enhance the accuracy rate of these tools.
Molina-Markham et al. [39] designed a smart meter
architecture. Four steps included in this architecture to
analyze the data are: (1) use off-the-shelf clustering to
classify the input data and the events in the same group
with the same label, (2) tag (define) every power event with
associated defining characteristics to make them easily
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Int. J. Mach. Learn. & Cyber.
differentiated later, (3) filter out redundant data from the
automated appliance, and (4) use these results to identify
and map the power segments to particular types of real-life
events. An interesting work was presented in [41] which
designed a power management system for determining the
time to recharge the appliances in a smart home. Clustering
technologies with silhouette maximization (automatically
determine the number of clusters) are used to classify
different types of electricity events to protect the appli-
ances. Other than the consumption costs and marketing
issues, another important research issue on smart grid is the
security problem. In order to detect the anomaly behavior,
in [35], the type-2 fuzzy clustering is used to model domain
knowledge of experts to improve the security of smart grid,
just like the intrusion detection system of network man-
agement system.
3.3 Classification algorithms for smart grid
As mentioned in Sect. 3.1, classification differs from
clustering in the sense that it requires a priori or domain
knowledge to construct a set of classifiers. To smart grid
[42–50], the classification algorithms play a vital role in
creating knowledge to help the AMI or utility company to
find out the fitting solutions for different situations that
have been differentiated by a training process.
Similar to using clustering technologies to analyze the
using profile of power consumption patterns, classification
technologies have been applied to smart home. However,
compared to using clustering to find out the user behavior
from the large amount of data or make the proper tariff
policy, some important works on classification for smart
grid are detecting the breakdown events or classifying the
activities of household from which the system can make
necessary decisions or even notify the customers immedi-
ately [42, 44]. The comparison of state-of-the-art classifi-
cation algorithms for smart grid on smart home are given in
[42] which includes naive Bayes, C4.5, random forest,
support vector machine, and nearest neighbor. The same
study also pointed out that classification algorithms for
time series data from smart meters in our daily life make it
possible for the system to detect the breakdown events of
appliances and to notify the users such events. In [44], a
disaggregation framework integrated with the hidden
Markov mode (HMM) and Gaussian mixture model
(GMM) was presented to analyze the data captured from
smart meter for the activities of household. In addition, an
alternative method is to combine the clustering and clas-
sification algorithms into a single system to make it a more
efficient tool, such as incremental learning [46] and semi-
supervised classification [82].
For smart grid to provide reliable service, the major
concern of a utility company is using the classification
Int. J. Mach. Learn. & Cyber.
algorithm for self-healing and adaptive reconfiguration [45,
47, 50], especially when their investments are more than
millions or billions of US dollars. For instance, in [48], the
support vector machine classification algorithm is used to
predict the vulnerability of smart grid while using the
principal components analysis (PCA) to reduce the
dimensions of the input data to enhance the performance of
the system.
Different from the reliability of service, vehicle elec-
tricity [43, 49] in the environment of smart grid is also one
of the important applications. One of the trends is to
develop plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) or gridable
vehicle (GV) because they can reduce the using of fuel and
be powered by sustainable energy resources. Of course,
how, when, and where to recharge the battery of these
vehicles has become an important issue most drivers con-
cern and will certainly affect the market of PHEV. The
cost-oriented strategy is simply different prices for differ-
ent situations. Several different situations are used in [43]
to explain why we need different pricing policies for
charging the PHEV. They are uncontrolled charging,
delayed charging, off-peak charging, and continuous
charging. Moreover, because the costs for urban and sub-
urban, charging speed, peak situations are very different,
difference pricing policies are a reasonable way which may
also change the using behavior of customers or encourage
customers to charge from renewable sources. Among them,
the k-nearest neighbor [43] and decision tree [49] have
been presented to support the drivers to decide when to
charge.
4 The computational intelligence for smart grid
In this section, we begin with a brief discussion for com-
putational intelligence. Then, we will turn to computational
issues for smart grid and potential research issues. Also,
several applications using computational intelligence will
be given to show the fruitful results owing to computa-
tional intelligence in this section.
4.1 Background
4.1.1 The computational intelligence
Over the past few decades, a large number of researches
[83–87] were focused on designing and developing more
intelligent models or algorithms for theoretical or real
world complex problems, including neural network, fuzzy
theory, metaheuristic algorithms, and so on. All of them are
looking for one thing: make the computer ‘‘think’’ like
human. Although it is still beyond the capability of modern
computer, several useful models and algorithms have been
presented, which can help us find solutions of optimization
problems. Metaheuristics is one of the successful approa-
ches of computational intelligence because it can find the
approximate solution in a reasonable time. Simulated
algorithm (SA) [88, 89], tabu search (TS) [90–92], genetic
algorithm (GA) [93], ant colony optimization [94–96], and
particle swarm optimization (PSO) [97–99] are five rep-
resentative metaheuristic algorithms. Because these algo-
rithms use different methods to avoid the local minima or
enhance the search result, each of them has their advan-
tages and disadvantages.
For instance, the basic idea of simulated annealing is to
occasionally accept worse solutions (directions) so as to
escape from local optima during the convergence process.
A different search algorithm to avoid falling into local
minima is presented by Glover called tabu search which is
designed to avoid searching for the same solutions for a
while. Increasing the number of search directions at each
iteration is another way to avoid falling into local minima
at the early iteration during the convergence process.
Genetic algorithm presented by Holland [93] and swarm
intelligence [100] both use this concept to increase the
number of search directions for each iteration, which we
usually refer to as the population-based algorithm. One
well-known swarm intelligence is ant colony optimization
(ACO) presented by Dorigo and his colleagues [94–96],
which emulates the behavior of ants. Using the pheromone
table to record the search experiences is one of the most
important features of ACO. In addition to ACO, another
swarm intelligence, called particle swarm optimization,
uses individual trajectories, local best, and global best to
determine the search direction. The weights determine the
importance of these factors.
4.1.2 Smartness of smart grid
Because data mining technologies are usually developed
for particular mining problems, they are limited to data
analysis and relevant researches. However, most compu-
tational intelligence algorithms are designed for optimiza-
tion problems; hence, they can be applied to different
research topics as long as the problem faced is an optimi-
zation problem. So far, several studies [51–65] have
attempted to show how the computational intelligence can
be applied to smart grid while some also giving results to
show their potentials. To show possible applications of
smart grid using computational intelligence, Saxena et al.
[63] presented ten potential research issues: power system
operation, power system planning, power system control,
power plant control, network control, electricity markets,
power system automation, distribution system application,
distributed generation application, and forecasting appli-
cation. These research issues can be summarized into four
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approaches: (1) power management, (2) communication conflict events was presented in [113]. Another example is
control, (3) distribution system, and (4) cost prediction. to use the CI to schedule the energy resource in a smart
A four-stage framework developed by Toronto Hydro home, such as the GA is used in [111] to reduce the
Electric System Limited (THESL) was discussed in [57] to peaking power load, and the PSO is used in [112] to
integrate operations, devices, and infrastructure. In other schedule the distributed energy resource (DER).
words, this framework contains components layer, inte- To manage plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) is
gration layer, intelligence layer, and value attainment layer. another issue of smart grid [116, 117] because most people
For the THESL framework, the main concern of intelli- lack patience to wait for the era of PHEV to come. In
gence layer is to manage the energy more efficiently. The [117], the particle swarm optimization was used to balance
distributed intelligence network and agent based network the cost and emission of PHEV. More precisely, the
are two critical research issues of this layer because they objective function of the Saber’s PSO takes into consid-
can be applied to many approaches, such as generator eration three types of costs (fuel cost, start-up cost, and
agents, storage agents, load agents, and even the vehicle shut-down cost) and the emission together to find a solution
agents. that balance all the factors. In [116], the simulated
annealing is used to determine the timing to charge the
4.2 CI for smart grid electric vehicles. In [61, 118, 119], an evolutionary algo-
rithm (estimation of distribution algorithm; EDA) is used
One of the promising researches on using CI [72, 101, 102, to manage the parking station of PHEV. For the fault
103, 104, 105] for smart grid is to manage and control the detection, in [120], the ACO is used to detect voltage
loads, such as battery, device, transmission path, and collapse of PHEV.
scheduling [106–113]. The sense-making, decision-mak-
ing, and adaptation generally used for the computation
system thinking machine (CSTM) show that CI can either 5 Discussion
make such a system capable of making decisions for dif-
ferent kinds of situations real-time without human Table 1 summarizes the use of data mining technologies
instructions or provide information to help human make an and computational intelligence for smart grid. However,
approximate decision [104]. Given in [102] is a brief several news and studies have shown that the era of smart
introduction to the CI for smart grid, emphasizing that CI grid is coming soon, and it is expected that smart grid can
can be used for smart sensing, metering, communication, provide a much better service to everyone. However, some
autonomous control, adaptive protection, advanced data of the changes and open issues have not yet addressed. This
management, distributed resources management, and section will first discuss the changes caused by smart grid,
decision support. the possible approaches of smart grid, and the open issues
A useful approach presented in [109] integrated the tabu of smart grid we have to face.
search and fuzzy theory to determine the heating time of
heat pump. Because most smart grids are designed for
integrating and adopting different kinds of renewable Table 1 Comparison of mining technologies
energy for the next generation power grid, how the solar Method Approaches References
energy and other nature renewable energies are predicted
has become an important issue. In [110], the weather Clustering Customer profile and [36–38, 81]
marketing
forecast is used in the artificial neural network (ANN)
Power management and [39, 41]
while using particle swarm optimization and genetic self-healing
algorithm to adjust the weights of ANN to enhance the Security [35]
performance of such a system, such as reducing the error
Classification Events or classifying and [42, 44, 46, 82]
rate and response time. In addition to using the neural notification
network technologies to optimize the renewable energy Self-healing and adaptive [45, 47, 48, 50]
sources for smart home, in [114, 115], Pathak et al. reconfiguration
employed the particle swarm optimization for the demand Plug-in hybrid electric [43, 49]
response management of smart home. A similar approach vehicle
using metaheuristic algorithms to optimize another com- Computational Smart home and smart city [57, 63, 102–104]
putational intelligence was presented in [106, 107]. intelligence Power management and [106, 107, 109–115,
In addition, the CI can also be used to optimize the smart self-healing 121, 122]
grid system. For example, the particle swarm optimization Plug-in hybrid electric [61, 116–120]
vehicle
used in the multi-agent control system to minimize the

123
Int. J. Mach. Learn. & Cyber.
5.1 The changes and approaches
What will be changed can be discovered in the studies of
smart grid as well as whatever has been defined in the
standards [14, 15]. The following shows some of the typ-
ical changes to smart grid in terms of most of the research
papers we surveyed.
• Using behavior is expected to change when the
customer gets the bill of usages or monitors the using
status of appliances at home via the Internet. In other
words, the more the detailed information, the better the
customers can do to save their money.
• Control and management will definitely change using
smart grid. An obvious truth is reading information
from the meters automatically. More reliable and stable
services can be provided by power generation station
because the breaking points, disruption events, or peak
events can be located more quickly. Also, changes to
the routing paths for transmission can be used to
recover breaking point or balance the load of the power
grid quickly.
• Different from the first two changes, which are from the
perspective of customers and utility companies, the
major task of marketing is the interactions between
customer and utility company. For this reason, power
supply and power demand will determine the pricing
model.
• Since most smart grid systems are designed to accom-
modate different renewable energies based on the
information of ‘‘which’’ part of the system needs,
‘‘where’’ the system is, ‘‘what’’ kind of renewable
energies can be used immediately, and ‘‘how’’ the price
is determined.
• With computational awareness for smart grid, the main
change to the power grid is that every decision made
will be based on the information that can be found in
the grid; hence, all the decisions can be made more
intelligently.
• First, the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) or
gridable vehicle (GV) will be the promising research
topics because transportation is a indispensable part of
our daily life. Today, the main problems are the number
of charge stations and the charging speed. However,
although there are many misgivings about electric
vehicle, one thing for sure is that it will become more
and more popular.
• Internet of things (IoT), big data, and cloud computing
are three important research areas for smart grid
because IoT will allow smart grid to connect all the
appliances to the Internet. One of the consequences of
connecting all the appliances to the Internet is that a
large amount of data will be created from the smart
meters. Cloud computing comes in to provide the
computing power and storage space to analyze the data
to provide more intelligent environment for power grid.
• Different from the IoT and cloud computing, the
success somehow relies on how all the involved
services and devices are integrated and cooperated. In
other words, although several architectures, standards,
and methods have been presented, the negotiation
between systems and applications will become much
more important. This can be easily seen by studies
focusing their design on smart grid with multi-agent.
• There is plenty of room to improve the systems on
smart grid to make decision either automatically or
semi-automatically. For example, the management
system of a smart home will become popular if it is
able to cut off the power supply for particular
appliances when we are not home. The above example
shows that a user-friendly management system or
interface for smart home is needed. How to make it
smarter will be the most important thing as far as the
automatic or semi-automatic management system for
smart grid is concerned.
5.2 The next step by using CI on smart grid
In summary, computational awareness is essential to pro-
vide smarter and more intelligent services of smart grid. Of
course, many important open issues, such as security
problems, need to be solved. Before we create a smart grid,
we have to take into consideration not only the high capital
costs but also many of the other factors, such as environ-
ments, residents, and marketing. The following gives the
possible approaches of using CI for smart grid:
• One of the most important things by using CI for smart
grid is to make the system sufficiently intelligent or
provide more information, especially for electric vehi-
cle. One example is that an overly smart car navigation
system may guide the users to follow a shortcut but
probably not what they expect. The other example is
that ‘‘sufficiently’’ means that the system first provides
only the information a user needs, and later it may
provide a little bit more information to the user to avoid
overloading the user with too much information. For
these reasons, sufficiency would be the best. For this,
CI can be used to determine what kind of information a
user needs and provide suggestions to the user.
• For this new type of power grid, co-work between
customers will become another potential problem,
because the information and power flow become much
more flexible. Customers can benefit more by cooper-
ation. For example, suppose that the charge price P1 in
123

a suburb area will be much more expensive than that in
the city P2. Then, a car A can transform part of its
power to another car B with a charge price P3, where
P1 B P3 B P2, when B is in a suburb area but lacks
enough power to drive to its destination. This way, the
consumption of energy due to long distance transmis-
sion can be avoided; for customer A, it can make a little
money owing to the difference in price in the suburb
area and in the city; for customer B, it can buy the
energy with a lower price than he or she normally has to
pay. Of course, negotiation using CI and provisioning
of information to the driver will be a promising
research subject in this field.
• Managing and integrating different types of power and
devices will be a difficult task of smart grid. This is
because the data may be too large for the system to
handle, especially when all the data are put into a single
system on cloud. Thus, we can integrate all the services
so that the information can be found from any where at
any time. For this reason, it is important to integrate
and manage different types of power and devices. A
possible application is using clustering algorithm to
classify the devices into the same group by the
information captured from the environment, user pro-
file, marketing state, and so on.
6 Conclusion
Although smart grid is a promising research topic, how to
make it smart and intelligent can still be difficult but is
necessary. The main contribution of this research is in that
it gives a brief introduction to the ‘‘smart’’ grid, by
reviewing several of the issues from the perspective of
computational awareness, which includes data mining
technologies, machine learning technologies, and many
other intelligent mechanisms. Analysis and discussion of
computational awareness for the smart grid are also given
to depict the coming services and applications in this paper.
According to our observations, CI will play a vital role in
making it possible for smart grid to provide a more com-
fortable living environment for human. In summary, as far
as smart grid is concerned, CI needs to have the following
characteristics to enhance the system performance:
1. Simplicity is the first characteristic of CI for smart grid
because most devices in this environment are small
and low power consumption. Therefore, simplicity
makes it possible for CI to easily realize on the
component of smart grid.
2. Another characteristic of CI is the capability to
communicate with other devices or applications on
123
Int. J. Mach. Learn. & Cyber.
smart grid, which makes it possible to integrate all the
services to provide a complete solution for the user.
3. For most systems of smart grid are agent-based, CI has
to make the system be able to negotiate with others for
cooperation with other systems.
4. Finally, if the CI of smart grid is capable of self-
learning and accumulating the experience, the system
will become smarter the longer it is used.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the editors and
anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions on
the paper. This work was supported in part by the National Science
Council of Taiwan, ROC, under Contracts NSC101-2221-E-041-012,
NSC102-2219-E-006-001, and NSC99-2221-E-110-052 and in part
by the Ministry of Education of Taiwan, ROC, under Contract D102-
23015.
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