SETTING T I M E EFFECTS ON BENTONITE

W A T E R - W E L L ANNULUS SEALS
By F r e d L . Ogden, 1 Student M e m b e r , A S C E ,
and James F. Ruff,2 Fellow, ASCE
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ABSTRACT: Shear strength tests are conducted in a model of a water well on four,
commercially available, granular bentonite well sealing products. The time depen-
dency of annulus seal shear strength and resistance to piping is examined. Dry
bentonite samples are placed through water in the annular space between the casing
and borehole and allowed to set for a specified time. Pressure is applied at a con-
stant rate to one end of the clay seal until shear or piping failure occurs. Pressure
and seal displacement data are recorded on a digital data acquisition system. An-
nulus seal strength and resistance to piping increase with setting time. Ultimate
shear strength is reached in 72 to 120 hours after placement. Differences between
this laboratory scale study and field scale applications are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

A laboratory investigation was conducted to determine the effect of setting

time on the shear strength and resistance to piping of four, commercially
available, well sealing products. The shear strength of annulus seals is im-
portant to resist hydrostatic push-out forces that can cause seal motion and
failure, particularly in seals of confined aquifers.
Only four different, commercially available, granular bentonite well seal-
ing products from three different manufacturers were tested. There are many
more products from different manufacturers that were not tested. Therefore,
the results presented here are not indicative of the behavior of all bentonite
well sealing products. All products tested were donated by the manufactur-
ers, and tested with their permission. Any comparisons made herein between
products from different manufacturers are made only for informational pur-
poses and should not be construed in any way as an indication that any one
product is superior to any other.
The material most commonly used for the construction of annulus seals
is bentonite. For shallow wells less than 60-m deep, either compressed ben-
tonite pellets or natural bentonite chips of various sizes are poured down the
annulus to form a seal in the zone required. These granular forms of ben-
tonite swell and fill the annulus space, creating a seal.
In practice, the placement of granular forms of bentonite down the annulus
is difficult. Alternatively, bentonite slurry grouts are pumped down the an-
nulus through a tremie to the seal zone. Slurry grouts have little ability to
resist axial hydrostatic forces that develop at boundaries between confined
aquifers. Two bentonite grouts from two manufacturers were tested using
the same apparatus presented in this paper, and the shear strength was found
'Army Res. Office Fellow, Ctr for Excellence in the Geosciences, Dept. of Civ.
Engrg.,
2
Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO 80523.
Prof., Hydraulics Program, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Colorado State Univ., Fort
Collins, CO.
Note. Discussion open until January 1, 1992. To extend the closing date one month,
a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscript
for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on June 13, 1990.
This paper is part of the Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Vol.
117, No. 4, July/August, 1991. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9437/91/0004-0534/S1.00 +
$.15 per page. Paper No. 26070.
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J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 to vary from 0.083 to 1.516 kPa (0.012 to 0.2198 psi) (Ogden 1987). The
low shear strength of bentonite grouts makes them unsuitable for high hy-
draulic gradient sealing locations where strength is important.
In water production wells in confined aquifers, the purpose of an annulus
seal is to maintain water quality by preventing, or limiting to acceptable
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levels, the migration of contaminant species between aquifers ("RCRA Ground"

1986). In ground-water monitoring wells, an effective annulus seal should
also seal off discrete sampling zones both chemically and hydraulically (Aller
et al. 1989). A competent seal must therefore posses a number of charac-
teristics to serve the requirements of the regulating agency that oversees ground-
water quality. The seal should limit the velocity of contaminated water that
passes through it. An effective seal should limit water flow throughout the
entire seal zone. The seal zone should include the entire length of the aqui-
tard as well as any adjacent cracks and fissures in the aquitard. An adequate
seal should be sufficiently stable so that it does not degrade with time or
with long-term geological changes. Additionally, the seal should have the
strength necessary to withstand axial hydrostatic forces that act to displace
the seal from the seal zone.
Bentonite annulus seals have several advantages over cementitious seals.
Bentonite annulus seals have no detectable effect on formation water chem-
istry. Cement borehole seals can cause severe, persistent contamination of
water in monitoring wells (Barcelona and Helfrich 1986). Bentonite gener-
ates no heat upon hydration, and therefore has no effect on the strength of
thermoplastic casing materials. Bentonite annulus seals have the ability to
deform in response to subsurface motion, while cementitious annulus seals
are rigid and unable to deform.
There are difficulties inherent in the installation of granular bentonite an-
nulus seals. Constructing seals by dropping bentonite pellets down the an-
nulus through water does not allow much control over the final density and
homogeneity of the seal (Kimbrell et al. 1987). Bentonite granules can hy-
drate prior to reaching the seal zone resulting in bridging, or the granules
can arrive at the seal zone in a highly dispersed state, producing a seal of
low solids content ("RCRA Ground" 1986).

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

To understand the behavior of bentonite annulus seals, a knowledge of

the nature of clays is essential. The shear strength of clay is dependent upon
mineralogical composition, pore water chemistry, stress history, and strain
rate (Holtz and Kovacs 1981).

Bentonite Clay Mineralogy

The term bentonite is used for any clay material composed predominantly
of a smectite clay mineral, usually montmorillonite. Bentonite is used for
various "sealing" applications, e.g., waste and water pond liners, slurry trench
cutoff walls, dam cores and aprons, borehole sealing slurries, piezometer
sealing, etc.
Bentonites, particularly industrial grades, are commonly composed of 85%
or more montmorillonite (Bowen 1981). Clay minerals, including bentonite,
are defined as a group of hydrous silicates of aluminum, iron, manganese,
and other metals. Clay minerals have small particle sizes (<2 microns) and
535

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 have the ability to adsorb large quantities of water (in some cases 100% or
more of the weight of the clay particles) and ions on the surface and edges
of the particles.

Effects of Cation Exchange Capacity on Well Seals

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Cation exchange mechanisms affect clay behavior to a great extent.: For

example, commercial montmorillonites that might be considered for well an-
nulus sealing have mainly two adsorbed cation species, Na + and Ca 2 + . The
behavior of a particular bentonite will be dependent on the percentage of
sodium or calcium adsorbed on the clay surface. Grim and Guven (1978)
show significant differences between the two montmorillonites for compress-
ibility, sensitivity, permeability, and consolidation rates. In an annulus seal,
cation species present in the aquifer water can exchange with cations present
on the surfaces of the bentonite particles after seal construction, and change
the engineering properties of the bentonite. Sodium bentonites are most widely
used, however calcium bentonites are recommended for annulus seals in cal-
cic formations due to reduced cation exchange potential ("RCRA Ground"
1986).
In ground-water monitoring wells, the presence of alcohols, ketones, and
other polar organic solvents in the aquifer can dramatically influence the
swelling and permeability of clays. If these contaminants are expected,
chemical-resistant or expanding cement formulations should be used for well
seals (Barcelona et al. 1984).

Piping Mechanisms
Piping, or the erosion of soil particles by the flow of water, occurs in soils
when the hydraulic gradient reaches a critical value (Das 1983). Granular
bentonite particles placed in the annulus of a water well will swell as the
outer layers of each particle adsorb water and are dispersed by repulsive
electric charges. As seals are formed by the swelling action of a large num-
ber of randomly located pellets, the result of this swelling mechanism is an
inhomogeneous seal with spatial variations in solids content. Regions of lower
solids content will have a lower critical hydraulic gradient. When intercon-
nected regions of lower solids content extend completely through the seal,
a preferential flow path with a lower critical hydraulic gradient will result.
If the hydraulic gradient across the seal reaches the critical gradient, piping
will occur along this flow path, resulting in failure of the seal. The mode
of annulus seal failure, either by shear or piping mechanisms, is dependent
on the extent of large scale inhomogeneities in the seal. These inhomo-
geneities in turn, are a function of the swelling characteristics and location
and distance between individual bentonite granules as they reach the seal
zone.

Borehole Characteristics
In a smooth "clean" borehole, without a casing, only the seal-borehole
interfacial shear stress has an effect in resisting hydrostatic and gravitational
forces. The model used in describing push-out resistance forces is the friction
model. The fundamental equation for the shear stress in a cohesive soil is
the Coulomb equation:
T = c + ar tan tf> (1)

536

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS AXIAL ANNULAR AREA
T = P-A TBAb+TcA

"I "t
^KSsassssssSTI BOREHOLE AREA
TOTAL CONTACT AREA / ^ A.
OF ANNULUS SEAL
WITH CASING AND
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BOREHOLE A t = A b + A c

• CASING AREA
A

FORCE CAUSING
SEAL MOTION, P*A

FIG. 1. Annulus Seal Force Diagram

where T = the interfacial shear force per unit area; c = the cohesive force
between the rock and seal; <)> = the angle of friction between the rock and
seal; and 07 = the radial force per unit area at the seal/borehole or seal/
casing interface.
The cohesive force, c, and the angle of friction, <)), are bentonite prop-
erties. The normal stress, crr, at the plug-rock interface is the result of the
difference in the pore water pressure in the clay and the hydrostatic pressure
in the rock.

Casing Size Effects with Respect to Borehole Diameter

Fig. 1 illustrates annular geometry in a water well. The dimensionless
casing-outside-diameter-to-borehole-diameter ratio, or "well ratio, co," is a
direct indication of the amount of surface area per lineal foot of borehole
that can resist motion of the plug.
dc
(2)

where dc = casing outside diameter; and db = borehole diameter.

The well ratio can have values from zero to unity. If there is no casing
in the borehole, the well ratio will be zero. If the casing diameter is the
same as the borehole diameter the well ratio will be one. The annular surface
area ratio per unit length of borehole, As, is a linear function starting at one
and approaching two as the well ratio, w, increases from zero to one:
Ah + Ar
As (3)

where Ab = surface area of the borehole per unit borehole length; and Ac =
surface area of the casing per unit borehole length.

Strain Rate Considerations

Compression, or consolidation, of clays is defined by Grim (1962) as the
relationship between the increase of unit load on a laterally confined clay
specimen and the corresponding decrease of its void ratio. Void ratio, e, is
537

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 defined as the ratio of the total volume of voids to the volume of solid
constituents of the soil.
Typical consolidation versus time curves for montmorillonite clays are given
by Grim (1962). These curves indicate that, in sodium montmorillonites,
only 10% of the total theoretical primary consolidation occurs within 10 min
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of the application of a load to a clay sample. It is, therefore, anticipated;that

consolidation of the montmorillonites will not greatly influence the behavior
of annulus seal shear strength tests conducted over a span of several minutes.

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS

The apparatus is a physical model of a water well and is presented in Fig.

2. The model was constructed of 10.19 cm (4.012 in.) inside diameter PVC
well casing. Casing diameters from 1.27 to 7.62 cm (0.50 to 3 in., nominal)
can be mounted in the test section, and it is possible to test borehole plugs
with no casing installed. Two apparatuses were constructed to allow con-
current experiments.
Two casings, of 2.67 cm (1.05 in.) and 4.83 cm (1.90 in.) outside di-
ameter were installed in the apparatus and resulted in well ratios of 0.26 and
0.47, respectively. Diminishing annular thickness prevented the installation
of larger casings, and limited the scope of the tests to well ratios less than
0.5.

Test Sections
The 61-cm- (24-in.-) and 30.5-cm- (12-in.-) long test sections were made
of 10.19-cm (4-in., nominal inside-diameter) (ID) steel pipe. A uniform
roughness pattern was chosen to simulate borehole roughness. The test sec-
tion was roughened by machining 3.1-mm-deep, 60° circumferential grooves,
spaced at 9.3 mm along the entire length of the test section. A 30.5-cm-
long test section was also fabricated so the total test section length could be
made 91.5 cm (36 in;). Fig. 3 shows a cross-sectional view of a typical steel
test section.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

WATERM I
LEVEL l J PRESSURE
REGULATOR
ACQUISITION SEAL 4 6 1 CM TEST
SYSTEM ZONE 1 SECTION

*
%&
f GRAVEL
j_PACK

LX-V
^
X DRAIN VALVE
WATER WELL MODEL
COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY HYDRAULICS LABORATORY

FIG. 2. Schematic of Apparatus

538

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 61 cm STEEL TEST SECTION
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COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY HYDRAULICS LABORATORY WELL MODEL

FIG. 3. Cross Section of Steel Test Section

Plexiglas Pipe Section

A Plexiglass pipe section was bolted to the apparatus immediately above
the steel test section to allow viewing of the top of the seal. This was nec-
essary to ascertain both the failure mode and when to end the test before
the seal collided with the linear displacement transducer during failure.

Data Collection
An electronic differential pressure transducer was used to determine the
change in pressure across the seal with time, and provide an electrical signal
output of the pressure data to the data acquisition sysytem. A linear dis-
placement transducer, which incorporates a cable spooled around a poten-
tiometer, was used to determine the position of the top of the borehole plug
during testing. The cable from the displacement transducer was extended to
the top of the annulus seal by a lead weight. A microcomputer-based data
acquisition system was used to record the pressure and displacement data
from the transducers during testing. Two analog input channels on the data
acquisition card were used during the testing, and the channels were sampled
at 10 Hz for every run, providing sufficient detail of seal failure.

Laboratory Scale Seal Construction

The annulus seals were constructed by dropping bentonite granules into
the water in the test section until the test section was full of bentonite. The
casing was held in the center of the borehole while the product was placed.
This is similar to field construction of granular bentonite seals. The only
difference being, in this laboratory study, the bentonite had only to fall
through 2 ft (0.61 m) of water, where in the field the fall distance might
equal 60 meters through water. After the seal was placed, about 15 cm (6
in.) of water was added above the seal to keep the seal wet. The seal was
then allowed to set for the desired time, either 6, 24, 72, 120, or 160 hours,
before strength testing was performed.
Fort Collins, Colorado, municipal water was used in these experiments.
539

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 Chemical analysis of this water indicated calcium concentrations of 21.3
mg/L as calcium carbonate and sodium concentrations of 2.5 mg/L.

Testing Procedures
The water on top of the seal was siphoned off, reducing the surcharge
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above the plug. The linear displacement transducer was set atop the Plexiglas
pipe section, and the lead weight attached to the cable on the displacement
transducer was lowered to the top of the plug. The differential pressure trans-
ducer was installed, and both transducers were connected to the data ac-
quisition system.
The data acquisition program was started at the 10-Hz sampling frequency
and the nitrogen gas valve was opened, supplying gas to the pressure reg-
ulator. The pressure regulator was operated manually, with the aid of a stop-
watch, to provide an increase in pressure across the plug with respect to
time of approximately 25 psi/min (172.4 kPa). Pressure was increased until
the plug failed upward in shear, or piped and filled the low-pressure side of
the test section with water. When the plug either began to move upward
toward the displacement transducer at a high speed, or when the water pass-
ing through the seal by piping into the low-pressure side of the apparatus
approached the displacement transducer, the test was stopped. This was ac-
complished by venting the pressure in the high-pressure side of the appa-
ratus.

Computing Shear Strength from the Data

The force tending to cause plug motion is the pressure difference across
the plug acting on the axial annular area. The force resisting the motion of
the plug is the average shear stress per unit surface area of the annulus. This
area includes the casing and borehole surfaces. In the analysis of the failure
data, the gravitational force acting on the plug itself was neglected as being
small compared to the other forces in the system.
The average shear strength of the annulus seal, TA, was calculated using
the equation:

where P — the pressure across the plug in kPa at failure; A = the axial
annular cross-sectional area; and A, = the total surface area of the borehole
test section and casing in contact with the seal.

RESULTS

Shear Strength Time Dependence

The data plotted in Fig. 4 indicate that the strength of a bentonite annulus
seal is a function of time. The data shown are the average shear strength
for NL Baroid Holeplug at several times after placement for a well ratio of
0.26 and an annular thickness of 3.81 cm (1.5 in.). The data for NL Baroid
Holeplug are presented because no piping failures occured during these tests,
with the exception of the six-hour setting time test. All six-hour setting time
tests of all products produced piping before shear failure, while only one
product failed with piping after 72 hours of setting time. The shear strength

540

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 NL. BAROID HOLEPLUG CHIP
• WELL RATIO =0.26

z: °>
UJ CO
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UJ CL / K
S 9 /
u ^
(J
'
<
UJ
>
10 100
SETTING TIME, HOURS

FIG. 4. Average Shear Strength versus Time for NL Baroid Holeplug

of annulus seals was found to be independent of test section and seal length
(Ogden 1987).
The 24-hour shear strengths of bentonite annulus seals constructed of all
granular products were within the range of 4.49-27.3 kPa (0.651-3.96 psi)
for a well ratio of 0.26. The ultimate shear strength of annulus seals con-
structed from NL Baroid Holeplug bentonite chips was reached between 72
and 120 hours after placement. Fig. 4 is very similar to plots of confined
swelling pressure versus time published by Sawyer and Daemen (1987) for
a different granular bentonite borehole sealing product. The data for all time-
dependency tests on all products tested are listed in Table 1.
Piping failures occurred in 63.6% of the tests with a well ratio of 0.47,
compared to 52.6% of the tests with well ratio of 0.26. Table 2 lists the
failure mode by product and well ratio. The critical hydraulic gradient for
piping for American Colloid Volclay 3/8 in. (0.953 cm) pellets in the 0.26
and 0.47 well ratio tests for a 24-hour setting time were 96.93 and 38.84
m of water per meter of seal length, respectively. The critical hydraulic gra-
dient of this bentonite increased with setting time from 70.79 to 96.93 m of
water per meter of seal length after 6 and 24 hours of setting time, respec-
tively.

Analysis of Results
This laboratory investigation into the shear strength of bentonite annulus
seals has resulted in insights into the behavior and engineering properties of
these seals. In all, 31 tests were conducted on four different, commercially
available, well-sealing products.
The most apparent observation from the data is the wide variability in the
performance of the different products. The individual bentonite products
showed repeatable results, while different products from the same manufac-
turer exhibited marked differences in shear strength and resistance to piping.
Comparing well-sealing products from different manufacturers, it is seen that
each clay product tends to behave in a consistent but different fashion from
the other products.
The data indicate that the full strength of an annulus seal constructed of
NL Baroid Holeplug granular bentonite will be reached within 120 hours (5
days) of placement for well ratios of 0.26. Swelling pressure versus time
541

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 TABLE 1. Results of Time^Depsndency Tests
Well Test section Setting time Piping Shear Shear strength
Product ratio length (cm) (hours) failure failure (kPa)
(D (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
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0.26 61.0 24 X 16.114 ;

0.26 61.0 72 X 26.167
0.26 61.0 120 X 27.311
0.26 61.0 166 X 27.042
0.26 61.0 24 X 17.961
0.47 61.0 24 X 14.190
0.26 61.0 6 X 9.556
0.47 91.5 24 X 15.079
0.0 61.0 24 X X 14.624
0.26 61.0 24 X 17.630
2 0.26 61.0 24 X X 4.489
2 0.47 61.0 24 X 4.220
2 0.26 61.0 72 X 6.026
2 0.47 61.0 72 X 4.344
2 0.26 61.0 6 X X 3.406
2 0.47 30.5 24 X X 5.861
3 0.26 61.0 24 X X 19.403
3 0.26 61.0 24 X 17.913
3 0.47 61.0 24 X 6.033
3 0.26 61.0 72 X X 18.568
3 0.47 61.0 72 X X 15.314
3 0.26 61.0 6 X X 13.038
3 0.47 91.5 24 X 5.103
3 0.0 61.0 24 X X 14.624
3 0.26 61.0 24 X 8.246
4 0.26 61.0 24 X 14.548
4 0.47 61.0 24 X 10.267
4 0.26 61.0 72 X 15.452
4 0.47 61.0 72 X 13.383
4 0.26 61.0 6 X X 9.467
4 0.47 30.5 24 X X 12.163
Note: 1 kPa = 0.145 psi. Product list: Product No. 1 = NL Baroid Holeplug 3/4-in.
(1.91-cm) chip; product No. 2 = Wyo-Ben Enviroplug Medium Chip; product No. 3 =
American Colloid Volclay 3/8-in. (0.953-cm) pellets; and product No. 4 = American
Colloid Volclay Chip.

data from Sawyer and Daemen (1987) for a different bentonite show that
the confined swelling pressure reaches a maximum after about 100 hours.
If the ultimate strength of bentonite annulus seals is predominantly depen-
dent on swelling pressure, then the time from seal placement to ultimate
strength may be determined by confined swelling pressure testing of the par-
ticular bentonite.
The greater tendency of the 0.47 well ratio strength tests to fail with piping
was probably due to the narrower annular space in the well. Smaller annular
thicknesses result in seals more sensitive to clay placement and casing lo-
cation within the borehole. Therefore, thinner annular spaces produce seals
542

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 TABLE 2, Frequencies of Failure Modes

Well Number of tests Number of failures

Product description ratio performed with piping
(1) (2) (3) (4)
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American Colloid Volclay 0.26 3 1

Chip
American Colloid Volclay
3/8-in. (0.953-cm)
Pellets
NL Baroid Holeplug Chip
Wyo-Ben Enviroplug
Medium Chip
0.47 3 2
0.0 1 1
0.26 5 5
0.47 3 3
0.0 1 1
0.26 7 1
0.47 2 0
0.26 3 2
0.47 3 2

that have more spatial variability in solids content. This results in a lower
critical hydraulic gradient so seals in thinner annular spaces are more sus-
ceptible to failure by piping.
Bentonite annulus seals can fail by piping, shear, or a combination of
both. Some products exhibited a tendency to fail by one mode or the other.
When piping occurred during the tests, it was sometimes followed by shear
failure. This indicates that piping can structurally weaken the seal or lubri-
cate the seal/boundary interfaces and induce shear failure. Therefore, the
shear strength of a bentonite annulus seal is directly linked to the piping
resistance of the clay from which it is constructed. Data obtained from tests
that involved piping was not used in determining the time dependency of
annulus seal shear strength. The critical hydraulic gradient for piping was
calculated for American Colloid Volclay 3/8 in. (0.953 cm) pellets.

CONCLUSIONS
The experiments and data analysis conducted provide an initial basis for
discussing the shear strength behavior of bentonite water well annulus seals
as a function of time. All experimentation performed with the laboratory
scale model well is indicative of the laboratory behavior of bentonite annulus
seals. There were no attempts at simulating any known field application of
bentonite as an annulus sealant, and the results obtained through the exper-
iments were not compared with any known field scale tests. In fact, there
is an absence in the literature of data from field scale testing of the strength
performance of bentonite annulus seals.
The apparatus used in the testing program as well as the testing procedures
outlined at the beginning of the study proved quite useful and required little
modification over the duration of the experimental program. The physical
size of the apparatus limited the scope of the testing to well geometries with
well ratios less than 0.5.
Shear strength tests performed on granular bentonite products dropped down
the annulus through water produced shear strength values ranging from 3.4
to 27.3 kPa (0.49 to 3.96 psi). The wide variability in the shear strength of
different products requires that each product be tested individually to deter-
mine the strength behavior of the specific bentonite.
Three annulus seal failure modes were identified. They are shear failure
543

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545

 without piping, piping without shear failure, and shear failure with piping.
When piping did occur in the tests, it was sometimes followed by shear
failure. This indicates that ultimate seal strength is closely linked to a well
sealing products' resistance to piping.
The average shear strength increased with setting time for each different
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clay tested. Each product exhibits slightly different strength versus setting
time charcteristics. The differences probably arise from granule shape, size,
and manufacturing process, as well as clay swelling behavior. There is an
increase in shear strength for NL Baroid Holeplug Chips up to approximately
90 to 120 hours after placement in a water-filled annulus. Tests performed
on samples of this bentonite with setting times greater than 100 hours in-
dicated little additional increase in strength. Fifty percent of the maximum
observed strength occurred between 10 and 20 hours after placement.
The critical hydraulic gradient for piping was observed to increase with
setting time by a factor of 1.37 from setting times of 6 hours to 24 hours
for American Colloid Volclay 3/8-in. (0.953-cm) pellets.
Borehole geometry appears to play a role in the strength of bentonite an-
nulus seals. It was found that average shear strengths decrease as the well
ratio increases. The critical hydraulic gradient for piping was observed to
decrease by a factor of 2.5 for the same product and setting time as the
annular thickness decreased from 3.81 to 2.68 cm. Smaller annular thick-
nesses produced a greater incidence of seal failure by piping. However, since
only two well ratios were tested, a conclusion about the effect of well ratio
on average shear strength cannot be made.
The time-dependent nature of bentonite water-well annulus seal shear strength
should be considered by well designers in determining the required time
between seal construction by well development. If a well is developed before
the seal gains the strength necessary to resist the subsequent axial hydrostatic
forces, the structural integrity and efficacy of the annulus seal may be lost.
The accurate prediction of bentonite annulus seal characteristics and sub-
sequent engineering design of such seals is not yet possible. There are still
several fundamentals of annulus seal behavior that must be explored. Some
of these factors are borehole and casing roughness, well ratio and annulus
thickness, and the correlation of clay Atterberg limits with annulus seal shear
strength. Additionally, the strength of composite seals of sand, bentonite,
and/or cement should be examined in future research.

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES

Aller, L., Bennett, T. W., Hackett, G., Petty, R. J., Lehr, J. H., Sedoris, H., and
Nielsen, M. (1989). Handbook of suggested practices for the design and instal-
lation of ground-water monitoring wells. Envir. Monitoring Systems Lab., Office
of Res. and Dev., U.S. Environ. Protection Agency, Las Vegas, Nev.
Barcelona, M. J., Gibb, J. P., and Miller, R. A. (1984). "A guide to the selection
of materials for monitoring well construction and ground-water sampling." EPA
No. CR-809966, Illinois State Water Survey, Dept. of Energy and Natural Resour.,
Champaign, 111.
Barcelona, M. J., and Helfrich, J. A. (1986). "Well construction and purging effects
on ground-water samples." Environ. Sci. Tech., 20(11), 1179-1184.
Bowen, R. (1981). Grouting in Engineering Practice. 2nd Ed., Applied Science
Publishers Ltd., London, England, 38.
Das, B. M. (1983). Advanced soil mechanics. Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New
York, N.Y.
544

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 Grim, R. E. (1962). Applied clay mineralogy. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, N.Y. 255.
Grim, R. E., and Guven, N. (1978). "Bentonites—Geology, mineralogy, properties
and uses." Developments in sedimentology 24, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Com-
pany, Amsterdam, 238-242.
Holtz, R. D., and Kovacs, W. D. (1981), An introduction to geotechnical engi-
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neering. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

Kimbrell, A. F., Avery, T. S., and Daemen, J. J. K. (1987). "Field Testing of
Bentonite and Cement Borehole Plugs in Granite." NUREG/CR-4919. Prepared
for Division of Engineering Safety, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, by the Department of Mining and Geological
Engineering, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson.
"RCRA ground water monitoring technical enforcement guidance document." (1986).
OSWER-99501.1, U.S. Environ. Protection Agency.
Ogden, F. L. (1987). "Axial shear strength testing of bentonite water well annulus
seals," thesis presented to Colorado State University, at Fort Collins, Colorado,
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science.
Sawyer, W. D., and Daemen, J. J. K. (1987). "Experimental assessment of the
sealing performance of bentonite borehole plugs." NUREG/CR-4995, Dept. of
Mining and Geological Engrg., Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 173-194.

APPENDIX II. NOTATION

The following symbols are used in this paper:

A = axial annular cross-sectional area;

ABN = borehole cross-sectional area;
Ab = surface area of borehole per unit borehole length;
ACN = casing cross-sectional area;
Ac = surface area of casing per unit borehole length;
As = annular surface area ratio per unit borehole length;
A, = total surface area of borehole test section in seal zone;
c = cohesive force between borehole and seal;
db = borehole diameter;
dc = casing diameter;
e = void ratio;
P = pressure across plug in kPa;
07 = radial force per unit area at seal/borehole or seal/casing interface;
T = interfacial shear force per unit area;
TA = average annulus seal shear stress;
TB = shear stress at seal-borehole interface;
TC = shear stress at seal-casing interface;
4> = angle of friction between rock and plug; and
a) = casing diameter/borehole diameter "well ratio."

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J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 1991, 117(4): 534-545