Switchgear and Protection Unit 3 PDF

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Unit-III
[Electromagnetic and
Static Relays]

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PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
3.1 Function of Protective Relaying
It is to cause a prompt removal from service of any element of a power system when it suffers
a short circuit or when it starts to operate in any abnormal manner that might cause damage or
otherwise interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the system. The relaying equipment
is aided in this task by circuit breakers that are capable of disconnecting the faulty element when
they are called upon to do by the relaying equipment.
The basic connections of a protective relay and healthy trip circuit are indicated below
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3.2 The functional requirement of the relay:-
i) Reliability: The most important requisite of protective relay is reliability since they supervise
the circuit for a long time before a fault occurs; if a fault then occurs, the relays
must respond instantly and correctly.
ii)Selectivity: The relay must be able to discriminate (select) between those conditions for which
prompt operation is required and those for which no operation, or time delayed
operation is required.
iii)Sensitivity: The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that it operates reliably
when required under the actual conditions that produces least operating tendency.
iv) Speed : The relay must operate at the required speed. It should neither be too slow which
may result in damage to the equipment nor should it be too fast which may result
in undesired operation.
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3.2 Different Types of panels in use
1 Control Panels 12 Marshalling Boxes

2 Relay Panels 13 MG Panels
3 Control & Relay Panels 14 Machine Panels
4 Synchronising Panels 15 Duplex(HV,LV) combined Panels
5 Communication Panels 16 Bus Zone Protection Panels
6 Annunciation Panels 17 OLTC/RTC Panels (Master Follower)
7 D.C. Distribution Boards 18 RTI Panel
8 A.C Distribution Boards 19 Indoor Panels
9 Charger Panels 20 Outdoor Panels
10 Relay Galleries 21 Panels with mimics & Semaphore indicators for
circuit breaker and isolator status
11 Auxiliary
Control Panels
The general arrangement of protective zones
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3. 4 The types of Relays based on various sensing mechanism are indicated below:
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The basic parameters of the three-phase electrical system are voltage, current, frequency and
power. All these have pre-determined values and/or sequence under healthy conditions. Any shift
from this normal behavior could be the result of a fault condition either at the source end or at
the load end. The relays are devices, which monitor various parameters in various ways and this
chapter gives a brief outline of their principles of operation.
The types of relays can be broadly classified as:
Electromechanical relays
Static relays (analog and digital).
The electromechanical relays had been dominating the electrical protection field until the
use of silicon semiconductor devices, becoming more common. The use of static relays in the
early stages were more due to the advantages like lower weight, non-moving mechanical parts,
reduced wear and tear, etc. However, the initial static relays had not been overwhelmingly
accepted in the electrical field also due to their ‘static’ nature. Further, the reliability of
electronic components in the initial stages had been unsatisfactory due to the quality issues and
their ability (or inability) to withstand source fluctuations and ambient temperature conditions.
However, the reliability of electronic components improved subsequently, and the advent of
digital electronics technology and microprocessor developments gave a completely different
picture to the use of static relays. The earlier analog relays have been slowly replaced with
digital relays, and today’s protection technology is more inclined towards use of digital relays,
though the electromechanical relays are still preferred in certain applications, with cost being one
of the main reasons. The use of static analog relays is not so common.
3.5 Principle of the construction and operation of the

electromechanical IDMTL relay

As the name implies, it is a relay monitoring the current, and has inverse characteristics
with respect to the currents being monitored. This (electromechanical) relay is without doubt one
of the most popular relays used on medium- and low-voltage systems for many years, and
modern digital relays’ characteristics are still mainly based on the torque characteristic of this
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type of relay. Hence, it is worthwhile studying the operation of this relay in detail to understand
the characteristics adopted in the digital relays
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in the secondary winding which in turn sets up a flux in B. Fluxes A and B are out of
phase thus producing a torque in the disk causing it to rotate. Now, speed is proportional
to braking torque, and is proportional to driving torque. Therefore, speed is proportional
to I².
It can be seen that the operating time of an IDMTL relay is inversely proportional to a
function of current, i.e. it has a long operating time at low multiples of setting current and a
relatively short operating time at high multiples of setting current. The characteristic curve is
defined by BS 142 and is shown in below figure. Two adjustments are possible on the relay,
namely:
1. The current pick-up or plug setting: This adjusts the setting current by means of a plug
bridge, which varies the effective turns on the upper electromagnet.
2. The time multiplier setting: This adjusts the operating time at a given multiple of setting
current, by altering by means of the torsion head, the distance that the disk has to travel before
contact is made.
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Power System Protection

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Distance Relays, Step Distance Relaying
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Distance Relays
• Respond to phasor ratio of input voltage &
input current to relay (V/I)
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• They are directional

• They have high speed
• Used to protect transmission lines
• Usually induction cup design
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Construction
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R-X Diagram
• Can use
impedance or R-X
diagram to analyze
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relay operation
1. Plot relay
characteristic
2. Plot impedance
“seen” by the
relay (Z relay)
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Impedance Relay
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Admittance (Mho) Relay

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Offset Mho
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Offset Mho
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Angle Impedance Relay

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Non-Directional
Not appropriate to work alone
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Reactance Relay
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Non-Directional
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Distance Relays
• Operating Time
– Induction Cup: High
Speed
• Adjustments
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– Reach: Tapped
Transformer
• Rises or lowers voltage on
restraining coil
• Range of Z to cover down
the line
– Offset: Tapped Reactor
• For offset Mho, adjust ZT
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Application of Distance Relays to

Transmission Line Protection
• Phase distance relays
• Ground distance relays (will not be
covered)
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• Step distance relays

– Usually 3 zones
• Distance better than overcurrent
– Faster
– Easier coordination
– Permit higher line loading
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System Impedance on Relay Base

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System Impedance on Relay Base

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PT Connections-Phase Distance
Relays
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VLLin 115kV
PTRLL = = = 103
VLLout 115V
VLGin 66.4kV
PTRLG = = = 577 → 600
VLGout 115V
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CT Connection to Op Coils
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Impedances Detected by Phase

Relays
V -Y connected
3 Phase Fault
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Phase-Phase Fault I -Delta

connected
Relay setting
based on Positive
Sequence
Impedance (Z1)
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Step Distance Relaying

Objectives
• Zones of protection
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• Effect of arc resistance

• Effect of infeed
• Methods to reduce size of distance relay
characteristic
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Zones of Protection-3 Zones

Zone 1
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• 3 zones (Primary & Backup)

Purpose: Provide high speed tripping for internal faults
• Relay must be set to underreach
• Does not cover entire line
• Zone 1 settings:
– Reach:80-90%
– Time: No time delay
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Zones of Protection
Zone 2
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Purpose: Cover remaining 10-20% of AB segment

• Zone 2 must reach beyond B
• Will detect faults on CD segment
• Must have time delay
– Reach:120%
– Time: 0.2-0.4 seconds
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Zones of
Protection
Zone 3
Equivalent Relays at B and D looking on the other direction

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Purpose: Provides Backup protection for faults on

adjacent line
• Do not set such that load can cause a trip
– Reach:120% of ZAB+ZCD
– Time: 0.4-1.0 seconds
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Three Zones of Protection Using

Mho Relays
GCY - GE Mho
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• Advantage
– Lots of fault coverage
• Disadvantage
– Characteristic gets
close to ZLOAD
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Relay Characteristic Vs Arc

Resistance
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• illustrates increase RF coverage with mho relay (GCY)

& reactance relay (GCX)
– O1 & M3 operate - Zone 1
– O2 & M3 operate – Zone 2
– M3 operate – Zone 3
– M1 – Zone1 using mho
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Zone 3 Setting with Infeed

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Zone 3 Setting with Infeed

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danger
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Use of Blinders where Impedance

may cause incorrect tripping
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Zone 3 so big
that ZLOAD gets
inside of it
Angle Impedance
relays to blind
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Reverse Third Zone

ZAB+ZCDIF/IA
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Reverse Third Zone

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Load
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Admittance Relay Settings

• Reach: Diameter of Mho
Circle
– Maximum Z that makes
relay operate
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Admittance Relay Settings

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• t varies from 0.10 to 1.00 (t higher, smaller circle)

• k is called Basic Minimum Reach is adjustable
• Angle of maximum torque is adjustable
• Offset is adjustable
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Impedances Detected by all Relays

During B-C Fault
B-C Relay
A-B Relay
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C-A Relay
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Impedances Detected by all Relays

During B-C Fault
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Power System Protection

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Electromagnetic Induction Relays
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Basic Operation
• Operating force produced by out-of-phase
fluxes
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• Force turns a rotor

• Rotor causes a movable contact to rotate
& touch a stationary contact
Transmission line protection
•Overcurrent relays- time & instantaneous w/
directional
•Distance relays
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Induction Disk Relay

(single quantity)
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Induction Disk Relay-Top View

(single quantity)
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Operation for Steady State AC
φ1 = 2Φ1 sin(ωt )
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φ2 = 2Φ 2 sin(ωt + θ )
φ1 + φ2 = φOP α NiOP
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By Lenz’s
Law, currents
are induced
as to oppose
the fluxes
(Eddie
Currents)
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M=F x r
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Operating Force
φ1 = 2Φ1 sin(ωt )
φ2 = 2Φ 2 sin(ωt + θ )
Each flux pierces rotor & induces voltage which
causes current to flow, therefore AC only.
dφ1
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iφ1 α α Φ1 cos(ωt )
dt
dφ
iφ 2 α 2 α Φ 2 cos(ωt + θ ), dF = idl × B
dt
F α φ ⋅i
FOP = F2 − F1
FOP α φ2 ⋅ iφ 2 − φ1 ⋅ iφ1
FOP α Φ1Φ 2 (sin(ωt + θ ) cos(ωt ) − sin(ωt ) cos(ωt + θ ))
FOP α Φ1Φ 2 sin(θ ) Important when designing a relay
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Operating Force
FOP α Φ1Φ 2 sin(θ )
Design angle is fixed, therefore a
constant force
Φ1 = Φ 2 α NiOP
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iOP = 2 I OP sin(ωt + θ )
FNET = k I N 2 I OP
2
− kS
At pick-up
FNET = 0 = k I N 2 I OP
2
− kS
1 kS
I OP = = I PU
N kI
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Definition
• Pick-up occurs when
FOP>FRES
• IPU is the current at which
this occurs
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FOP α φ 2 FOP = kφφ 2

φ α NI OP therefore FOP α ( NI OP )2
• Can obtain same FOP with
different combinations of
N and IPU
• Operating coil is tapped
so that pick-up can occur
at different values of IOP
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Settings
• To change induction
disk settings
– Change N and I
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Example:
FOP = kφ ( NI OP )
2
FOP=100 units of pick-up
k=1
NI=1x10
=2x5
=5x2
=10x1
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Time Dial
(Inverse Time)
Is a means to control the time of operation
• A dial which changes the starting position
of the moving contact
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– Low Time Dial

• Moving contact starts near the stationary contact
• Short operating time
– High Time Dial
• Moving contact starts far from stationary contact
• Long operating time
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General Operating Characteristics

of Inverse Time Relays
FNET depends on IOP/IPU

As well as Operating time
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Inverse Time Curves

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Device # 51
I OP I OP
I MPU = = αφ
I PU I TAP
and
Fαφ2
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How long to pick-up?

Time Dial (TD)=3
ITAP = 2
IMPU = 9
_____ seconds
IOP= ____ A
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Curves asymptotic to IPU 58 www.smartzworld.com
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(1 multiple of PU)
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Summary-Induction Disk Unit

Advantages
• A smooth torque on AC with no vibration
• Various Time vs. Current characteristics
available
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• Can be made to operate from

– one quantity
– sum or differences of quantities
– sine of angle between fluxes
• Can be operated continuously picked up
• High drop out (IDO = 0.95IPU)
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Summary-Induction Disk Unit

Advantages
• May be directionally controlled
• Pick-up same on offset waves as on symmetrical
AC wave
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Disadvantages
• Can not be used on DC
• Operating value effected by frequency
• Reset time is long
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4 Pole Cup Type Relay

Since I1 and I2 has different
angles (out of phase) the
cup moves without shading
rings.
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•Two quantity relay

•Used for Directional
and Distance relays
•Instantaneous
applications
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Summary-Induction Cup Unit

(4 pole or 8 pole type)
Advantages
• A smooth torque on AC with no vibration
• High Speed
• Various Time vs. Current characteristics
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available
• Can be made to operate from
– one quantity
– sum or differences of two quantities
– product of two quantities times the sine of angle
between fluxes produced by such quantities
• Can be operated continuously picked up
• High drop out (IDO = 0.95IPU)
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Summary-Induction Cup Unit

(4 pole or 8 pole type)
Advantages
• May be directionally controlled
• Pick-up same on offset waves as on symmetrical
AC wave
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• Stable characteristics
• Rugged construction
Disadvantages
• Can not be used on DC
• Operating value effected by frequency
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Directional Relays
• Two major types of directional relays
– Current-current
– Current-voltage
• Operating & polarizing quantities

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• Oper. Principles & torque equation

• Polarizing quantities used in protective relays
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Construction & Application

• Construction
– Electromagnetic induction
– Usually induction cup, high speed
• Application
– Often used with overcurrent relay to give sense of
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direction
Overcurrent Overcurent Overcurrent 67

relays relays with relays 50
sense of
direction
Logical
cond.
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Operating principle
• Recall for single
Phase angle between fluxes
quantity
FOP = kφ Φ1Φ 2 sin(θφ )
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shaded unshaded
• 2 fluxes produced
from 1 operating
quantity
• For a 2 quantities:
Φ1 produced by I1 (operating )
Φ 2 produced by I 2 ( polarizing )
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Single vs. Two Quantity Relays

• Single quantity relays (overcurrent, overvoltage)
– Phase angle between fluxes is fixed
– Magnitude of flux (current) produces operating torque
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– Spring produces restraining torque

• Two quantity relays
– Phase angle between fluxes is variable
– Phase angle between fluxes produces +, - or 0 torque
• Responds to phase angle. It can discriminate if fault is
external or internal
– Relay responds to direction of current in the circuit
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Current-Current Directional
Operating quantity is I1 (current)
Polarizing quantity is I2 (current)
T = kφ Φ1Φ 2 sin θφ
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Between coil fluxes
T = k I I1 I 2 sin θ , θ = θφ
•Maximum torque at 90 degrees (TMAX)
Between input currents •Would like to get TMAX at other

angles, since I1 & I2 not always at 90
degrees
•Can get this by phase shifting Coil
Current
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hanging Max Torque Angle

R = XL , θφ ≠ θ
R
I 2C = I2
R + jX L
R
I 2C = I2
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2 R∠45° Current
I 2C = kI 2 ∠ − 45° division
T = kΦ1Φ 2C sin θφ
operating
T = k I I1 I 2C sin θφ
θφ = θ − (−45°) = θ + 45°
I 2C = kI 2 , k I' = kk I polarizing
T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(θ + 45°)

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General Current-Current
Directional Relay Max torque for I 1
T = k I I sin(θ − φ )
'
I 1 2
θ − φ = θΦ
I1 →
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Operating quantity
I2 → Polarizing quantity
I 2C → Current in polarizing coil
φ → Design angle-between I and I 2 2C
θ → Between I and I 1 2
Not given
τ → Between I and I for max. torque

1 2
Given
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General Current-Current
Directional Relay
Max torque
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T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(θ − φ )
τ − φ = 90° ⇒ φ = τ − 90°
T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(θ − (τ − 90°))
T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(90° + (θ − τ ))
T = k I' I1 I 2 cos(θ − τ )
TNET = TOP − TRES = TOP − k S spring
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Operating Characteristic
T = k I' I1 I 2 cos(θ − τ )
T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(θ Φ )
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variable
θΦ θ −τ TOP
90 0 max+ Contacts closing

+ Contacts closing
0 < θ Φ < 180 − 90 < θ − τ < 90
0 or 180 90 or -90 0
- Contacts opening
− 180 < θ Φ < 0 90 < θ − τ < 270
-90 180 max - Contacts opening

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Current-Voltage Directional Relay

•Current-operating
•Voltage-polarizing
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T = Φ1Φ 2C sin(θ − φ )
φ1 proportional to I1
φ2C proportional to I 2C
T = k I I1 I 2C sin(θ − φ )
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Current-Voltage Directional Relay

θ→ Angle between I1 and V
φ→ Design angle between V and I2C

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τ→ Angle between I1 and V which

produces maximum torque
T = kV I1V sin(90 + (θ − τ ))
T = kV I1V cos(θ − τ )
TNET = kV I1V cos(θ − τ ) − k S
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Ideal Polarizing Quantities

• Internal fault directional relay must develop
contact closing torque
– Positive torque to operate
• External fault directional relay must develop
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contact opening torque

– Negative torque to operate
• Operating current reverses direction
• Polarizing quantity must have constant phase
angle
Phase Current (line current)-operating quantity
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Directional Overcurrent Relays for

Ground Fault Protection
• Can be polarized by:
– Current
– Voltage
– Current & Voltage
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In Transmission Lines, separate relays protect

phase faults and ground faults
•Phase relays- protect against any fault not
involving ground
•3 phase & phase to phase faults
•Ground relays- protect against faults
involving ground
•1 phase to ground faults
•Phase-phase to ground
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Polarizing Quantities for Directional

Relays (Current)
•Ground Relays
•Zero sequence current polarization for
directional ground relays
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Polarizing
quantity
•Delta-Wye grounded power transformer
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Polarizing Quantities for Directional

Relays (Voltage)
•Ground Relays
•Zero sequence voltage polarization for
directional ground relays
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•Wye grounded primary, open-delta

secondary potential transformers (PT)
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Directional Phase Relays

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•Polarizing voltages used for directional phase relays

•Quantities shown are for one of the 3 needed relays
•For faults involving phases A & B
•IA is the operating quantity, V is polarizing
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Directional Phase Relays

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Quad Connection
Faulted Phases Operating Polarizing
Quantity Quantity
Note: VA can’t be used
A-B Relay IA VBC since a fault in Phase
A gives VA=0
B-C Relay IB VCA
C-A Relay IC VAB
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PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

3.1 Function of Protective Relaying

3.2 The functional requirement of the relay:-

3.2 Different Types of panels in use

1 Control Panels 12 Marshalling Boxes

The general arrangement of protective zones

The types of relays can be broadly classified as:

3.5 Principle of the construction and operation of the

Power System Protection

Distance Relays, Step Distance Relaying

• They are directional

Admittance (Mho) Relay

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Angle Impedance Relay

Application of Distance Relays to

• Step distance relays

System Impedance on Relay Base

System Impedance on Relay Base

Impedances Detected by Phase

Phase-Phase Fault I -Delta

Step Distance Relaying

• Effect of arc resistance

Zones of Protection-3 Zones

• 3 zones (Primary & Backup)

Purpose: Cover remaining 10-20% of AB segment

Equivalent Relays at B and D looking on the other direction

Purpose: Provides Backup protection for faults on

Three Zones of Protection Using

Relay Characteristic Vs Arc

• illustrates increase RF coverage with mho relay (GCY)

Zone 3 Setting with Infeed

Zone 3 Setting with Infeed

Use of Blinders where Impedance

Reverse Third Zone

Reverse Third Zone

Admittance Relay Settings

Admittance Relay Settings

• t varies from 0.10 to 1.00 (t higher, smaller circle)

Impedances Detected by all Relays

Impedances Detected by all Relays

Power System Protection

Electromagnetic Induction Relays

• Force turns a rotor

Induction Disk Relay

Induction Disk Relay-Top View

Operation for Steady State AC

FOP α φ 2 FOP = kφφ 2

– Low Time Dial

General Operating Characteristics

FNET depends on IOP/IPU

Inverse Time Curves

How long to pick-up?

Summary-Induction Disk Unit

• Can be made to operate from

Summary-Induction Disk Unit

4 Pole Cup Type Relay

•Two quantity relay

Summary-Induction Cup Unit

Summary-Induction Cup Unit

• Operating & polarizing quantities

• Oper. Principles & torque equation

Construction & Application