POTENTIAL FOR DRIP AND SPRINKLER IRRIGATION IN INDIA

A. NARAYANAMOORTHY*

Abstract

The water use efficiency under conventional flood method of irrigation, which is
predominantly practised in Indian agriculture, is very low due to substantial conveyance
and distribution losses. Recognizing the fast decline of irrigation water potential and
increasing demand for water from different sectors, a number of demand management
strategies and programmes have been introduced to save water and increase the existing
water use efficiency in Indian agriculture. One such method introduced relatively recently
in Indian agriculture is micro-irrigation, which includes both drip and sprinkler method of
irrigation. Micro-irrigation (MI) is proved to be an efficient method in saving water and
increasing water use efficiency as compared to the conventional surface method of
irrigation, where water use efficiency is only about 35-40 percent. Though both drip and
sprinkler irrigation methods are in use over the last two decades or so, not many studies
seem to have studied the potential and prospects of micro-irrigation covering different
states in India. In this study, therefore, an attempt is made to (a) study the current research
on micro-irrigation, (b) study the past trends in drip and sprinkler irrigated area across
states, (c) analyse the efficiency of drip and sprinkler irrigation, (d) estimate the potential
area for drip and sprinkler irrigation in different states and (e) study the reasons for the
slow adoption of micro irrigation as well as to suggest policy/technical interventions for
increasing the adoption of WSTs in the future.

This study shows that the benefits of micro-irrigation in terms of water saving and
productivity gains are substantial in comparison to the same crops cultivated under flood
method of irrigation. Micro-irrigation is also found to be reducing energy (electricity)
requirement, weed problems, soil erosion and cost of cultivation. Investment in micro-
irrigation also appears to be economically viable, even without availing State subsidy.
Despite this, as of today, the coverage of drip (2.13 percent) and sprinkler (3.30 percent)
method of irrigation is very meager to its total potential, which is estimated to be 21.01
million hectares for drip and 50.22 million hectares of sprinkler irrigation method. It is
identified that slow spread of MI is not mainly due to economic reasons, but due to less
awareness among the farmers about the real economic and revenue-related benefits of it.
Therefore, apart from promotional schemes, the study suggests various technical and
policy interventions for increasing the adoption of these two water saving technologies.

* - Dr. A. Narayanamoorthy is working as Reader, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics

(Deemed University), Pune – 411 004, India. Tel: +91-20-25650287/25654288; Fax: 25652579;
E-mail: na_narayana@hotmail.com

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 POTENTIAL FOR DRIP AND SPRINKLER IRRIGATION IN INDIA
A. NARAYANAMOORTHY

1. Introduction:

Studies carried out across different countries including India have confirmed that
irrigation plays a paramount role in increasing the use of yield increasing inputs and
enhancing cropping intensity as well as productivity of crops (Dhawan, 1988;
Vaidyanathan, et al., 1994). Apart from benefiting the farmers, irrigation development
also helps to increase the employment opportunities and wage rate of the agricultural
landless labourers, both of which are essential to reduce the poverty among the landless
labour households (Saleth, 2004; Narayanamoorthy, 2001a; Bhattarai and
Narayanamoorthy, 2003; Narayanamoorthy and Deshpande, 2003). However, water is
becoming increasingly scarce worldwide due to various reasons (Rosegrant, et al., 2002).
With the fast decline of irrigation water potential and continued expansion of population
and economic activity in most of the countries located in arid and semi-arid regions, the
problems of water scarcity is expected to be aggravated further (see, Biswas, 1993 and
2001; Rosegrant, 1997; Rosegrant, et al., 2002). Macro-level estimate carried out by the
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, indicates that one-third of
the world population would face absolute water scarcity by the year 2025 (Seckler, et al.,
1998; Seckler, et al., 1999). As per this estimate, the worst affected areas would be the
semi-arid regions of Asia, the Middle-East and Sub-Saharan Africa, all of which are
already having heavy concentration of population living below poverty line.

In spite of having the largest irrigated area in the world, India too has started facing
sever water scarcity in different regions. Owing to various reasons the demand for water
for different purposes has been continuously increasing in India, but the potential water
available for future use has been declining at a faster rate (Saleth, 1996; CWC, 2005).
The agricultural sector (irrigation), which currently consumes over 80 percent of the
available water in India, continues to be the major water-consuming sector due to the
intensification of agriculture (see, Saleth, 1996; MOWR, 1999, Iyer, 2003). Though India
has the largest irrigated area in the world, the coverage of irrigation is only about 40
percent of the gross cropped area as of today. One of the main reasons for the low
coverage of irrigation is the predominant use of flood (conventional) method of irrigation,
where water use efficiency is very low due to various reasons. Available estimates indicate
that water use efficiency under flood method of irrigation is only about 35 to 40 percent
because of huge conveyance and distribution losses (Rosegrant, 1997; INCID, 1994).

Considering the water availability for future use and the increasing demand for
water from different sectors, a number of demand management strategies and programmes
(water pricing, warabandhi, waters users’ association, etc) have been introduced since late
seventies in India to increase the water use efficiency, especially in the use of surface
irrigation water. While the various strategies introduced to improve the water use
efficiency have been continuing, the net impact of these strategies in increasing the water
use efficiency is not very impressive as of today. One of the demand management
strategies introduced relatively recently to control water consumption in Indian agriculture
is micro irrigation (MI), which includes mainly drip and sprinkler irrigation method.
Under micro-irrigation, unlike flood method of irrigation (FMI), water is supplied at a

2
required interval and quantity using pipe network, emitters and nozzles. Therefore, the
conveyance and distribution losses are reduced completely which result in higher water
use efficiency under MI.

Though both drip and sprinkler irrigation method of irrigation are treated as MI,
there are distinct characteristics differences between the two in terms of flow rate, pressure
requirement, wetted area and mobility (Kulkarni, 2005). While drip method supplies
water directly to the root zone of the crop through a network of pipes with the help of
emitters, sprinkler irrigation method (SIM) sprinkles water similar to rainfall into the air
through nozzles which subsequently break into small water drops and fall on the field
surface. Unlike flood irrigation method, DIM supplies water directly to the root zone of
the crop, instead of land, and therefore, the water losses occurring through evaporation and
distribution are completely absent (INCID, 1994, Narayanamoorthy, 1996; 1997; Dhawan,
2002). The on-farm irrigation efficiency of properly designed and managed drip irrigation
system is estimated to be about 90 percent, while the same is only about 35 to 40 percent
for surface method of irrigation (INCID, 1994). In sprinkler irrigation method, water
saving is relatively low (up to 70 percent) as compared to drip irrigation since SIM
supplies water over the entire field of the crop (INCID, 1998; Kulkarni, 2005).

Micro-irrigation is introduced primarily to save water and increase the water use
efficiency in agriculture. However, it also delivers many other economic and social
benefits to the society. Reduction in water consumption due to drip method of irrigation
over the surface method of irrigation varies from 30 to 70 percent for different crops
(INCID, 1994, Narayanamoorthy, 1997; Postal, 2001). According to data available from
research stations, productivity gain due to use of micro-irrigation is estimated to be in
the range of 20 to 90 percent for different crops (see, INCID, 1994; 1998). While
increasing the productivity of crops significantly, it also reduces weed problems, soil
erosion and cost of cultivation substantially, especially in labour-intensive operations.
The reduction in water consumption in micro-irrigation also reduces the energy use
(electricity) that is required to lift water from irrigation wells (see, Narayanamoorthy,
1995 and 2001).

India has enormous potential for both DIM and for SIM. Two of the INCID
(1994 and 1998) reports, which present an overview about the development of drip
irrigation and sprinkler irrigation in India indicate that about 80 crops, both narrow and
widely spaced crops, can be grown under micro-irrigation. Although DIM is considered
to be highly suitable for wide spaced and high value commercial crops, it is also being
used for cultivating oilseeds, pulses, cotton and even for wheat crop (INCID, 1994).
Closely grown crops such as millets, pulses, wheat, sugarcane, groundnut, cotton,
vegetables, fruits, flowers, spices and condiments have been found to be suitable to
cultivate under sprinkler irrigation. Importantly, an experimental study suggests that
sprinkler irrigation can also be used successfully even for cultivating paddy crop
(Kundu, et al., 1998).

Micro-irrigation can also be adopted in all kind of lands, which is not generally
possible through flood irrigation method. Research suggests that DIM is not only
suitable for those areas that are presently under cultivation, but it can also be operated
efficiently in undulating terrain, rolling topography, hilly areas, barren land and areas
which have shallow soils (Sivanappan, 1994). Given the population growth and
increasing requirement of agricultural commodities, there is a need to increase the area

3
under cultivation. Micro-irrigation can be one of the viable options for expanding area
under cultivation.

In spite of having many economic and other advantages over the method of flood
irrigation, the coverage of area under micro-irrigation is not appreciable in India, except
for a few states as of today. While DIM has been in practice since early seventies in India,
SIM has been in use over since mid-seventies. However, an appreciable improvement in
the adoption of DMI has taken place only from the eighties, mainly because of various
promotional programmes introduced by the Central and State governments. The area
under DMI has increased from a mere 1500 ha in 1985 to 70,859 ha in 1991-92 and
further to 5,00,000 ha as of March 2003 (INCID, 1994; GOI, 2004). Similarly, the area
under SIM has increased from 0.23 mha in 1985-86 to 0.67 mha in 1997-98 and further to
1.63 mha in 2004-05. Though remarkable growth has been achieved over the last 15 years
in adopting micro-irrigation, its share to the gross irrigated area of the country is only
negligible percent as of today. Among the various reasons for the slow progress of
adoption of this new technology, its capital-intensive nature seems to be one of the main
deterrent factors. Micro-irrigation technology requires fixed investment that varies from
Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 55,000 per hectare depending upon the nature of crops (wide or narrow
spaced) and the material to be used for the system. Since the Indian farmers have been
getting water for low cost from the public irrigation system and also from well irrigation
(because of free and flat-rate electricity tariff), there is less incentive to them to adopt this
capital-intensive technology unless it is necessary. Moreover, since it involves fixed
investment, farmers often ask questions like what will be the water saving and
productivity gains? Is investment on drip irrigation economically viable? What will be the
pay back period of the drip investment? These issues are raised because of the following
two reasons. First, the awareness of the farmers about this technology is very low due to
poor extension service. Second, most of the studies available on micro-irrigation in India
is based on experimental data collected from different regions, which generally do not
present the field level position (see, Verma and Rao, 1998; INCID, 1994; Dhawan, 2002).
Some of the studies have shown that the results derived from research station data are
substantially different from that of survey data (see, Narayanamoorthy, 1997; 2001; 2005).
In the absence of reliable field studies, it is difficult to judge the actual economic viability
of drip method of irrigation

In spite of the fact that micro-irrigation is economically viable and environmentally

feasible, but not many studies seem to have attempted to study the potential and prospects
of drip and sprinkler irrigation covering different states in India at the macro-level. In this
study, using the available secondary information, an attempt is made to study the
followings: (a) the current research on micro-irrigation, (b) the past trends of drip and
sprinkler irrigated area across states, (c) efficiency of drip and sprinkler irrigation, (d)
potential area for drip and sprinkler irrigation in different states and (e) the reasons for the
slow adoption of micro irrigation as well as to suggest policy/technical interventions for
increasing adoption of WSTs in the future.

The paper is organised into seven sections. Following introduction, section two
presents the current research on drip and sprinkler irrigation in India. A discussion on the
past trends in area under micro-irrigation across different States in India as well as its
coverage in different crops is presented in section three. While the efficiency (conveyance
and application) of micro-irrigation is presented in section four, an estimate on potential
area for SIM and DIM from different States is presented in section five. The reasons for

4
slow adoption of micro-irrigation and the required policy/technical interventions for
increasing the adoption in future are discussed in section six. A brief conclusion is
presented in the last section.

2. Research on Water Saving Technologies:

Considering the limited potential of water resources as well as growing demand for
water from different purposes, it has become essential to adopt Water Saving
Technologies (WSTs) so as to avoid the water stress in the future. It has been proved by
studies that drip and sprinkler method of irrigation helps to save water and improves water
use efficiency (INCID, 1994 and 1998). While reducing water consumption, it also
reduces substantial amount of electricity required for irrigation purpose, by reducing
working hours of irrigation pumpsets (Narayanamoorthy, 1996; 2004). Over the last ten
years or so, quite a few scholars have researched the impact of WSTs on water use pattern,
productivity gain and other parameters, either by using farm level data or experimental
research data. In this section, we present the findings of the research studies that have
been carried out particularly in the Indian context.

Research on Drip Irrigation:

Considering the importance of drip method of irrigation in the sustainable use of

irrigation water, efforts are being made to propagate the adoption of DIM from 1970
onwards in India (INCID, 1994). Special subsidy schemes were introduced during the
eighties by the central and state governments for promoting this technology since DIM is
considered to be a relatively capital-intensive technology. Though studies using field
level data are rarely available focusing water use efficiency and water saving of DIM,
many research stations situated in different parts of the country have evaluated the water
saving capacity of DIM for different crops. We have presented the water requirements,
saving of water and water use efficiency under DIM and FIM for different crops in Table
1 based on the data from experimental stations.

For the purpose of analysis, we have divided the crops into three groups as
vegetable crops, fruit crops and other commercial crops. This is done specifically to
understand how the saving of water varies across different crop groups. The water saving
capacity of DIM is expected to be different for various crops as the consumption and the
requirement of water varies from crop to crop. As expected, the water saving for
vegetable crops varies from 12 percent to 84 percent per hectare over the conventional
method of irrigation. Similarly, water saving varies from 45 percent to 81 percent per
hectare in fruit crops. In crops like cotton, coconut and groundnut, water saving varies
from 40 percent to 60 percent per hectare. Importantly, water saving in sugarcane, which
is one of the water-intensive crops, is over 65 percent per hectare when compared to
conventional method of irrigation.

Similarly, the experimental studies carried out by the Precision Farming

Development Centre (PDCs) also clearly demonstrate that water saving due to DIM is
substantial over the method of surface irrigation in different crops (GOI, 2004). There are
three main reasons for enormous water saving under drip method of irrigation. First, since
water is supplied through a network of pipes, the evaporation and distribution losses of
water are very minimum or completely absent under DIM. Second, unlike FIM, water is
supplied under DIM at a required time and required level and thus, over-irrigation is

5
totally avoided. Third, under the conventional method of irrigation, water is supplied for
the whole cropland, whereas DIM irrigates only the plants. Though the results of the
experimental data discussed above clearly suggest that water saving due to DIM is
substantial, one cannot completely rely on these results because the conditions that are
prevailing under experimental stations are totally different from that of the farmers’ field.

Table1: Water Saving and Productivity Gains under Drip Method of Irrigation: India.
Water Yield (tonne/ha) Water Yield Water Use
Crop’s Name Consumption Saving Increase Efficiency
(mm/ha) over FIM over FIM (yield/ha)/(mm/ha)
FIM DIM FIM DIM (%) (%) FIM DIM
Vegetables:
Ash gourd 840 740 10.84 12.03 12 12 0.013 0.016
Bottle gourd 840 740 38.01 55.79 12 47 0.045 0.075
Brinjal 900 420 28.00 32.00 53 14 0.031 0.076
Beet root 857 177 4.57 4.89 79 7 0.005 0.028
Sweet potato 631 252 4.24 5.89 61 40 0.007 0.023
Potato 200 200 23.57 34.42 Nil 46 0.118 0.172
Lady’s finger 535 86 10.00 11.31 84 13 0.019 0.132
Onion 602 451 9.30 12.20 25 31 0.015 0.027
Radish 464 108 1.05 1.19 77 13 0.002 0.011
Tomato 498 107 6.18 8.87 79 43 0.012 0.083
Chillies 1097 417 4.23 6.09 62 44 0.004 0.015
Ridge gourd 420 172 17.13 20.00 59 17 0.041 0.116
Cabbage 660 267 19.58 20.00 60 2 0.030 0.075
Cauliflower 389 255 8.33 11.59 34 39 0.021 0.045
Fruit Crops:
Papaya 2285 734 13.00 23.00 68 77 0.006 0.031
Banana 1760 970 57.50 87.50 45 52 0.033 0.090
Grapes 532 278 26.40 32.50 48 23 0.050 0.117
Lemon 42 8 1.88 2.52 81 35 0.045 0.315
Watermelon 800 800 29.47 88.23 Nil 179 0.037 0.110
Mosambi* 1660 640 100.00 150.00 61 50 0.060 0.234
Pomegranate* 1440 785 55.00 109.00 45 98 0.038 0.139
Other Crops:
Sugarcane 2150 940 128.00 170.00 65 33 0.060 0.181
Cotton 856 302 2.60 3.26 60 25 0.003 0.011
Coconut -- -- -- -- 60 12 -- --
Groundnut 500 300 1.71 2.84 40 66 0.003 0.009
Notes: * - yield in 1000 numbers
Sources: INCID (1994) and NCPA (1990).

Apart from reducing water consumption, drip method of irrigation also helps
reducing cost of cultivation and improving productivity of crops as compared to the same
crops cultivated under flood method of irrigation. Quite a few studies have attempted to
study the impact of drip method of irrigation on productivity of crops, mainly using
experimental data. INCID (1994) report presents the results of various crops carried out at
different locations in the country (see, Table 1). It shows that the productivity of different
crops is significantly higher under DIM when compared to FIM. Productivity increase
due to drip method of irrigation is noticed over 40 percent in vegetable crops such as
bottle gourd, potato, onion, tomato and chillies, whereas the same is noticed over 70
percent in many fruit crops. Productivity difference is also found to be over 33 percent in
sugarcane cultivated under DIM over the same crop cultivated under FIM. Specific
experiments carried out at Punjabrao Krishi Vidyapeeth (Akola, Maharashtra State) on

6
vegetable crops such as cauliflower, tomato and brinjal also suggest that productivity
enhancement due to DIM is substantial. Similar kinds of results have also been noted at
different experimental stations located in different states.1

Table 2: Field Survey Results of Drip Irrigation: Banana, Grapes and Sugarcane
Crop’s Method of Irrigation Benefit over FIM
Particulars Name DIM FIM In percent In value
Water Consumption (HP/hours/ha) Banana 7884.70 11130.30 29.20 3245.60
Grapes 3310.40 5278.40 37.30 1968.00
Sugarcane 1767.00 3179.98 44.43 1412.98
Productivity (quintal/ha) Banana 679.50 526.35 29.10 153.20
Grapes 243.25 204.29 19.10 38.96
Sugarcane 1383.60 1124.40 23.05 259.20
Electricity Consumption (Kwh/ha) Banana 5913.33 8347.75 29.16 2434.42
Grapes 2482.77 3958.78 37.28 1476.01
Sugarcane 1325.25 2384.99 44.43 1059.74
Water Use Efficiency (HP hours/quintal) Banana 11.60 21.10 45.10 9.50
Grapes 13.60 25.80 47.30 12.20
Sugarcane 1.28 2.83 5.48 1.55
Cost of Cultivation (Rs/ha) Banana 51437 52740 2.50 1303
Grapes 134506 147915 9.10 13409
Sugarcane 41993 48540 13.49 6547
Gross Income (Rs/ha) Banana 134044 102935 30.22 31109
Grapes 247817 211038 17.40 36779
Sugarcane 106366 85488 24.00 20878
Capital Cost of Drip-set (Rs/ha) Banana 33595 -- -- --
(without subsidy) Grapes 32721
Sugarcane 52811 -- -- --
Net Present Worth (Rs/ha)* Banana 241753 -- -- --
(without subsidy) Grapes 540240
Sugarcane 169896 -- -- --
Banana 2.288 -- -- --
Benefit-Cost Ratio* Sugarcane 1.909
(without subsidy) Grapes 1.767 -- -- --
Notes: Banana and grapes data relate to the year 1993-94 and sugarcane data relate to the year
1998-99; * - 15 percent of discount rate is considered for computing benefit cost ratio.
Source: Computed using Narayanamoorthy (1996; 1997 and 2001).
A number of studies have also been carried out in the context of sugarcane using
experimental data, which have found a substantial water saving and productivity gains due
to drip method of irrigation in sugarcane cultivation (Venugopal and Rajkumar, 1998;
Dash, 1998; Sankpal, et al., 1998; Dhonde and Banger, 1998; Deshmukh, et al., 1998;
Hapase, et al., 1992; Batta and Singh, 1998; Parikh et al., 1993). Single cane weight, cane
girth, cane length, number of inter-nodes, leaf length and leaf breadth were also found to
be higher with sugarcane cultivated under drip method of irrigation when compared to that
cultivated under flood method of irrigation (Venugopal and Rajkumar, 1998). Because of
less moisture stress under DMI, the recovery rate of sugarcane cultivated under DMI was
found to be higher when compared to the crop cultivated using FIM (Sankpal, et al., 1998;
Dhonde and Banger, 1998; Banger, 1998). Importantly, a study carried out on heavy soils
and sub-humid climatic conditions of South Gujarat region suggests that a large scale
adoption of drip method of irrigation in sugarcane in South Gujarat area can help to solve

1
The results of experiments carried out in different locations and in various crops are available in INCID
(1994 and 1998) and Narayanamoorthy (2005).

7
the problem of water logging and secondary salinization which are increasing in this
region (Parikh, et al., 1993).

It is clear from the above that the adoption of drip method of irrigation in crop
cultivation not only increases water saving and productivity of crops but also reduces the
cost of cultivation and weed problems. Importantly, DIM also helps to increase the
germination of seed (cane) and the recovery rate of sugarcane. Though drip method of
irrigation is proved to be an effective technology for increasing crop productivity, one can
always question the credibility of the results of research station based studies as the
conditions prevailing at farmers’ field are totally different from research station where
trails are carried out. However, studies available based on filed level data also suggest that
drip irrigation is economically suitable for different crops. A few studies carried out using
farm level data in high value crops like banana, grapes and sugarcane also suggest that
DIM increases water use efficiency, productivity and reduces cost of cultivation for
different operations (see, Table 2) Significant amount of saving in electricity use due DIM
has also been observed using field data. Importantly, these field based studies found that
the investment in drip irrigation technologies is economically viable for farmers even at 15
percent discount rate, without availing subsidy from government (Narayanamoorthy,
1996, 1997, 2001).

Research on Sprinkler Irrigation:

Among the two micro-irrigation technologies, the research on sprinkler irrigation

appears to have not much developed as compared to drip irrigation (Dhawan, 2002). In
fact, unlike drip irrigation method, studies using field level data (published in standard
journals for Indian context) are seldom available. Most of the studies are mainly used
experimental data for its analysis, which of course may not completely reflect the farm
level condition.

The available results suggests that yield improvement and water saving in sprinkler
irrigation is less striking, though the picture does vary considerably across crops and
across space (Dhawan, 2002). This can be seen from the results of experimental data
presented in INCID (1998) report pertaining to 15 crops carried out in different locations
in India. The crops are grouped into three categories namely foodgrains, oilseeds and
other crops for the purpose of comparison. Except for a few crops reported in Table 3,
considerable amount of water saving and yield improvement has been noted in all other
crops. Not surprisingly, water saving due to SIM is found to be relatively higher among
foodgrain crops, whereas relatively higher yield gain is observed in oilseed crops.
Sugarcane, a water-intensive crop, does not show any impressive result in terms of water
saving and yield gain due to the adoption of SIM, implying that the sugarcane is not very
much suitable for cultivation under SIM. Similarly, cotton crop also shows not substantial
gain due to the adoption of SIM.

A large number of individual evaluation studies on sprinkler irrigation have also

been carried out in different crops. Let us briefly understand the impact of SIM in each
crop. Using three years experimental data, a study was carried out in Udaipur district of
Rajasthan on MAIZE and WHEAT crops to know the economic feasibility of SIM. The result
of the study shows the average incremental yield in maize and wheat was 4.45 and 6.95
percent respectively over flood irrigation method (FIM). Water saving due to SIM was
14.48 and 16.89 percent respectively for maize and wheat (Acharyna et al., 1993).

8
Similarly, another experimental result of three year trail conducted in Gujarat with winter
MAIZE indicates the superiority of sprinkler irrigation over flood irrigation method. The
trail shows about 40 percent of water saving and 30 percent of productivity gain over the
conventional method of irrigation (Patel, et al., 1993).

In order to find out the relative economics of SIM over FIM in FENUGREEK crop, a
three year trail was conducted in North Gujarat. The study shows that under the
conditions of normal water availability, the use of SIM can result in 29 percent water
saving along with 35 percent yield increase. Importantly for farmers, the net income per
mm of water used rose from Rs. 2.80 with surface method to Rs. 9.57 with sprinkler
method of irrigation (Mehta, et al., 1993).

Table 3: Farm Research Data on Sprinkler Irrigation in Comparison to Conventional Surface Irrigation
Irrigation water Water Use efficiency Benefits over
Crops Location Yield (q/ha) (cm) (q\ha\cm) FIM (%)
FIM SIM FIM SIM FIM SIM water Yield
1. Wheat Rahuri 32.41 36.39 35.00 20.25 0.93 1.79 42.14 12.28
Udaipur 26.61 33.02 33.02 14.52 0.81 2.27 56.03 24.09
Hissar 44.80 48.70 33.94 32.68 1.32 1.49 3.89 8.70
2. Bajra Rahuri 6.97 8.33 17.78 7.82 0.39 1.07 56.02 19.51
3. Jowar Rahuri 4.92 6.62 25.40 11.27 0.19 0.59 55.63 34.55
4. Sorghum (k) Rahuri 44.12 54.97 18.00 12.00 2.45 4.58 33.33 24.59
5. Maize (k) Udaipur 15.62 18.10 12.80 9.00 1.22 2.01 33.00 15.88
6. Barley Bikaner 24.09 28.15 17.78 7.82 1.35 3.59 56.01 16.85
Hissar 35.10 34.80 23.87 21.88 1.47 1.59 8.34 -0.85
7. Gram Hissar 6.55 9.91 17.78 7.82 0.37 1.27 56.02 51.29
Foodgrains (Avg) 24.12 27.90 23.54 14.51 1.05 2.03 40.04 20.69
8. Oilseeds Delhi 8.33 9.34 60.00 30.00 0.14 0.31 50.00 12.12
Rahuri 23.24 28.98 90.00 62.00 0.26 0.47 31.11 24.69
9. Groundnut(s) Junagarh 13.00 16.00 91.00 65.00 0.14 0.25 28.57 23.08
Dharwad 33.96 39.86 76.30 63.60 0.45 0.63 16.64 17.37
Punjab 5.50 11.90 68.60 50.20 0.08 0.24 26.82 116.38
Navsari 31.00 30.00 56.00 44.00 0.55 0.68 21.43 -3.22
Rahuri (k) 18.31 22.15 21.00 14.00 0.87 1.58 33.33 20.97
10. Sunflower (r) Rahuri 16.02 19.19 30.00 20.00 0.53 0.96 33.33 19.79
Oilseeds (Avg) 18.67 22.18 61.61 43.60 0.38 0.64 30.15 28.90
11. Chillies (k) Pune 17.41 21.52 36.00 24.00 0.48 0.89 33.33 23.61
Rahuri 17.15 20.91 39.00 26.00 0.44 0.80 33.33 21.92
12. Garlic Rahuri 69.99 73.99 84.00 60.00 0.83 1.23 28.57 5.71
13. Onion (s) Rahuri 334.90 412.70 78.00 52.00 4.29 7.94 29.69 23.23
14. Cotton Navsari 6.99 7.04 40.64 29.65 0.17 0.24 27.04 0.71
Punjab 10.00 15.00 91.10 58.60 0.12 0.26 35.68 50.00
15. Sugarcane Rahur 792.10 866.30 245.00 188.00 3.23 4.61 23.26 9.37
Dharwad 55.70 48.00 51.40 43.50 1.08 1.10 33.33 -13.82
Others (Avg) 163.03 183.18 83.14 60.22 1.33 2.13 30.53 15.09
Source: INCID (1998).

An exploratory experiment carried out to study the comparative performance of

micro-tube, sprinkler and furrow method of irrigation in SUGARCANE at Vasantdada Sugar
Institute as well as in Co-operative sugar factories in Maharashtra shows that water saving
due to use of micro-tube irrigation is almost two fold as compared to sprinkler irrigation.
This relatively more water saving in micro-tube was attributed to less water evaporation
and required water quantity applied at the root zone of the crop with maximum frequency.
The increase in yield with micro-tube irrigation was also found to be higher (172.12

9
MT/ha) as compared to SIM (142.30/ha) and FIM (135.50). The water use efficiency of
micro-tube was observed nearly 2.5 times more than FIM irrigated sugarcane (Hapase, et
al., 1993).

A field experiment conducted in south Gujarat during 1989 to 1991 to explore the
feasibility of adoption of mini sprinkler irrigation system for ONION crop during rabi
season shows a considerable increase of yield and water saving over the method of flood
irrigation (Desai, et al., 1993). Similar to onion, another experimental study carried out in
south Gujarat to study the feasibility of mini sprinkler in SAFFLOWER also shows that its
gain in increasing yield (about 13 percent), water saving (20.31 percent) and water use
efficiency (47.61 percent) as compared to conventional method of irrigation (Patel, P.G.,
et al., 1993). Similar results were also reported by Abrol and Sharma (1990) in
SUNFLOWER crop.

On groundnut, Gujarat Agricultural University, Sardar Krushinagar conducted an

experimental study during three summer seasons of 1990, 1991 and 1992, which shows
that sprinkler irrigation is highly suitable for GROUNDNUT cultivation. Water use efficiency
was found to be higher in all schedules of sprinkler and save 9.6 to 53.9 percent of
irrigation when compared to surface irrigation method. The net income per mm water
used was found to be more under all the sprinkler irrigation schedules over surface method
of irrigation (Patel, I, S., et al., 1993). Dhawan (2002) mentions, using the experimental
data on summer GROUNDNUT from farm research station of the Dharward campus of the
University of Agricultural Sciences, about 17 percent improvement in groundnut yield and
a like amount of water saving owing to use of sprinkler instead of surface irrigation, but a
40 percent improvement in water use efficiency. Similarly, a field experiment conducted
at Anand, Gujarat (Mehta, et al., 1993) in GROUNDNUT crop also shows considerable
increase in yield and water use efficiency of groundnut over the flood method of irrigation,
which are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Yield of Groundnut under different Treatments of Sprinkler and Surface

Irrigation Method
Treatment Pod yield Kg/ha Net realisation BCR
Rs/ha
Sprinkler irrigation at 1285 1182 1299 1255 2275 1.22
0.45 IW/CPE
Sprinkler Irrigation at 1462 1990 1563 1671 5667 1.54
0.60 IW/CPE
Sprinkler Irrigation at 1875 2493 1854 2074 9562 1.87
0.75 IW/CPE
Surface Irrigation 1181 1448 1347 1459 6626 1.77
Source: Mehta, H.M., et al., (1993).

Experiments carried out in various crops at different locations of Tamil Nadu

Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu, also clearly reveals the fact that sprinkler irrigation
can be useful to farmers in terms of water saving and yield increase in crops like GREEN
GRAM, BALCK GRAM, TAMATO, GROUNDNUT AND SOYABEAN (see, Table 5). Apart from
experimental based data studies, a few studies carried out using field level data also
suggest that gains in terms of water saving and productivity increase due to sprinkler
irrigation method is substantial in different crops in the semi-arid areas of Rajasthan. For
instance, an evaluation study carried out in Rajasthan using a sample data of 56 farmers
shows that the sprinkler system helps increasing the area devoted to remunerative crops

10
like HYV WHEAT and MUSTARD in rabi seasons. The increased irrigated area also
generated additional income to the adopters of sprinkler irrigation, besides substantially
increasing the wage employment. The study further underlines that the benefits could have
perhaps been higher had the power supply been available for a longer duration during the
cropping seasons (NABARD, 1989). On the same line, an another study carried out in
Barmer district of Rajasthan also indicates that the adoption of sprinkler irrigation
increases the gross irrigated area, cropping intensity and helps farmers to switch over to
cash crops like CUMIN, ISABGOLE, MUSTARD, etc. Understandably, the study reveals that
the SIM is used mainly for irrigating rabi crops, though it was used sparingly for kharif
crops like BAJRA in case of monsoon failure (NABARD, 1997).

Table 5: Yield and Water Use under Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation Method
Crop Irrigation Method Yield Water used Gain over SIM Water use
(kg/ha) (cm) (in %) efficiency
Yield Water (kg/ha/m3)
Green gram Sprinkler method 841 14.80 39.70 49.80 5.68
Surface method 602 29.50 -- -- 2.04
Black gram Sprinkler method 1405 34.30 3.30 30.40 4.07
2.50cm/0.5 ratio
Surface method 1360 49.30 -- -- 2.89
5.0cm/1.0 ratio
Tamato Sprinkler method 12167 55.70 -26.21 30.96 21.83
2.50cm/0.5 ratio
Surface method 16489 80.70 -- -- 20.42
5.0cm/1.0 ratio
Groundnut Sprinkler method 1756 59.10 19.00 -6.70 2.90
3cm/0.6 ratio
Surface method 1476 55.10 -- -- 2.68
5cm/0.6 ratio
Soyabean Sprinkler method 1634 22.50 -2.00 29.02 3.42
5cm/1.0 ratio
Surface method 1636 31.70 -- -- 3.41
5.0cm/1.0 ratio
Source: Compiled from Rajagopal (1998).

Though a large number of studies showed that SIM is suitable even for foodgrain
crops such as wheat, maize, pulses and groundnut, etc, these studies have mainly dealt
with the impact of sprinkler irrigation on water saving and yield gain. Seldom studies
have dealt with the economic viability of sprinkler investment in foodgrain and oilseed
crops, especially using field level data. Given the vast potential of sprinkler irrigation,
properly designed field based studies need to be carried out particularly on food grain
crops so as to understand the real impact of it. What is the impact of MI on the over-
exploitation of groundwater is an another issue, which also needs to be probed using filed
level data.

11
3. Trends in Area under Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation2:

The main objective of this section is to explain the past trends in area under micro-
irrigation across different states in India. As mentioned earlier, though drip and sprinkler
irrigation are classified under micro-irrigation, the trends in the adoption of these new
methods of irrigation are not the same across crops and regions. While the adoption of
drip is largely found in states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, sprinkler
is largely adopted in states like Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh (INCID, 1994;
1998 and GOI, 2004). Crops that are cultivated under these two methods of irrigation are
also not the same. Therefore, the trends in area under these two systems are studied
separately.

Drip method of irrigation was introduced in India during the early seventies at the
Agricultural Universities and other Research Institutions. The scientists at the Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore, who are considered to be the pioneers
in drip irrigation research in India, have conducted large-scale demonstration in the
farmers’ field for various crops, which received encouraging response from the farmers
(INCID, 1994). However, the adoption of drip method of irrigation was very slow till
mid-eighties mainly because of lack of promotional activities from the State and Central
governments. The formation of the National Committee on the Use of Plastics in
Agriculture (NCPA) by the Ministry of Petroleum, Chemicals and Fertilisers, Government
of India, during 1981 under the Chairmanship of Dr. G. V. K. Rao is termed as the first
milestone for the development of micro-irrigation in India (GOI, 2004). With the
establishment of 17 different Plasticulture Development Centres (PDCs) across different
agro-climatic regions in the country, the NCPA has played a crucial role in the
technological development of micro-irrigation in India.3 Besides recommending policy
measures to the government, the NCPA also played an important role in promoting drip
method of irrigation through conducting seminars focusing on micro-irrigation (GOI,
2004).

Apart from the government efforts, some research institutes and private drip set
manufactures have also been playing an important role in promoting drip method of
irrigation in India. For instance, The Report of Task Force on Micro Irrigation mentions
“Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd., Jalgaon has been playing a pioneering role since its
inception in 1989 for promoting micro irrigation” (GOI, 2004, p. 124). The establishment
of the Jain Irrigation Systems Limited in 1988-89 marked a watershed in the spread of this
technology. Their approach was unique, committed, scientific and persistent. A
“Systems approach” from concept to commissioning was adopted by them.

Since drip irrigation is a new technology and a capital-intensive venture,

government operates schemes for drip irrigation with subsidy. In states like Maharashtra,
both the Central and State governments are operating schemes for promoting drip method

2
One of the serious constraints faced by the researchers working on micro-irrigation is the data availability.
Though most of the area currently cultivated under micro-irrigation is established through various
government sponsored schemes, coverage of area under MI by states and by crops are seldom published by
any single agency. This does not allow the researchers to study the trends and determinants of micro-
irrigation across states in detail. This section is written with great data constraint.
3
NCPA was latter renamed as the National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture
(NCPAH) due to the prominent role plasticulture plays in the productivity of horticultural crops.

12
of irrigation. Central scheme was started during 1982-83 (during the Sixth Plan) by the
Ministry of Water Resources (Minor irrigation Division), Government of India. Through
this scheme, the Government of India provided a subsidy of 50 percent to the farmers with
the matching contribution from the State governments for installation of micro-irrigation
devices. Of the total amount of subsidy, 75 percent was allocated for small and marginal
farmers and the balance of 25 percent for other group of farmers. Government of
Maharashtra has made pioneering efforts for the successful adoption of drip irrigation
system and to make cost effective by providing subsidies to small and marginal farmers to
the extent of Rs. 2282.35 lakh during the period from 1986-93 (INCID, 1994). As per the
latest information available from the Economic Survey of Maharashtra: 2002-03, an
amount of Rs. 432 crore (Rs. 332 for drip irrigation and Rs. 100 crore for sprinkler
irrigation) have been distributed to the cultivators in the form of subsidy by the
government to promote micro-irrigation up to March 2002 (GOM, 2003).

However, the Central scheme of drip irrigation did not get good response during
the Seventh Plan since the subsidy was limited to only small and marginal farmers and due
to capital paucity this group could not afford the drip systems even at the subsided rate.
After knowing the ground realities, many new measures were incorporated under the new
scheme introduced during the eighth plan. Under the new schemes, the subsidy amount is
limited to either 50 percent of the cost or Rs. 15000/ha whichever is lower. The
government of India has contributed the entire 50 percent of subsidy upto the financial
year 1994-95 and thereafter the State governments have to contribute 10 percent towards
subsidy for the years 1995-96 and 1996-97, which will add upto 50 percent with Centre’s
contribution for 40 percent. However, a beneficiary can avail subsidy for a maximum
area of one hectare only.

F ig u r e 1 : A r e a u n d e r D r ip M e th o d o f Ir r ig a t io n : In d ia
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
A re a

200000
150000
100000
50000
0
1 9 8 5 -8 6

1 9 8 6 -8 7

1 9 8 7 -8 8

1 9 8 8 -8 9

1 9 8 9 -9 0

1 9 9 0 -9 1

1 9 9 1 -9 2

1 9 9 2 -9 3

1 9 9 3 -9 4

1 9 9 4 -9 5

1 9 9 5 -9 6

1 9 9 6 -9 7

1 9 9 7 -9 8

1 9 9 8 -9 9

1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 -0 1

2 0 0 1 -0 2

2 0 0 2 -0 3

The subsidy scheme has undergone lot of changes over the years. As of 1999-
2000, the Government of India provided assistance of drip installation for horticultural
crops at 90 percent of the cost of the system or Rs. 25000 per hectare, whichever is less for
small and marginal, SC/ST and women farmers and 70 percent of the total cost or Rs.

13
25000 per hectare, whichever is less for other category of farmers. Assistance was also
provided for drip demonstration at Rs. 22500 or 75 percent of the system cost per hectare
whichever is less (GOI, 2004). Government of Maharashtra has also been providing
subsidy under State schemes since 1986-87. It varies from 30 to 50 percent of the capital
cost or Rs. 12250 to 20500/ha depending upon the landholding size and community of the
farmers. The Government of Maharashtra announced in 1992 that subsidy would be given
for all farmers irrespective of their landholding. That is, currently both the schemes
(Central and State sponsored schemes) supply 50 percent of the capital cost as subsidy for
all types of farmers in Maharashtra.

Coverage of Drip Irrigation in India:

Drip method of irrigation was initially introduced in the early seventies by the
agricultural universities and other research institutions in India with the aim to increase the
water use efficiency in crop cultivation. The development of drip irrigation was very slow
in the initial years and significant development has been achieved especially since 1990s.
Due to various promotional schemes introduced by the Government of India and states
like Maharashtra, area under drip method of irrigation has increased from 1500 ha in 1985
to 70589 ha in 1991-92 and further to 246000 ha in 1997-98 (INCID, 1994; AFC, 1998).
According to the latest information, the area under DMI estimated to have been increased
to about 4.50 lakh hectares, which includes about 3.50 lakh hectares covered under the
Government of India Schemes (see, Figure 1). This estimate is based on the information
available from GOI departments, which have been operating subsidy schemes for
promoting drip method of irrigation. However, as mentioned in the Report of the Task
Force on Microirrigation, a large number of institutions, commercial organisations,
universities, large public/private sector companies, NGOs, etc., have taken up drip
irrigation in the country for their farms/crops, which do not get reflected in the data
available with GOI departments. Therefore, approximately, another 1,00,000 hectares are
covered under drip systems by these organisations, whereby the total area under drip
irrigation system in the country would be about 5,00,000 hectares as of March 2003 (GOI,
2004, pp. 130-131).

Table 6: State-wise Area under Drip Method of Irrigation

State Area (‘000 ha) Percent to Total Area
1991-92 1997-98 2000-01 1991-92 1997-98 2000-01
Maharashtra 32.92 122.995a 160.28 44.64 50.00 53.16
Karnataka 11.41 40.800b 66.30 16.17 16.58 18.03
Tamil Nadu 5.36 34.100 55.90 7.59 13.86 15.20
Andhra Pradesh 11.59 26.300 36.30 16.41 10.70 9.88
Gujarat 3.56 7.000 7.60 5.05 2.85 2.07
Kerala 3.04 4.865 5.50 4.30 1.98 1.50
Orissa 0.04 2.696 1.90 0.06 1.10 0.52
Haryana 0.012 1.900 2.02 0.17 0.77 0.55
Rajasthan 0.30 1.600 6.00 0.43 0.65 1.63
Uttar Pradesh 10.11 1.500 2.50 0.16 0.61 0.68
Punjab 0.02 1.100 1.80 0.03 0.45 0.49
Other States 2.127 1.150 5.40 3.00 0.47 1.47
Total 70.59 246.006 367.70 100.00 100.00 100.00
Notes: a- includes state subsidy scheme area of 58498 ha.; b- includes area under central and
state schemes for development of oil palm and sugarcane.
Sources: AFC (1998) and GOI (2004).

14
 Despite having enormous potential and prospects, the development of drip
irrigation does not match the expectations in most of the states. Table 6 presents state-
wise area under drip method of irrigation for three time points: 1991-92, 1997-98 and
2000-01. It is evident from the table that drip irrigated area has increased substantially
between 1991-92 and 2000-01 in all the states of India. In all three-time points,
Maharashtra state alone accounted for nearly 50 percent of India’s total drip irrigated area
followed by Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.4 Over the last ten years,
significant growth has been achieved in area under drip method of irrigation in absolute
term in many states. However, drip irrigated area constitutes a very meager percentage in
relation to gross irrigated area in all the states in India. For instance, during 2000-01, the
share of drip-irrigated area to gross irrigated area was just 0.48 percent and about 1.09
percent in relation to total groundwater irrigated area of the country.

Table 7: Crop-wise Area under Drip Method of Irrigation in India: 1997-98.

Crop’s Name Area Leading States
Coconut 48360 Karnataka (24.00, Tamil Nadu (21.20)
(19.66)
Grapes 29630 Maharashtra (24.10), Andhra Pradesh (2.20),
(12.04) Karnataka (3.00)
Banana 26460 Maharashtra (24.50)
(10.76)
Citrus 22210 Maharashtra (15.00), Andhra Pradesh (4.80)
(9.03)
Mango 21860 Andhra Pradesh (9.22), Maharashtra (5.00),
(8.89) Karnataka (2.30), Tamil Nadu (4.00), Gujarat (1.20)
Pomegranate 15250 Maharashtra (11.40), Karnataka (2.00)
(6.20)
Other crops 82236
(33.43)
Total all crops 246006
(100.00)
Note: Total will not tally as we have not included all the crops here.
Figures in brackets are percentage to total area.
Source: AFC (1998).

In terms of crop-wise coverage of DIM, although over 80 crops are proved to be

suitable for drip method of irrigation, only a few crops have been dominating in the total
area under drip irrigation so far. As of 1997-98, crops like coconut, grapes, banana, citrus,
mango and pomegranate together have accounted for nearly 67 percent of total drip
irrigated area (see, Table 7). In all these crops, states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,

4
A number of factors are responsible for the rapid development of drip irrigation in Maharashtra. First, state
government is very keen in promoting drip irrigation on a large scale by providing subsidy, technical and
extension services to the farmers. Maharashtra government has been providing subsidy since 1986-87
onwards through state schemes. Second, area under irrigation from both surface and groundwater is quite
low and hence, many farmers have adopted drip method of irrigation to avoid water scarcity largely in
divisions like Nashik, Pune, etc. Third, owing to continuous depletion of groundwater, farmers were not
able to cultivate wide spaced and more lucrative crops like grapes, banana, pomegranate, orange, mango, etc.
by using surface method of irrigation in many regions. As a result, farmers had to adopt drip irrigation as
these crops are most suitable for drip method of irrigation. Importantly, the farmers who adopted drip
irrigation initially for certain crops have realised the importance of drip irrigation in increasing the water
saving and productivity of crops. This has further induced many farmers to adopt drip method in some of
the regions in Maharashtra.

15
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka account for a major share of the area. More importantly, out
of 26,460 ha of banana’s total area, Maharashtra state alone accounted for as much as 93
percent at the end of 1997-98. It clearly suggests that despite having severe water scarcity
in different regions in the country, the adoption of drip method of irrigation is very much
concentrated only in a few States. If we really want to avoid aggravating supply-demand
gap in irrigation water in the future, it is essential to bring more water-intensive crops
under drip method of irrigation.

Table 8: Scheme-wise Area under Drip Method of Irrigation: 1997-98

Scheme Area (ha) Percent to Total
Centrally Sponsored Scheme 186644 64.64
Maharashtra State Scheme 58498 19.32
Oil palm and Sugarcane 884 0.29
Without Subsidy (private) 56780 18.75
Total 302806 100.00
Source: AFC (1998).

Studies based on research station data as well as farm level sample survey data
have proved that drip method of irrigation has the capacity to increase water saving and
productivity of crops significantly when compared to the crops cultivated under flood
method of irrigation (INCID, 1994). However, drip method of irrigation is still essentially
considered to be the scheme of the government. As of 1997-98, area under DMI other
than government schemes (without subsidy) accounted for only about 18 percent of
India’s total drip irrigated area (see, Table 8). Studies need to be carried out as to why the
individual farmers without subsidy are not willing to adopt drip method of irrigation
despite substantial benefits from it.

Trends in Area under Sprinkler Irrigation:

Sprinkler irrigation method is relatively old for Indian farmers as compared to drip
irrigation method. Available information suggests that sprinkler was introduced in India
during the mid-fifties for plantation crops like coffee and tea. During mid-seventies,
progressive farmers in Narmada valley in MP, southern part of Haryana and north east part
of Rajasthan started using sprinkler particularly during summer to avoid the shortage of
water (INCID, 1998). Over the years, the adoption of sprinkler system penetrated into
larger area in states like Haryana, Rajasthan, MP, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Unlike
drip irrigation, detailed and accurate statistics are lacking for sprinkler irrigation. The
gross area under sprinkler irrigation has increased from 0.23 mha in 1985 to 0.67 mha in
1998. According to the latest information compiled by the National Committee on
Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH), the total area under sprinkler in the
country is estimated to have increased to 1.63 mha. This is almost 300 percent higher than
the present area under drip method of irrigation.

As in the case of drip irrigation method, the spread of sprinkler irrigation is also
not the same across the states. State-wise area under sprinkler irrigation shows that it is
mainly concentrated in Central and northern part of the country (Table 9). During the
year 2004-05, states like Haryana (0.49 mha), Rajasthan (0.42 mha), West Bengal (0.14
mha) and Maharashtra (0.11 mha) together accounted for about 70 percent of India’s total
drip irrigated area. The reasons for large adoption of sprinkler irrigation are different for
different states. Though MP receives medium rainfall, factors like unpredictable rainfall

16
and long dry spells during the summer encouraged the farmers to adopt sprinkler irrigation
for crops like soyabean in various part of the state. In the case of Haryana, the soil
condition, topography and the climates that are prevailing in the south western part of the
state especially in districts of Bhiwani, Mahindergarh, Rothak, Sirsa and Hisar have
prompted the adoption of sprinkler irrigation. Similarly, favourable cropping pattern and
water scarcity during the summer season are found to be the main reasons for the
relatively higher adoption of sprinkler irrigation in Rajasthan (INCID, 1998).

Table 9: State-wise Area under Sprinkler Irrigation: 1997-98 and 2004-05

Area Percent to Total Area
States
1997-98 2004-05* 1997-98 2004-05*
1. Madhya Pradesh 149980 85000 22.78 5.20
2. West Bengal 120040 135000 18.23 8.26
3. Assam 90000 125000 13.67 7.65
4. Haryana 83600 490000 12.70 29.97
5. Rajasthan 47850 425000 7.27 25.99
6. Karnataka 41900 125000 6.36 7.65
7. Maharashtra 33120 110000 5.03 6.73
8. Tamil Nadu 32130 10000 4.88 0.61
9. Gujarat 27740 11,000 4.21 0.67
10. Andhra Pradesh 17090 55000 2.60 3.36
11. Uttar Pradesh 7360 10000 1.12 0.61
12. Kerala 5800 8000 0.88 0.49
13. Bihar 160 500 0.02 0.03
14. Himachal Pradesh 70 250 0.01 0.02
15. Jammu & Kashmir 30 150 0.00 0.01
16. Orissa 400 12000 0.06 0.73
17. Punjab 200 10000 0.03 0.61
18. Others 500 23097 0.08 1.41
Total 658500 1634997 100.00 100.00
Note: * - Figures are approximate estimated based on graph provided by NCPAH.
Source: INCID (1998) and NCPAH (2005).

Though the area under sprinkler irrigation is much higher than those under drip
irrigation method, there are no reliable details available about the composition of crops
that are cultivated presently using this method of irrigation. INCID (1998) report presents
a whole lot of information about the sprinkler method, but does not provide where and
what crops are cultivated under this method. In fact, reliable and time series data on
micro-irrigation is seldom available even for research purpose. Agencies involved in
promoting MI should make all efforts to publish the data on the development of micro-
irrigation in terms of crop composition, area by state, districts and different size class, area
by state promoted scheme and other schemes. Unless the present development of MI is
clearly known, it may not be easily possible to suggest the ways and means for increasing
the adoption of these water saving technologies.

4. Efficiency of Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation:

One of the main reasons for adopting micro-irrigation in crop cultivation is to save
water and increase the efficiency of water use. Over centuries all over the world,
irrigation water has been predominantly applied for crops using flood/gravity method.
Generally, under conventional (flood/gravity) method of irrigation, water is supplied

17
through unlined canal and field channels for crops where controllability of water is not
easily possible and therefore, conveyance and distribution losses are substantial. Unlike
conventional method of irrigation, both sprinkler and drip irrigation supply water to crop
using pipe network along with drippers, emitters and nozzles. As a result of supplying
water directly to the crop or to the field, the conveyance and distribution losses are found
to be completely absent under micro-irrigation method.

Table 10: Irrigation Efficiencies under Different Methods of Irrigation (Percent)

Irrigation Efficiencies Methods of Irrigation

Surface Sprinkler Drip
Conveyance efficiency 40-50 (canal)
60-70 (well) 100 100
Application efficiency 60-70 70-80 90
Surface water moisture evaporation 30-40 30-40 20-25
Overall efficiency 30-35 50-60 80-90
Source: Sivanappan (1998).
It is difficult to measure the water use efficiency under different methods of
irrigation at the farmers’ field as each farmer uses different types of pumpsets (where
efficiency varies considerably) and pipe network. Estimates carried out at different
research stations under different methods of irrigation reveal the comparative efficiency of
irrigation under different methods (see, Table 10). While the conveyance efficiency under
surface method of irrigation is estimated to be only in the range of 40-50 percent in canal
and 60-70 percent in well, the same is estimated to be 100 percent in both sprinkler and
drip method of irrigation. As mentioned earlier, the higher level of conveyance efficiency
under micro-irrigation is mainly because of application of water by pipe network, where
seepage and other leakages are also completely absent. A less than 50 percent of
conveyance efficiency in surface irrigation method suggests that by converting all the
surface method of irrigation into micro-irrigation, we would be able to double the irrigated
area without constructing any new irrigation projects.

Table 11: Water Use Efficiency (q/ha/cm) in Surface, Sprinkler and Drip Irrigated Crop
Sprinkler Vs. Flood Method Drip Vs. Flood Method
Water Use efficiency Water Use efficiency
Crops FMI SMI Crops FMI DIM
1. Wheat 0.93 1.79 Papaya 0.57 3.13
2. Bajra 0.39 1.07 Ashgourd 1.29 1.63
3. Jowar 0.19 0.59 tomato 1.24 8.29
4. Sorghum (kharif) 2.45 4.58 ladys finger 1.87 13.15
5. Maize (kharif) 1.22 2.01 Brinjal 3.11 6.67
6. Barley 1.35 3.59 Sweet potato 0.67 2.34
7. Gram 0.37 1.27 Radish 0.23 1.10
8. Oilseeds 0.14 0.31 Beet 0.07 0.50
9. Groundnut(summer) 0.26 0.47 Potato 11.79 17.21
10. Sunflower (rabi) 0.53 0.96 Watermelon 3.68 11.03
11. Chillies (kharif) 0.48 0.89 Chillies 0.39 1.46
12. Garlic 0.83 1.23 Bottlegourd 4.53 7.54
13. Onion (summer) 4.29 7.94 Onion 1.54 2.03
14. Cotton 0.17 0.24 cotton 0.25 0.61
15. Sugarcane 3.23 4.61 Sugarcane 8.10 21.27
Source: Computed from INCID (1994 and 1998).

18
 Application efficiency refers to water use at the farm level. Estimates suggests that
there are wide variation here too in the level of efficiency. Water can be applied at a
required quantity and time under micro-irrigation and therefore, the application efficiency
is always higher under micro-irrigation as compared to conventional surface irrigation
method. The overall application efficiency is estimated to be 60-70 percent in surface
irrigation, whereas the same comes to 70-80 percent for sprinkler and 90 percent for drip
irrigation method. Because of flooding of water under surface irrigation method, large
quantity of water is wasted in the form of evaporation and seepage losses and thus, the
application efficiency is always lower while applying water by surface method. Since
water is applied directly to the root zone of the crop at a required quantity by drip method
of irrigation, the application efficiency is always nearing 100 percent. The application
efficiency is estimated to be relatively lower under sprinkler irrigation as compared to drip
method because of two reasons. First, sprinkler irrigation is often affected by wind
interference which ultimately reduces the efficiency. Second, unlike drip method, sprinkler
supplies water to whole of cropped area and therefore, water losses would obviously be
higher.

Unlike application efficiency, there are no variations between surface method and
sprinkler method of irrigation in the case of surface water moisture evaporation. In both
surface and sprinkler method, it is estimated to be the same, varying from 30 to 40 percent.
In the case of drip, the surface water moisture evaporation is only 20-25 percent. Drip
method of irrigation does not allow water to spread beyond the root zone of the crop and
therefore, the water moisture evaporation is very less in drip irrigation.

Because of very high level of conveyance and application efficiency and low water
moisture evaporation, the overall water use efficiency is very high (80-90 percent) under
drip method of irrigation as compared to sprinkler (50-60 percent) and surface method of
irrigation (30-35 percent). Therefore, drip irrigation appears to be the most efficient
method of irrigation in terms of absolute use of water for crop cultivation. Drip irrigation
method also appears to be efficient method in terms of moisture availability to crops (see,
Figure 2).

Figure 2: Moisture Availability for Crops in Different

Irrigation Methods

DRIP METHOD
MOISTURE CONTENT

SPRINKLER
METHOD

SURFACE
METHOD

WILTING POINT (15 atm)

0 5 10 15 20
DAYS

Apart from increasing water use efficiency in absolute term, there is also a need
to increase water use efficiency in terms of productivity (water productivity) because of
fast decline of irrigation water potential and growing demand for water from different

19
sectors. In order to satisfy the growing demand for various agricultural commodities, it
is essential to increase the water productivity from the existing level. Available studies
based on experimental data suggest that the crops being cultivated under micro-irrigation
require relatively less amount of water to produce one unit of output. Data presented in
Table 11 on various crops clearly confirms that the water productivity is much higher
under both sprinkler and drip irrigation as compared to flood irrigation method. Among
sprinkler and drip method of irrigation, drip method appears to be more efficient in
terms of producing output per unit of water. Since the application efficiency of water is
much higher in drip irrigation method, the water use efficiency in terms of productivity
is also substantially higher in drip method. Net gain in terms of money value from
each unit of water is also estimated to be higher under micro-irrigation method as
compared to surface and other improved methods (see, Table 12).

Table 12: Water Use Efficiency as Net Benefit in Rs. Per mm of Water Use
Crop Surface Sprinkler Drip Improved Surface Irrigation
With PVC With field
network channel
Cotton 18.40 28.11 -- 33.70 25.50
Pigeon pea 21.36 18.49 -- 33.62 28.71
Wheat 7.28 9.16 -- 11.56 8.50
Sorghum (R) 9.90 15.45 -- 18.19 13.20
Gram 13.77 22.21 -- 25.47 18.38
Sunflower (R) 7.83 12.08 -- 14.32 10.41
Maize 7.79 11.66 -- 14.12 10.30
Groundnut (HW) 14.71 27.11 -- 28.61 20.28
Sugarcane 12.52 21.91 18.03 23.70 17.21
Sweet Orange 61.82 119.98 116.02 122.76 86.88
Source: Holsambre, et al., (1998).

On the whole, the estimates presented above suggest that the efficiency of water
use is substantially higher under SIM and DIM in comparison to the efficiency of flood
irrigation method, mainly because of reduction in conveyance and distribution losses. It
also clearly suggests that the present level of water use efficiency under surface irrigation
method is very low, which can be increased substantially by focusing more on demand
management strategies such as drip and sprinkler. This would also help increasing the
irrigated area without exploiting the limited irrigation potential.

5. Potential Area for Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation in India:

It is clear from the foregoing chapters that drip and sprinkler method of irrigation
has many advantages over flood method of irrigation, which is predominantly followed in
most of the countries. Despite the fact that micro-irrigation involves relatively larger fixed
investment, benefit-cost ratio estimated using farm level data clearly suggests that the
investment in micro-irrigation is economically viable to farmers, even without any states’
subsidy. Although micro-irrigation has proved to be a very useful method for sustainable
use of irrigation water, not many studies have attempted to estimate the total potential area
for drip and sprinkler method of irrigation for different states in India. Besides helping to
understand the overall potential of the country, this kind of estimate would be useful for
making policy decision, fixing targets and allocation of funds for utilising the potential.

20
Therefore, in this section, we try to estimate the total potential area for drip and sprinkler
irrigation method across different states as well as for the country as a whole.

Available Estimate on Potential Area:

A few attempts have already been made to estimate the potential area for drip and
sprinkler irrigation for the country as a whole. Let us briefly discuss the available
estimates before getting into our own estimate. While the NCPA (1990) estimated about
18.20 mha as a potential area for DIM, the Task Force on Micro-Irrigation (GOI, 2004)
estimated about 27 mha as a potential area for the country as a whole. In the case of
sprinkler irrigation, the potential estimated is much higher than drip irrigation method. As
per the estimate of INCID (1998), the total potential area comes to 42.5 mha, but the Task
Force on Micro-Irrigation placed an area of 69.5 mha as potential for sprinkler irrigation
(see, Table 13).

Table 13: Available Estimate on Potential Area for Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation in India
Crop INCID TFMI (drip) TFMI
(sprinkler) (sprinkler)
Cereals 27.6 -- 27.6
Pulses 4.2 -- 7.6
Oilseeds 11.1 3.8 4.9
Cotton 2.6 7.0 8.8
Vegetables 2.5a 3.6 6.0
Spice and condiments 1.2 1.4 2.4
Flowers, Medicinal and aromatic plants -- -- 1.0
Sugarcane 3.3 4.3 4.3
Fruits -- 3.9 3.9
Coconut, plantation crops, oil palm -- 3.0 3.0
Total 42.5 27.0 69.5
Note: a – includes fruits and vegetables;
Sources: INCID (1998) and GOI (2004).

There appears to be some limitations with the available estimates. First of all,
there are clear discrepancies in the estimates between the sources. INCID (1998) placed
42.5 mha as potential area for sprinkler irrigation, whereas TFMI recorded 69.5 mha as
potential. Why is this wide variation? Second, while making any estimate, it is necessary
to provide the procedures that are followed for the same. However, both the sources have
not provided any explanation as to what method is followed for estimating the potential
area. Third, it is not very clear whether this estimate includes irrigated cropped area alone
or irrigated plus un-irrigated cropped area. It appears that TFMI estimate includes both
irrigated and un-irrigated cropped area (example cotton area). Since water sources are
needed to use micro-irrigation, one should not include un-irrigated cropped area while
estimating potential area for drip and sprinkler irrigation. Moreover, both the estimates
have not provided state-wise potential, which are essential for making policy decision on
micro-irrigation for different states. Keeping in view the limitations of the existing
estimates, we have made a fresh attempt to estimate the potential area for drip and
sprinkler irrigation separately covering all the major states.

Potential Area for Drip Irrigation:

As reported elsewhere in the paper, India has enormous potential for drip method
of irrigation. Potential area for DIM is also expected to increase faster due to fast decline

21
of irrigation potential in different regions in the country. Various crops that are highly
suitable for drip method of irrigation are extensively cultivated in different parts of India.
Available information shows that about 80 crops, both narrow and wide spaced crops, can
be grown under drip method of irrigation in India. Due to various measures taken by the
central and state governments along with the support of drip-set manufactures, the area
under DIM has increased phenomenally in recent years. However, the achievement of
area seems to be very less compared to the total potential area that exists in India.

Table 14: State-wise Potential for Drip Method of Irrigation: 2000-01

(area in ‘000 ha)
Oil
States Pulses S.cane C &S F&V seeds Cotton Others Total
1. AP 21 360 233 328 423 192 127 1684 (8.02)
2. Assam - - - - 2 - 0 2 (0.01)
3. Bihar 19 33 8 286 55 - 13.7 415 (1.97)
4. Gujarat 68 255 173 295 727 631 116 2265 (10.78)
5. Haryana 59 140 5 58 350 554 0 1166 (5.55)
6. HP 6 1 2 14 3 @ 0 26 (0.12)
7. J & K 4 @ 1 20 55 @ 1 81 (0.39)
8. Karnataka 80 417 160 200 500 73 72 1502 (7.15)
9. Kerala - 3 36 29 166 - 0 234 (1.11)
10. MP 937 74 117 145 207 144 0 1624 (7.73)
11. Maharashtra 267 595 135 599 232 131 6 1965(9.35)
12. Orissa 64 31 50 210 53 - 4 412(1.96)
13. Punjab 49 116 4 137 116 721 9 1152(5.48)
14. Rajasthan 382 13 410 89 1311 496 1 2702(12.86)
15. TN 60 315 73 276 553 65 8 1350(6.43)
16. UP 624 1844 30 743 719 5 13 3978(18.93)
17. WB - 8 - - 326 - 0 334 (1.59)
2652 4217 1446 3508 5826 3013 347 21009
INDIA
(12.62) (20.07) (6.88) (16.07) (27.73) (14.34) (1.65) (100)
Notes: S.cane- sugarcane; C&S – condiments & spices; F & R – fruits & vegetables;
Figures in brackets are percentages to total; @ - below 500 hectares.
Sources: Computed using GOI (2003); www.agricoop.nic.in

Micro-irrigation is not only suitable for those areas that are presently under
cultivation, but it can also be operated efficiently in undulating terrain, rolling topography,
hilly areas, barren lands and areas which have shallow soils (Sivanappan, 1994). Since
most of the potential areas are not under cultivation presently, we can broadly divide the
total potential into two categories as “distant potential” and “core potential” for the
purpose of analysis. “Distant potential” refers to all those areas that are suitable for drip
method of irrigation, but may not be under cultivation presently. Lands (area) that are
falling under the categories of barren and unculturable lands, culturable wastelands and
fallow lands can be treated as “distant potential” of DIM. In India, as per the land
utilisation data of 2000-01, about 56.28 million hectares of lands are available in these
categories. Unlike FIM, land-leveling and ploughing are not necessary for cultivating
crops (especially horticultural crops) under DIM. Therefore, without incurring heavy
expenditures on land reclamation activities, these areas can be brought under cultivation
using drip method of irrigation in a phased manner by a properly designed special
development programme.

22
 However, since some source of irrigation is essential for adopting micro-irrigation,
we have excluded all those areas that are suitable for drip irrigation, but not currently
under irrigation. That is, only those suitable crops that are currently cultivated under
irrigation is treated as potential area for drip irrigation. The important crops that are
suitable for DIM are pulses, groundnut and other oilseed crops, sugarcane, fruits,
vegetables, flowers, condiments and spices, cotton, etc. The state-wise area under these
crops presented in Table 14 shows that the total potential area for drip irrigation is about
21.01 mha for the country as whole, which is almost six million hectares less than the
estimate made by the Task Force on Micro Irrigation (GOI, 2004)5. Of the total potential
area, oilseed crops alone accounts for 27.70 percent, followed by sugarcane (20.07
percent), fruits and vegetables (16.70 percent). As expected the potential area available
from each state varies considerably, because of varied cropping pattern and irrigation
facility. Among the states, Uttar Pradesh has more potential followed by Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab and Madhya Pradesh. In fact, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Punjab together account for about 50.26 percent of India’s total potential area for drip
method of irrigation.

Potential for Sprinkler Irrigation:

It is mentioned earlier that the characteristics of sprinkler irrigation method are

somewhat different from drip method of irrigation. While drip method of irrigation is
highly suitable for wide spaced horticulture and other crops, sprinkler irrigation can be
used closely grown crops like cereals and millets besides using for horticultural crops.
Therefore, the potential area for sprinkler irrigation in countries like India would be much
higher than those available for drip irrigation, because of predominant cultivation of cereal
crops under irrigated condition. As in the case of drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation can
also be used in all kind of terrain conditions - undulating terrain, rolling topography, hilly
areas, barren lands and areas which have shallow soils (INCID, 1998). However, since
these areas are not currently under cultivation, we have excluded these from the estimate.

In order to estimate the total potential area for sprinkler irrigation, we have
considered only those suitable crops presently cultivated under irrigated condition. The
only major difference in the crop pattern of drip and sprinkler is cereal crops. Though
some experimental studies suggest that sprinkler irrigation can also be used efficiently for
cultivating paddy crop (Kundu, et al., 1998), we have excluded it from the estimate as we
have not seen any study on paddy based on Indian condition. The estimate presented in
Table 15 shows that the India’s total potential for sprinkler irrigation would be about 50.22
mha. If we exclude the area under cereal crops from the estimate, the total potential would
only be about 23.52 mha, which is almost equivalent to the potential area available for drip
irrigation method. The total potential can go up to 74.23 mha, if paddy area is included
for estimation. Among different crops suitable for SIM, cereal crops alone accounts for
53.17 percent followed by oilseeds (11.60 percent), sugarcane (8.40 percent), fruits and
vegetables (7.00) and cotton (6.00). The crop-wise estimate suggests that the water can be
substantially saved, if we are able to bring all those cereal crops under sprinkler irrigation
method.

Similar to drip potential area, the potential area available for SIM also varies
across the states, because of differences in cropping pattern and irrigation availability in

5
This estimate is also matching with the country level estimate earlier made by Narayanamoorthy (2004).

23
each state. According to our estimate, UP state alone accounts for about 27.70 percent in
the India’s total potential, followed by Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, MP and Bihar. The
state level position can change completely, if we exclude all these areas of cereal crops
from the estimate. For instance, in the case UP state, the potential area would go down
from 13.95 mha to 9.37 mha, if cereal area is excluded from the estimate. Similarly, the
potential of Punjab would be only 1.82 mha, instead of 5.37 mha. It is expected that the
large scale adoption of sprinkler irrigation may not take place immediately given the low
canal water rates and electricity tariff. Therefore, it is prudent to classify the potential into
two as “soft” and “hard” potential so that policy decision can be made easily for achieving
the target.

Table 15: State-wise Potential for Sprinkler Irrigation: 2000-01

(Area in ‘000 ha)
Oil
States Cereals Pulses S.cane C& S F &V Seeds Cotton Others Total
1. AP 254 21 360 233 328 423 192 134 1945 (3.87)
2. Assam 1 - - - - 2 - 0 3 (0.01)
3.Bihar 3417 19 33 8 286 55 - 13.7 3832 (7.63)
4.Gujarat 697 68 255 173 295 727 631 312 3158 (6.29)
5.Haryana 2593 59 140 5 58 350 554 393 4152 (8.27)
6.HP 97 6 1 2 14 3 @ 5 128 (0.25)
7.J & K 118 4 @ 1 20 55 @ 31 229 (0.46)
8.Karnataka 677 80 417 160 200 500 73 77 2184 (4.35)
9.Kerala 0 - 3 36 29 166 - 37 271 (0.54)
10.MP 2364 937 74 117 145 207 144 121 4109 (8.18)
11.Maharashtra 1287 267 595 135 599 232 131 6 3252 (6.48)
12.Orissa 37 64 31 50 210 53 - 4 449 (0.89)
13.Punjab 3550 49 116 4 137 116 721 677 5370 (10.69)
14.Rajasthan 2801 382 13 410 89 1311 496 421 5923 (11.79)
15.TN 130 60 315 73 276 553 65 27 1499 (2.98)
16.UP 9367 624 1844 30 743 719 5 620 13952 (27.78)
17.WB 339 - 8 - - 326 - 0 673 (1.34)
26703 2652 4217 1446 3508 5826 3013 2856 50221
India (53.17) (5.28) (8.40) (2.88) (6.99) (11.60) (6.00) (5.69) (100.0)
Notes and Sources: Same as in Table 14.

However, it is to be noted here that the potential area for drip and sprinkler method
of irrigation is expected to change over time depending upon the land use pattern, crop
pattern, irrigated area and the level of groundwater exploitation across states. The
proactive policy of the state can also influence the adoption of WST significantly, as has
been noted in Maharashtra. Given the over exploitation of groundwater in different parts
of the country and change in cropping pattern, the estimated potential area for both drip
sprinkler method of irrigation might increase considerably in the future.

6. Technical and Policy Interventions for Increasing Adoption of MI:

The estimate presented in the preceding section suggests that the potential for both
drip and sprinkler irrigation is very large in different states in India. Micro irrigation
reduces cost of cultivation, weed problems, soil erosion and increases water use efficiency
as well as electricity use efficiency, besides performing as an useful devise in reducing the
over exploitation of groundwater. Given the benefits of micro-irrigation in terms of

24
productivity increase, water and electricity saving, the gross benefits to the country would
be very large, if the available potential is utilised. Obviously, the water scarcity problem
being encountered in different regions in the country can also be eliminated by utilising
the available potential of micro-irrigation. In spite of having many economic and other
advantages, the growth of area under micro-irrigation is not appreciable compared to the
total potential. As of today, only about 2.13 percent of India’s total drip irrigation
potential area and 3.30 percent of sprinkler irrigation potential is utilised, most of which
are also developed with the subsidy support from State agency. A number of policy and
technical reasons have been identified for the slow growth in adopting WSTs in India (see,
Box I). Given the vast potential benefits of micro-irrigation and fast decline of irrigation
water potential in the country, a number of technical and policy interventions are required
to be introduced so as to increase the adoption of micro-irrigation in India. The needed
interventions are presented below:

1. Sprinkler irrigation is mostly promoted through subsidy schemes and not as an

on-farm water and land management strategy. In certain sates (example Maharashtra),
under subsidy scheme, no consideration is given in respect of field size, shape,
topography, type and location of water source, seasonal fluctuations, type of soil and crop
to be grown. The design aspect is ignored so as to reduce the cost of the system.
According to Kulkarni (2005), “in most cases the subsidy sets do not match the site
specific situations of an individual farmer. As a result, the sets do not operate
satisfactorily”(p.5). This can discourage the farmers not to adopt sprinkler irrigation.
Therefore, subsidy scheme needs to be modified without ignoring the design aspect of the
system.

2. In the case of fully portable hand move sprinkler system, laterals are required to
be shifted twice or thrice a day, which is a labour-intensive operation. It is a cumbersome
job particularly during the night hours, where farmers get electricity in most of the states.
Therefore, it is necessary to explore the possibility of using semi-portable or mechanized
sprinkler systems like traveling gun through enhanced research and developmental
activities. In order to popularize the system, both fixed as well as recurring costs required
for the system to be cut down so as to increase the adoption of the system even by
resource poor farmers.

3. Kulkarni (2005) stresses that R & D should focus on the following areas so as to
increase wide scale adoption of sprinkler irrigation in the country:
Strategies for achieving higher (> 80% ) distribution uniformity (DU); Evaluating
effect of discharge variations within the system on DU and recommending
appropriate values for practicable purpose,
Minimizing spray losses due to evaporation and wind drift,
Evaluating optimum spacing arrangements of sprinkler heads viz., rectangular,
square, and triangular; Optimising the overlapping of wetted diameters under low
and high wind situations,
Fertigation through sprinkler system,
Evaluating wear of nozzle bores; performance of single nozzle and twin nozzle
sprinklers and their use,
Promoting use of plastic impact sprinklers, part circle sprinklers, pressure
regulating valves,
Design and development of low cost hose drag system for small and irregular
shaped fields,

25
 Design and development of small scale mechanized sprinkler systems like
travelling rain gun, side roll and centre pivot suiting to Indian condition,
Design and development of simple automation and remote control applications.

4. Both drip and sprinkler irrigation are driven through state and central governments
sponsored subsidy schemes. In order to earn quick profit from the subsidy programmes,
many companies are marketing various sub-standard components in the market. Often the
sub-standard components affect the working condition of the system which creates
enormous doubt about the functioning of the system among the farmers’ mind. It is to be
ensured that only good quality components having certification of Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS/ISO) are supplied to the farmers. There is also a need to establish a Central
Testing Facility (CTF) to deal comprehensively with the design, development and testing
of all equipments, devices, machines used in sprinkler and micro systems using state-of art
technology (Kulkarni 2005; GI, 2004).

BOX 1: REASONS FOR SLOW GROWTH OF AREA UNDER DRIP AND SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

• High capital cost required for the system

• Subsidy is not easily available for farmers
• Subsidy is not available for sugarcane crop
• Poor awareness about the importance of WSTs
• Not suitable for marginal & small farmers following subsistence farming
• After sale service is not satisfactory
• Free electricity and low price of canal water
• Fear about system clogging among the farmers
• Promotional schemes are not available in many states
• Poor extension and training facilities to farmers
• Benefit-cost of WSTs has not been adequately demonstrated to farmers
• State machinery (officials) is not keen to promote MI without subsidy

5. There has been a significant development in sprinkler technology all over the
world. Several variations of sprinkler irrigation system, with improved design and
components are available in those countries, where it is popularly used. Efforts should be
made to manufacture those improved sprinkler system through joint ventures, with the
condition that the imported components and technology would be transferred to
indigenous manufacture within a period of two years. This would help reducing the cost
of the system and increasing the adoption of micro-irrigation at a large scale. As
suggested by TFMI, at least one percent of the outlay on micro-irrigation needs to be
earmarked for micro-irrigation research.

6. One of the major reasons for the slow growth of micro-irrigation in India is the high
initial investment. In spite of availability of subsidy from state agencies, majority of the
farmers are reluctant to invest in micro-irrigation system even in horticulture crops, which
is highly suitable for drip irrigation. Therefore, as suggested by TFMI, there is a need to
look into the technological options of which crop geometry modification is the most
important one. Instead of adopting traditional spacing, adoption of paired row planting has
been found to reduce the cost of the system by 40 percent in many crops including tomato,
brinjal, okra, etc. Therefore, micro-irrigation system should be tailored made, i.e., planned

26
and designed based on location specific parameters. Standard procedure provided under
subsidy scheme may not always help to reduce the cost of the system.

7. It is understood from field studies that capital cost required to install drip irrigation
is relatively high. Because of this reason, considerable percentage of farmers have
expressed that they are unable to adopt this technology for low value crops. If drip
system is made available with low cost, area under drip irrigation can be increased at a
faster rate. Therefore, measures can primarily be taken to reduce the fixed cost of drip
irrigation by promoting research and development activities. By recognizing drip industry
as an infrastructure industry as well as announcing tax holiday for specific time periods to
all those drip set industries which produce genuine drip materials, the competition can be
increased that will ultimately bring down the cost of the system. Some companies have
come out with low cost drip irrigation system which can be adopted even by the farmers
having less than one acre of land. Studies need to be carried out to find out the feasibility
of low cost drip materials including its environment feasibility using field level data.

8. The centrally sponsored scheme of drip irrigation does not provide subsidy for
sugarcane crop. The logic behind this is not clearly known. Since it is an important and
also a heavy water-consuming crop, this restriction should be removed to increase the drip
irrigated area at a faster rate. This would also ultimately help to reduce the water crisis
faced by various States to some extent.

9. The rate of subsidy provided through government schemes is fixed uniformly for
both water-intensive as well as less water-intensive crops. This needs to be restructured.
Special subsidy programme may be introduced for water-intensive crops like sugarcane,
banana, vegetables, etc. Differential subsidy rates can be fixed based on the types of crops
and the rate of consumption of water. Uniform level of subsidy schemes currently
followed for water-scarce and water-abundant areas need to be changed and higher
subsidy should be provided for those regions where the scarcity of water is acute and
exploitation of groundwater is very high as well.

10. Though there was no delay in sanctioning subsidy for those farmers adopting
micro-irrigation, Maharashtra State’s experience indicates that farmers have to wait at
least six months to receive the amount of subsidy from the concerned department. This
increases farmers’ debt burden as majority of the farmers use bank loan for installing drip
system in their field. In order to encourage the adoption of drip technology, adequate
arrangements should be made to distribute the amount of subsidy within one or two
months.

11. Sugar industries always try to increase the area under sugarcane to increase
their capacity utilisation in almost all the States in India. They are least bothered about the
method of cultivation of sugarcane. Since sugar industries have close contact with
sugarcane cultivators, some kind of target may be fixed for each sugar industry to bring
cultivation of sugarcane under drip method of irrigation. Apart from saving of water, this
would also help to achieve cultivation of sugarcane in sustainable manner. Despite
irrigation water shortage in many States, not only does the area under sugarcane continue
to grow at a relatively faster rate, but it is cultivated predominantly under flood method of
irrigation. This puts additional pressure on our limited water resources. In order to avoid
huge demand-supply gap in irrigation water in future, concerted policies should be
formulated to bring all possible areas of sugarcane under drip method of irrigation.

27
 12. Inadequate information about the operation, maintenance as well as the
usefulness of drip irrigation is one of the main reasons for its uneven spread across regions
in India. Farmers still do not have full knowledge regarding the usefulness of drip
irrigation. Even the adopters do not know fully how much of subsidy is available per
hectare for different crops. Owing to poor exposure, farmers are reluctant to invest such
huge money on micro-irrigation. In fact, many farmers do not know the fact that drip
irrigation can also be used efficiently and economically for crops like sugarcane, cotton,
vegetables, etc. Giving wide publicity and strengthening the existing extension services
can remove these problems. The extension network currently operated mainly by
government agencies does not seem to be making significant impact on the adoption of
this technology. Therefore, there is a need to revamp the whole extension network by
involving the drip set manufactures in order to increase the quality of extension service.

13. Drip sets manufacturers should be asked to involve intensively in promoting

micro-irrigation by introducing frequent demonstration at farmers’ field. Since the use of
micro-irrigation is still in the take-off stage in India, active role of the manufacturers’ is
essential in promoting drip irrigation as well as developing confidence among the farmers
about the usefulness of this new technology. The micro-system manufacturers should be
involved in providing advice on agronomic packages to the farmers so as to encourage the
adoption of WSTs at a large scale.

14. For a speedy growth of micro-irrigation, a special package scheme can be

introduced where priority can be given in providing bank loan for digging wells and
electricity connection (pump-set) for those farmers who are ready to adopt micro-
irrigation for cultivating any crop.

15. Groundwater is the only source of water being used for drip method of
irrigation in India. Unlike other countries, water from surface sources (dams, reservoirs,
etc) is not used for drip method of irrigation. Since water use efficiency under surface
sources is very low owing to heavy losses through conveyance and distribution, farmers
should be encouraged to use water from surface sources for drip method of irrigation.
This can be done by allocating certain proportion of water from each irrigation projects
only for the use of micro-irrigation.

16. One of the important reasons for the low spread of this technology even in the
water-scarce area is the availability of highly subsidized canal water as well as electricity
for irrigation pumpsets. Appropriate pricing policies on these two inputs may encourage
the farmers to adopt this technology.

17. Though micro-irrigation has been in use in different States since mid-eighties,
State-wise potential area is not estimated as of today. Therefore, it is essential to prepare
State-wise and crop-wise potential area for DMI. A detailed estimate on State-wise
potential would be useful to fix the target to be achieved and also for formulating schemes
for promoting micro-irrigation.

18. Except in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, no other state has separate state
sponsored schemes for promoting micro-irrigation as of today. All other states have been
operating schemes mainly with the support of Central government (which is known as
centrally sponsored schemes), which started in 1990-91. Considering the water shortage in

28
different states, it is essential to have separate State sponsored schemes in each state by
following the experience of Maharashtra state.

17. Clogging of drippers mainly due to poor quality of water has been a inherent
problem observed in certain parts of the country. It is realised that the normal acid
treatment does not help to mitigate the problem. Therefore, studies need to be carried out
to devise de-logging measures in such areas.

18. Training facilities for farmers are essential to increase the adoption of micro-
irrigation. Therefore, it should be made obligatory on all registered suppliers under
Government Schemes to have facilities for training for farmers in operation and
maintenance of the systems and also rendering extension services. The training should
include aspects such as crop water requirements, fertigation schedules and periodicity as
well as the intensity of water application (GOI, 2004).

19. It is understood from the field studies that the officials who are involving in
promoting micro-irrigation have inadequate knowledge about the technical and other
details of it (Narayanamoorthy, 1996). Therefore, as recommended by the TFMI, “the
state government extension staff will have to undergo ‘Refresher Courses’ to understand
and appreciate the intricacies of micro-irrigation and enabling role it can play in
modernising agriculture by optimising land and water resources” (GOI, p. 164).

20. It is observed that the price of micro-irrigation accessories such as emitters,

filters, laterals, etc. vary between shops and places. Sometimes farmers do face problem
in getting spare parts in time. It is necessary to provide quality drip materials in time for
farmers for the speedy adoption of micro-irrigation. To avoid price variation and non-
availability problem of spare parts, special efforts should be undertaken in the advanced
districts head quarters, taluk head quarters and even at block level.

7. Conclusion:

In this study an attempt is made to study the potential and prospects of micro-
irrigation in India using the available information. The study shows that that micro-
irrigation increases water saving and productivity of crops and that too with reduced cost
of cultivation. While water saving due to adoption of drip irrigation is found in the range
of 12-84 percent in different crops, the same is found to be in the range of 8-60 percent in
sprinkler irrigation method. Water saving is found to be relatively higher among the
water-intensive crops like sugarcane, banana and vegetable crops. Similarly, productivity
gain is found in almost all the crops cultivated under micro-irrigation as compared to the
same cultivated under conventional irrigation method. Besides these benefits, research
also indicates that MI can also reduce weed problems, electricity consumption (required
for lifting water from well and other sources), over-exploitation of groundwater, etc.
Available results suggest that water saving including water use efficiency and productivity
gains are relatively higher in those crops cultivated under DIM as compared to SIM.
INCID (1994 and 1998) reports mention that about 80 crops can be cultivated under drip
and sprinkler irrigation method. While DIM is highly suitable for wide spaced
horticulture and other crops, closely grown crops are found to be highly suitable for
sprinkler irrigation method. The capital cost required for installing the system varies with
crops depending upon space followed for cultivating the selected crops. Wide space crops

29
generally require relatively less capital cost as compared to the crops that are grown
closely.

Owing to promotional schemes introduced by the state and central governments,

the area under drip method of irrigation has increased from just 1500 ha in 1985-86 to
over 4.50 lakh ha in 2003-04, while the area under sprinkler irrigation increased from 0.23
mha in 1985-86 to 1.63 mha in 2004-05. In spite of having many advantages over
conventional method of irrigation, the area under micro-irrigation presently occupies only
very negligible percent in comparison to the total irrigated area as well as to its total
potential area. The total potential area for drip and sprinkler irrigation is estimated to be
21.09 mha and 50.22 mha respectively. As per the latest information, only 2.13 percent of
total drip potential and 3.30 percent of sprinkler potential area has only been utilised.

It has been argued that the adoption of micro-irrigation cannot be increased

without providing subsidy because of its capital-intensive nature. There is no doubt that
micro-irrigation is a capital-intensive technology, but it does not mean that its adoption of
cannot be increased without subsidy. Subsidy can be a necessary condition for
encouraging the adoption of micro-irrigation, but cannot be a sufficient condition for
sustaining the growth of it, as many other factors determine the adoption of the same.
Studies carried out using field level data from Maharashtra on three crops clearly show
that the investment on drip irrigation is economically viable even without government
subsidy. The estimated benefit-cost (BC) ratio varies from 1.73 to 2.23 among the three
crops under without subsidy condition (see, Narayanamoorthy, 1997; 2004; 2005). Even
though subsidy is not needed to enhance the economic viability of the system, it is still
needed to enhance the incentive for the widespread adoption of MI particularly among the
resource poor farmers (marginal and small categories). Subsidy can be phased out
eventually once the new irrigation technology covered an adequate enough to expand
subsequently through the demonstration effect.

Therefore, there is a need to find out the ways and means to convince the farmers
about the economic and social feasibility of micro-irrigation. Since it involves relatively
higher amount of fixed investment, farmers often ask the questions such as what will be
the payback period? Whether investment will be viable? How much will be the water
saving? and What will be the productivity gains? It appears that these questions arise
mainly because of poor exposure about the social and economic advantages of drip
technology. Thus, efforts are needed to convince the farmers through quality extension
network, as India’s highly successful green revolution was also the result of extension
innovations as much as technology. Considering the fast decline of irrigation potential
and competing demand for water from different sectors, all possible efforts are needed to
increase the adoption of water saving technologies so as to avoid water scarcity in the
future.

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