Question 1:

Tensile test: the following data were obtained for a metallic alloy. A cylindrical test specimen with gauge

length =47.2 mm, diameter= 13 mm was used.

Load (N) Length (mm)

400 47.20

3200 47.50

19200 47.90

35200 48.30

51200 48.70

56000 49.10

64000 50.0

61500 51.00

59000 51.50

57000 51.90

a) Plot the stress-strain curve (either in an Excel sheet and copy/paste the figure in this document, or

draw it by hand on a sheet of paper and copy the photo into this document)

b) Calculate the Young’s Modulus (report the value in MPa) and draw the corresponding line into graph

c) Determine the yield strength (0.2% offset), report the value in MPa, from graph and draw the

corresponding line in the graph.

d) Determine the ultimate strength (report the value in MPa) and indicate it in the graph.
Answer:

b) Value of Young’s modulus 14.23 MPa. This value was calculated from point 2 to point 5 in the straight

green line.

c) Yield strength is 400 MPa. This value was calculated by offset of 0.2% from the elastic part to the right

side, and the yield strength is given by the intersection point and it is shown using line in orange colour.

d) Ultimate yield strength is 480 MPa. It is shown by a dotted line in red color.

Question 2:

Ceramics:

Please name three ceramics commonly used as biomaterials and for each briefly describe their main use

in the human body.

Answer:

The three common ceramics used as biomaterials for bone and dental implants. They are also used in

respirators, heart peacemakers and kidney dialysis. The three common types of biomaterials and their

uses are:

Zirconium oxides 𝒁𝒓𝑶𝟐 (Zirconia)

It is widely used in large implants for example acetabular cup and femoral head and also in implants

fabrication. It is also used for dental crowns.

Aluminium oxides 𝑨𝒍𝟐𝑶𝟑 (Alumina)

Aluminium oxide is used in bone plates and bone screws, knee prosthesis as well as in joint replacement

(orthopedics) material. It is also used as bridges and crowns in dental.

Calcium phosphate (𝑪𝒂𝟐++ 𝑷𝑶𝟒𝟑−)

Calcium phosphate is used in repairing material for example damaged bone or disease. When

crystallized into hydroxyapatite it can be used for bone stiffness, enamel and dentin as well as

reinforcing hard tissues.

Question 3:

Polymers sterilization:

a) Briefly describe three sterilization methods

b) Describe the problems encountered for each of these methods

Answer:

Dry heat sterilization - it is a method which involves use of environment in the form of dry oven. Air is

usually treated to a temperature range of 160 0C to 190 0C. The material under sterilization is used to

determine the time and level of temperature. The dry heat is used to either oxidise or kill bacteria. The

process entails heating and finally cooling it which takes a lot of time.

Problems encountered:

It requires a lot of temperatures thus the polymers to be sterilized by use of dry heat are limited. For

example linear polymers like PMMA and PE cannot be produced through this method because the

temperature is higher than their melting temperature. However, for some polymers it is lower than the

melting temperature, oxidation can occur at temperature of dry sterilization which can occur in

polyamide. Silicone and polytetrafluoroethylene are the only which can be sterilized in safe manner by

using this process.

2. Steam sterilization (autoclaving)- this method involves generating saturated steam into a pressure

chamber at a temperature of about 120 °C - 135 °C. The materials are kept in a device known as

autoclave where they can be heated by pressured steam.

Problems

This method involves use of water vapour in which some polymers cannot withstand the temperature.

For example, nylons, PE and PVC cannot withstand the temperature.

3. Chemical agents- this method involves use of some chemicals to sterilize at low temperature. some of

the chemicals are propylene, ethylene and hypocloride.

Problems

This method has the challenge of cost and time. A lot of time is taken when compared to the heating

methods. Another problem is that even at room the chemical agent can deteriorate the polymer.

Question 4:

Polymers degradation in the body:

For three different types of polymers, once they are inserted in the human body, briefly describe the

corresponding (most common) degradation scenarios.

Answer:

Three main factors cause deterioration which are thermal, chemical and physical factors.

The following are the scenarios for the three types of polymers:

1. Polypropylene- deterioration does not occur.

2. Polyethylene- if the material is of low density, it will lose its tensile strength and lipids will be

absorbed. If it is of high density, there will be no deterioration.

3. Polyvinylchloride- it occurs due to tissue reactions and material becoming brittle in case

plasticizer leaches out.

Degradation scenarios are as shown in the following table.

Question 5:

X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging:

does it allow non-destructive or destructive imaging, of the examined specimen? Discuss.

Answer:

Micro-computed tomography is used in producing non-destructive 3D imaging. It applies the same

method as the normal CT scanners, but uses a smaller scale which gives a higher resolution. Micro-CT is

made with an x-ray micro-focus source an also a detector. As the object rotates the x-ray will pass

through the object and then images will be taken at different angles till when the object rotates at 180

or 360 degrees. Computer software is used to preview the internal structure of the sample and the

images appear as slices of the specimen. The images are then reconstructed to generate the 3D image.

Micro-CT produces non-destructive images with high resolution without harming or cutting specimen.
Question 6:

Is the measure of bone mineral density (BMD) measured by Dual X-ray energy absorptiometry (DXA)

sufficient for assessing fracture risk of an individual? Answer the question including a justification for

your answer.

Answer:

It is hard to determine if by measuring mineral density of bone it is enough for predicting risk of fracture

or not when there is no better method. Bone density has a relationship with the fracture causes. From

studies one less SD increases bone fracture risk by percentage of approximately 50-150%. However, if

the BMD itself is measured it will be hard to assess if a patient will get a fracture (Mccreadie, B.R. and

Goldstein, S.A., 2000). Geometry of the bone and the mass distribution play a major role when finding

out bone strength (Mccreadie, B.R. and Goldstein, S.A., 2000). Also, if BMD itself is measured it will not

show cortical thickness of part and bone thickness of trabecular which can bring a difference in risk of

fracture. Another factor is the rates of loading and angles. Every bone can be such that it is adapted to

various directions of loading which will make the bone stronger. There are no clinical devices which can

show microarchitectures of bone and thus it is difficult to find out the risk of fracture. BMD does not

give accurate results and therefore it is recommended that the clinics use even other methods. The

appropriate alternative is by measuring BMD and relating the measurement to geometry of the bone

and the bone loading angles. If more research and studies are carried out it will be possible to find which

relationship exists for the bone strength and the loading angle. For example, if hip is considered, there

are daily loading angles which need to be put in consideration when doing calculation. BY measuring

BMD, bone geometry will be determined as well as the area of strength and loading angles. These can

be used to create measurements which are more accurate for the fracture risk.
Question 7:

Analysis and assessment of implants:

What are the objectives of pre-clinical and post-operative testing? Discuss

Answer:

 The objectives of preclinical testing are essential in determining safety, biocompatibility and

efficiency of implants. Testing the material while in vivo environment is important to ascertain

that it will be save and it cannot cause inflammation or harm (Yonsei Med J. 1999).

 Prior to clinical trial, screening out implants weak designs or medical device is a preclinical

objective.

 For a competitive environment it is critical to confirm that the newly developed design will be

better than the existing design.

The above objectives can be implemented in number of testing methods. Four mechanisms are used to

carry out the testing and they are finite element analysis (FEA), strain measurements and analytical

methods and wear and loosening stimulators.

Post-operative:

The main aim of post-operative is to help in eliminating design failure at the early stages.

Question 8:

Analysis and assessment of implants, pre-clinical testing: What are the advantages of using Finite

Element analysis over experimental testing? Discuss

Answer:

Finite element analysis method is used to predict mechanical behavior for example that of implant in

certain conditions of a physiological loading. Advantages of FEA method over experimental testing are:
 1. FEA method can represent cadavers or patients in CT-scans in a more accurate manner. The

CT-scan or actual design of CAD can be used. As such, practitioners can predict the likely

behavior of the implant and also include loadings of daily activities. It is hard for process to

happen in experiment because it is hardly possible to obtain similar 100 femurs. In case they

are the same, each of the cadavers will have different activities which make

microarchitectures of bone different.

2. For a FEA parameters of the implant can be changed and other tests applied. In an

experimental set up applying a given cyclic loading and braking the sample it will require a

different loading.

Refrences:

Mccreadie, B.R1. and Goldstein, S.A., 2000. Biomechanics of fracture: is bone mineral density sufficient

to assess risk?. Journal of bone and mineral research, 15(12), pp.2305-2308.

Park JC, Lee DH, Suh H. Preclinical evaluation of prototype products. Yonsei Med J. 1999 Dec;40(6):530-

535. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.1999.40.6.530