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A definition of information
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Andrew D Madden
Sun Yat-Sen University
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One difficulty faced by students on many information management courses is the lack
of any attempt to teach concepts of information. Therefore, if a core module does not
fit in with a student’s existing concept of information, it can make it hard for the stu-
dent to recognise the relevance of that module. This paper addresses that problem by
summarising concepts of information, and by presenting a simple model that attempts
to unite the various concepts listed. The model is based on the idea that the meaning
in a message depends on the context in which the message originated (the authorial
context), and the context in which it is interpreted (the readership context).
Characteristics of authors, readers and messages are discussed. The impact of the
‘knowledge’ of ‘information’ users, and of their community, is considered. Implications
of the model are discussed. A definition of information is suggested, which attempts to
encapsulate the nature of information implied by the model.
•
Introduction • of the kind described above. The purpose
Following a return to full-time education after • of this short paper is to explore concepts of
several years in scientific research, the author • information that have been suggested, and to
•
recently completed a MSc in Information • propose a definition that encapsulates them.
Management. As student representative on • It is not intended to present new ideas, but
the teaching committee the author was able • rather to consolidate existing ideas in a way
•
to gain insights into some of the difficulties • that makes them easy to put across to stu-
experienced by the course organisers. A • dents. The complexity of ideas concerning
disproportionate number of complaints were • information is such that a paper this length
•
received about one module in particular. The • can scarcely do them justice, but it is intend-
module in question, though no more intel- • ed that this paper should provide a starting
lectually demanding than any other, was • point to which students can relate modules
•
technically more demanding. It was a core •
as diverse as document retrieval and systems
module, so students had to take it, and many • modelling.
resented the fact. One common criticism was •
that the relationship of the module to the • What is information?
•
course as a whole was unclear. It became • Attempts to answer the question ‘What is
apparent that the issue of whether or not the • information?’ have, not surprisingly, occupied
module was appropriate was dependent on • the thoughts of information scientists for a
•
a student’s concept of information. It was also • long time: almost certainly since before the
clear that concepts of information were not • term ‘information science’ was coined in 1955
being taught on the course. Discussion with • [3]. The lay person, asked to define informa-
•
students on courses elsewhere in the UK sug- • tion, is most likely to regard it as:
gested that this is not unusual. • An item of information or intelligence;
The paucity of theory in information • a fact or circumstance of which one is
•
science has often been commented on [1, 2], • told. (OED)
and has led to a pragmatic approach to both • This is just one of the many dictionary
the teaching and practice of information • definitions of the word. Indeed, information
•
science. The resulting piecemeal view of the •
scientists appear to have been reluctant to
subject has, not surprisingly, led to problems • propose definitions of information, preferring
to the communication model proposed by • It has been argued that what motivates
•
Jakobson [14]. This too comprises three com- • someone to seek information is a recognition
ponents (addresser, addressee, and mes- • by the seeker of ‘an anomaly in his/her state
sage). Because it deals with the intentional • of knowledge’ [4, p. 81]. Moser [16, p. 350],
•
transfer of information, however, it places • questions how ‘normal’ and ‘anomalous’
greater emphasis on the means by which • states of knowledge are to be identified or
messages are transmitted, and excludes a • measured, and makes the point that ‘infor-
•
great deal of information sources. • mation, to be generated, need not actively be
• instigated on the ‘recipient’s’ side’.
The importance of recognising • This observation is highly relevant to the
•
context • context-reliant model of information recep-
Wilson [3] stresses the importance of context • tion described in this paper. Checkland
in dictating information needs, but makes no • argues that ‘consciousness makes man, via
•
mention of the impact of context on the inter- •
his W(orld View)s, a meaning-endowing ani-
pretation and effectiveness of information • mal’ [17, p. 219]. If this is accepted, then it is
materials. Hjørland considers ‘subject analy- • the meaning endowed within the World View
sis of documents as one of the most funda- • that will determine whether information is
•
mental activities of library and information • sought, what information is sought, and
professionals’ [2, p. 610]. • how it is interpreted. Anomalies may be a
One implication of the model presented • motivating factor. People who, unlike Lewis
•
here is that such an analysis requires an • Carroll’s ‘Humpty Dumpty’, are not happy to
appreciation of the context. As Hjørland • ‘believe six impossible things before break-
notes: • fast’ may seek information in an effort to
•
The subject of a book (or any other • resolve some of the discrepancies in their
document, or message) is closely • World View.
related to what kind of answers peo- • Alternatively, however, the meaning con-
•
ple can find from reading the book... • ferred by a World View may provide some-
Any document thus has an infinite • one with a paradigm of ‘normality’, which can
number of subjects [2, p. 610]. • be used in the generation of hypotheses.
•
So to predict the effect of information on •
Here, information may be sought to test the
a particular user, it is necessary first to envis- • hypotheses in order to establish or to extend
age the potential user. In classifying informa- • ‘normality’.
tion, therefore, the information scientist is •
•
implicitly classifying the user. • Personal paradigms as context
• The word ‘paradigm’ above is used in its dic-
Information and knowledge • tionary sense: ‘pattern, example, to exhibit
•
Earlier, the importance of context in causing • beside, show side by side’ (OED) rather than
a stimulus to become informative was dis- • in the ways in which Kuhn [18] used the term
cussed, but arguably the most fundamental • in his philosophy of science. While Kuhn used
•
context was omitted: that of the knowledge • ‘paradigm’ to describe systems by which
of the recipient of the information. The exam- • meaning could be shared in a research com-
ples of contexts listed above will all shape that • munity, the word is used above to describe
knowledge, hence their significance, but in • the ways in which an individual organises
•
addition the knowledge will be affected by • information within his or her World View.
an incalculable array of experiences and • The difference is significant when con-
aptitudes. • sidering the evaluation of information.
•
The association between knowledge and • Information scientists can only assess infor-
information seeking is well established: ‘...the • mation insofar as their World Views match
idea of using cognitive models as the basis for • those of the people for whom they are eval-
•
information retrieval system design has •
uating it. It is because the match is inexact
aroused considerable interest...’ [15, p. 63]. • that browsing and serendipity are important
factors in information seeking. Data and texts • developed for ‘the beauty of the game’ rather
•
that appear irrelevant to an evaluator may • than for use, it would presumably have been
provide the missing piece of a puzzle to a • held to have little informative value. Despite
researcher; but the data and texts will only be • this, the text was ‘completely available’ and
•
informative if the puzzle is known. • clearly retrievable; and within the context of
Probably the best known example in sci- • Heisenberg’s research it became invaluable
ence of a serendipitous discovery arose • information.
•
because of the problem of King Hieron’s •
crown. The king, wishing to know whether • Information in the community
the crown was pure gold as claimed by the • Although the knowledge of the information
•
goldsmith, or whether a gold/silver alloy had • user may be the ultimate informing context,
been used, asked Archimedes to investigate. • from the point of view of an information man-
Archimedes is reputed to have arrived at the • ager wishing to provide relevant information
•
solution when, as he climbed into his bath- •
it is probably an impractical starting point. It
tub, he observed water overflowing from it. • is for this reason that information specialists
Within the context of his knowledge, his • tend to deal with information as a represen-
thoughts, and his ideas, the stimulus of over- • tation of knowledge, or ‘information-as-thing’
•
flowing water was informative. Archimedes • [21].
deduced that the quantity of water displaced • As was stated above, however, commu-
was equivalent to the volume of his body, and • nity is also an important context. For the pur-
•
so had a means of determining the density of • poses of the information manager, this is
the crown [19]. • usually the context by which information is
The history of science is full of such tales: • defined. What is stored in collections of
•
from the apple that gave rise to Newton’s • informative things, whether those collections
thoughts on gravity, to the dream of snakes • be archives, libraries, or digitised records, is
from which Kekule derived the structure of • stored with a view to the needs of the target
•
benzene. Such examples, however, are of lit- • community.
tle practical relevance to the information sci- • The idea that information is embedded
entist, since information of this kind is • in socio-cultural contexts is not new of course
•
impossible to organise. A more constructive •
[22]. What has changed for the information
and more recent example involves the work • professional, however, is the extent to which
of Heisenberg in quantum mechanics. • the nature of the community being served
According to C.P. Snow, in the early 1920s, • must be considered. The traditional librarian
•
Heisenberg was seeking to find mathematical • was usually a professional, catering for other
tools which would enable him to relate the • professionals educated to a similar level, and
set of rules associated with any given atom to • therefore well able to anticipate their require-
•
that atom’s set of properties. • ments. In the case of public libraries, the user
The trouble was, he didn’t know • community defined itself by its desire to use
enough of the curiosities of nine- • the library. This is still true, but given the ever-
•
teenth- century mathematics, when all • expanding range of alternative sources of
kinds of mathematical arts had been • information and entertainment, this commu-
developed. Not for use, but for the • nity is declining.
•
sheer beauty of the game. •
Fortunately... Max Born ... [knew of • Memes and the transfer of
the] old subject of matrix algebra, half • information
forgotten but completely available [20, • As was stated at the start of this paper, infor-
•
p. 67]. • mation is widely regarded as being a property
This half-forgotten branch of mathe- • of living organisms. Dennett in particular,
matics proved to be ‘precisely what they • stresses the connection between information
•
needed’. If Snow’s analysis is correct, how- • and awareness in many forms of life [23],
ever, and matrix algebra had indeed been • and discusses the impact of information on
consciousness. In so doing, he draws heavily • only a part of the whole and that ‘no satis-
•
on some of the ideas proposed by Dawkins • factory concept of information for information
[24] in The Selfish Gene. Here, Dawkins • science will ever be formulated in the sense
argues that a lot of ideas are reproduced in • of supplanting all others’.
•
human society in a manner analogous to • The model described above represents
genetic replication. He refers to such ideas as • an attempt, not to supplant concepts of infor-
memes, and the resulting study (mimetics) • mation, but to unite them. The idea that infor-
•
has begun to gain acceptability. Mimetics • mation is only information in certain
draws heavily on comparisons with biological • ‘informing contexts’ incorporates nearly all
evolution, and the succession of overlapping • widely held concepts of information, and
•
contexts described above bears a similarity to • would provide a useful point at which to intro-
Hutchinson’s classic definition of an ecologi- • duce students to the range of directions in
cal niche [25] as an n-dimensional hypervol- • which information science could take them.
•
ume: a mathematically defined space in •
which each of the factors affecting the viabil- • Appendix
ity of an organism occupying that niche is • Deliberate ambiguities are common in puz-
seen as a separate dimension. • zles, codes, and as literary devices. Simple
•
It has been commonly observed that • codes may carry both overt and cryptic mes-
‘Almost always the men who achieve... fun- • sages. For example, the message:
damental inventions of a new paradigm are • Coming in tomorrow evening. Meet at
•
either very young or very new to the field • Dinnington depot, eleven nineteen.
whose paradigm they change.’ [18, p. 90] • would convey to most readers the informa-
If the ideas presented above on commu- • tion that a liaison is being requested. Those
•
nity as a informing context are ‘linked’ to • able to apply an appropriate geographical
those on World View, the possibility is raised • context will derive additional information
that what is learned in one community will, • concerning the location. This instruction may
•
in the context of a different community, be • be relevant to the intended recipients of the
informative in ways that were not previously • message, but they would also receive further
recognised. To extend the evolutionary anal- • information by being aware that they should
•
ogy use in mimetics, this perhaps represents •
read the initial letters of the words. Punning
a cross-fertilisation of ideas. • headlines are commonly used to summarise
• two aspects of a newspaper story. A fictional
Conclusion • example would be that of John Smith, an
•
As has been argued, the materials with which • aspiring rock star arrested for assault. A report
the information scientist routinely works rep- • on his chart success and his appearance in a
resent just a small proportion of potential • police identity parade may be headlined:
•
information. This paper therefore proposes • ‘SMITH IN HIT PARADE’. Such exercises need
that, to capture the ‘breadth’ of possible infor- • not be limited to one language. A French-
mation sources, information should be • speaking reader of the book Mots d’Heures:
•
defined as: • Gousses, Rames (Verse 11) [26] will struggle
a stimulus originating in one system • to understand esoteric and surreal verse such
that affects the interpretation by anoth- • as:
er system of either the second sys- • Chacun Gille
•
tem’s relationship to the first or of the • Houer ne taupe de hile
relationship the two systems share • Tôt-fait, j’appelle au boiteur
with a given environment • Chaque fêle dans un broc, est-ce
•
(where a system is as defined above, • crosne?
in Readership Context). • Un Gille qu’aime tant berline à fêtard.
Brown [1, p. 185] suggests that, in • (Verse 11)
•
attempting to define information, information •
(Every bumpkin
scientists have tended to restrict the term to • While hoeing uncovers a mole and