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Living with Tectonic Hazards – Gateway 1
What is the internal structure of the Earth? (pg 6-7)
Core Mantle Crust
Location Central part of Earth 2nd layer of Earth Outermost layer of Earth
Composition Mostly iron and nickel N.A. Basalt (oceanic),

granite (continental)
State of matter Solid inner core; liquid outer core Solid but flows under high Solid
temperature and pressure
Thickness 1200km (inner); 2100km (outer) 2900km (upper and lower) 5km (oceanic) - 70km
(continental)
Temperature 3000-5000℃ 800-3000℃ N.A.
What is a tectonic plate? (pg 8)
Type of crust Location Thickness Type and age of rock
Oceanic Beneath deep oceans 5-8km Basalt - denser

From recently formed to 4 billion years old
Continental Beneath continental land masses 30-60km Granite - less dense

Less than 200 million years old
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Why do tectonic plates move? (pg 8)
What are the different types of plate boundaries? (pg 9-17)
Direction of movement Crust(s) involved Landforms found Examples of landforms Phenomenon experienced
Mid-oceanic ridge Mid-Atlantic Ridge Earthquake,

Oceanic-oceanic
volcanic eruption
Divergent
Rift valley, East African Rift Valley Earthquake,
Continental-continental
block mountain volcanic eruption
Oceanic trench, Mariana Trench, Earthquake,

Oceanic-oceanic
volcanic island arc Japanese Island Arc volcanic eruption
Convergent Continental-continental Fold mountain Himalayas Earthquake
Oceanic trench, Peru-Chile Trench, Earthquake,

Continental-oceanic
volcanic arc, fold mountain Andes or Rockies volcanic eruption
Transform N.A. Nil N.A. Earthquake
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Fig. 1: Oceanic-oceanic divergence
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Fig. 2: Continental-continental divergence
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Fig. 3: Oceanic-oceanic convergence
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Fig. 4: Oceanic-continental convergence
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Fig. 5: Continental-continental convergence
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Fig. 6: Transform plate boundary
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Why are some landforms found at different plate boundaries and how are they formed? (pg 21-29)
Fold mountains Rift valleys and block mountains
What is it? Mountains formed from layers of rocks being compressed ● Low-lying land surrounded by elevated ground, with a
and folded over millions of years rift (hole) in the valley ground
● Block of land with steep slopes
● Both formed by plates being pulled apart
Location Convergent plate boundaries Divergent plate boundaries
Force involved Compressional force Tensional force
Process involved Folding - rocks buckle and fold under compression Faulting - rocks fracture under tension
Example Himalayas, Rocky Mountains, Appalachian Mountains, Rift Valley: East African Rift Valley, Hutt Valley (New
Ural Mountains Zealand)
Block Mountain: Vosges (France), Black Forest (Germany)
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Fig. 1: Formation of volcano
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Shield volcano Stratovolcano
Example Mount Washington (USA) Mount Pinatubo and Mount Mayon (the Philippines),
Mount Merapi (Indonesia)
Location Along divergent plate boundaries Along convergent plate boundaries involving subduction
Lava silica content Low High
Viscosity Low High
Shape of volcano Shield, broad base, broad summit Conical, narrow base, narrow summit
Explosivity of eruption Gentle eruptions Violent eruptions
Types of hazards Lava flow, gentle earthquakes Lava flow, ashes, volcanic bombs, landslide,earthquake,
pyroclastic flow
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Fig. 2: Shield volcano
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Fig. 3: Stratovolcano
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What phenomena are found at plate boundaries and how are they formed? (pg 30-42)
Fig. 4: Factors affecting impact of earthquakes
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Fig. 5: Formation of tsunami
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Earthquake Impacts Explanation Example
Threat of tsunamis Tsunamis can travel long distances and 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake caused
cause widespread destruction at coastal tsunamis 4-39m high that went up to 10km
areas when it sweeps inland. inland, bringing much destruction to the city
of Banda Ache, Indonesia.
Disruption of service Ground vibrations can snap pipes and break 2004 Kobe, Japan earthquake damaged
cables, leading to disruption of electricity, pipes and transmission lines, causing
gas, water and communication services. disruption of electricity, gas and water
supplies to the city’s 1.4 million residents.
Fire Electrical wires exposed by earthquakes may 1995 Kobe, Japan earthquake caused
ignite flammable gas from ruptured pipes, extensive fires that burned for two days.
causing fires. This can spread quickly over a Firemen were unable to control the fire as
wide area and increase fatalities. water supply was also disrupted. Strong
winds caused the fire to spread further.
Landslides Shaking of ground can weaken slopes of hills 1970 earthquake off coast of Peru triggered
and mountains, leading to downward massive landslide that flattened town of
movement of soil, rock and vegetation debris, Ranrahirca within seconds and caused
i.e. a landslide. 18,000 deaths.
Destruction of properties People whose homes are destroyed will have 2011 Tohoku, Japan earthquake destroyed
to stay in temporary shelters while their many homes and led to a shortage of
homes are being rebuilt. housing.
Destruction of infrastructure Earthquakes can cause cracks to form in 1995 Kobe, Japan earthquake suffered from
roads and bridges, disrupting transport as it’s this, such that the city became inaccessible
unsafe to use the damaged roads. or difficult to reach by rescue efforts.
Loss of lives Lives of people living in earthquake zones 2008 Sichuan earthquake: 100,000 deaths
are constantly being threatened. 2010 Haiti earthquake: 300,000 deaths
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Risks of living near volcanoes Benefits of living near volcanoes
Destruction by volcanic materials Fertile volcanic soil

● Lava, pyroclastic flow and volcanic bombs are all hot and able to ● Lava and ash breakdown to form fertile volcanic soils that are
cause injuries, deaths and destruction. favourable to agriculture.
● E.g. ongoing eruption of Kilauea in Hawaii has erupted low-silica ● Volcanic soils of Java and Bali in Indonesia support cultivation of
lava that flows over large distances, causing damage to larger tea, coffee and rice.
areas.
Landslides Precious stones, minerals and building materials

● Structural collapse of volcano during eruption can trigger ● Volcanic rocks can be rich in precious stones and minerals,
landslides, leading to obstruction of river flow (can cause floods), which may be extracted after millions of years.
blocked roads and buried villages and farmland. ● Old volcanic rocks at Kimberley in South Africa are one of the
● 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz caused lahars (volcanic mud world’s richest sources of diamonds.
flow) that engulfed the town of Armero and killed more than
200,000 people.
Pollution Tourism
● Ash can cause respiratory problems while gases released like ● Volcanic areas offer a variety of activities for tourists to engage
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide may be harmful to people. in.
● 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland released lots of fine ash ● Almost 3 million people visit the ruins of Pompeii, Italy annually.
particles that posed a serious danger to aircraft engines. As a
result, there was a closure of airspace in much of Europe, leading
to flight delays for 1.2 million passengers daily and losses of
US$1.8 billion.
Effects on weather Geothermal energy

● Sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapour and other chemicals in ● Heat from Earth’s crust heats up groundwater, and the hot water
atmosphere to form sulphur-based particles that reflect Sun’s or steam can be used to drive turbines and produce electricity.
energy back into space, leading to temporary cooling. ● Over 70% of Iceland’s homes are heated by volcanic steam.
● 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Indonesia caused mean global
temperature to drop by as much as 1.7°C.
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Why do people continue to live in areas prone to earthquakes? (pg 49)
Fatalistic approach Acceptance approach Adaptation approach
Accept that earthquakes are unavoidable Accept that it is risky living in Accept risks and build to adapt with
earthquake-prone areas earthquakes
Resist evacuation and stay, common in less Area has benefits that prevent them from Well-prepared to face earthquakes, with
developed countries moving, common in developed countries emergency teams, building designs and
early warning devices
Believe in tradition that they must treat Believe that benefits overweigh risks Believe that there is nothing to be afraid of,
nature with respect to ensure peace with it as they are well prepared
Example: Republic of Haiti Example: United States of America Example: Japan
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Short-Term response Implementation Successes Limitations
Search And Rescue People are trapped under Survivors found after being Rescuers are given limited time
collapsed buildings are quickly trapped for weeks. of 3 days to find survivors as
located and freed. afterwards,they are unlikely to
E.g. Tohoku,Japan, still be alive.
2011,sniffer dogs & heat sensors
were deployed, successfully E.g. Tohoku, Japan, rescuers
rescuing survivors. had to rapidly search for
survivors in the towns affected.
Emergency, Food and Medical The injured are treated with clean Provision of immediate aid helps Medical supplies,food and water
supplies drinking water to stay hydrated survivors continue living. may not be sufficient and may
and prevent spread of diseases. cause social unrest.
E.g. Afyon, 2002 Turkish Red
Crescent Society immediately E.g. Haiti, 2010, looting & fighting
responded by delivering tents, broke out as people fought for
blankets and heaters to them. food and medical supplies.
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Long-term response Implementation Successes Limitations
Improving infrastructure Infrastructure and amenities are Develop stricter building codes so Reinforced buildings, meant to
rebuilt and improved upon after a that infrastructure is restored at a protect earthquakes, are not
disaster. higher safety level. necessarily protected against
tsunamis. Additional protection
E.g. In Kobe, Japan, in 1995, could be in the form of coastal
Japan spent billions developing protection structures such as
technology to build more breakwaters.
earthquake-resistant buildings.
E.g. Although most Chile’s
buildings are earthquake-
resistant, coastal areas still suffer
massive damage from a tsunami.
Provision of health care Health options such as long-term Problems can be identified and Improving health options can be
counselling are provided. The addressed early. very challenging.
loss of loved ones, homes or jobs
after earthquakes cause long- E.g. in Christchurch, New E.g. Survivors, such as those in
lasting trauma. Zealand in 2011, significant Haiti after the earthquake in 2010
problems of anxiety and lack access to basic necessities.
depression were identified
amongst all age groups of the
affected population. This resulted
in more health workers being
deployed.
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Living with Tectonic Hazards – Case Study: Earthquake in Tohoku, Japan
(pg 60-64)
Effects of earthquake ● The powerful earthquake generated a devastating tsunami, which affected areas of the coast that are relatively
on people and the flat and low-lying for up to 10 km inland.
environment ● The waves swept away everything in their paths, instantly turning large developed areas into wasteland.
● Fishing boats and cars were damaged, while millions of people were suddenly without a home.
Responses from the ● Government agencies sent members of the Self-Defence Forces ,the police, the Coast Guard and local
people disaster response teams to the disaster area.
● Rescue centres provided places where survivors could eat, wash and sleep.
● Government carried out long-term actions to boost economy.
● Bank of Japan was prepared to pump an extra US$183 billion into the economy, to ensure adequate funding for
rebuilding the affected area was available and prevent bankruptcies from the loss of jobs and destruction of
infrastructure.
Further measures to
reduce risks
Mitigation measures to Explanation Implementation
reduce further risks
Continue the Japan’s existing codes undoubtedly saved Replacement buildings and structures
enforcement of lives. However, the strength of the e.g. bridges, need to be constructed to
earthquake building tsunami was largely unexpected. the highest standards of protection from
codes for housing and both earthquakes and tsunamis.
infrastructure
Provide coastal The scale and location of coastal barriers There is a need to improve coastal
protection and defences are inadequate during the defences,monitoring and warning
tsunami. system, and the construction of safe
areas in secure buildings as it would be
almost impossible to remove people
from the areas most likely to be affected
by a tsunami.
Continue research on The widespread use of computers will Seismic surveys to identify faults and
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Living with Tectonic Hazards – Case Study: Earthquake in Tohoku, Japan
monitoring and warning definitely identify areas of risk immediately potential areas of liquefaction need to
systems after an event which speed up the continue.
provision of aid and direct it to where it is
most needed.
Rethink the future of Damaged nuclear power stations could Safer, more reliable alternative sources
nuclear power stations cause great health risks to people. of energy are being considered, as it
would take decades and high costs to
reoccupy the evacuation area around
the crippled nuclear power plant.
Begin dialogues It will increase people’s awareness of ● Authorities: involved people in local
amongst the authorities what to do, where to go and how to assist response team.
and with the people of others during a disaster. ● Government: improved the process
Japan of research and development of
infrastructure and monitoring
warning systems.
Risk vs. opportunity ● Risk: loss of lives, homes and jobs.

● Opportunity: economy may be boosted from reconstruction after the earthquake.
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Variable Weather & Changing Climate – Gateway 1
What is the difference between weather and climate? (pg 73)
Weather Climate
The condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. The average condition of the atmosphere of a specific place over a
long period of time, usually over 30 years.
What are the elements of weather? (pg 73-88)
Temperature
Temperature calculation Definition Formula
Mean daily temperature Sum of hourly temperatures divided by 24 hours Sum of hourly temp.
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Diurnal temperature range Difference of max. And Min. temp. In a day. Max daily temp. - min daily temp.
Mean monthly temperature Average of daily temperature recorded in a month Sum of mean daily temp. in the month
Number of days in the month
Mean annual temperature Average temperature recorded in a year Sum of mean monthly temp. in the year
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Annual temperature range Difference between max. And min. Mean monthly Max mean monthly temp. - min mean monthly temp.
temperatures recorded in a year
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Fig. 1: Factors affecting temperature (LADC)
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Relative Humidity
Definition Formula
The ratio between the actual amount of water vapour present in a Actual amount of water vapour in the air(g/m3) x 100%
mass of air and the maximum amount of water vapour the air could Maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold
hold at a given temperature.
Fig. 2: Inverse relationship between temperature and relative humidity.
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Clouds
Fig. 3: Formation of clouds
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Rainfall
Convectional Rain Relief Rain
Conditions ● The surface of the earth is heated by the sun. ● The prevailing winds pick up moisture from the
● The warm surface heats the air above it. Hot air sea as they travel across it, making the air moist.
always rises so this newly heated air does so. ● The moist air reaches the coast and is forced to
● As it rises the air-cools and begins to rise over mountains and hills.
condensate. ● This forces the air to cool and condense, forming
● Further rising and cooling causes a large clouds.
amount of condensation to occur and rain is ● The air continues to be forced over the
formed. mountains and so it drops its moisture as relief
● Convection tends to produce towering rain.
cumulonimbus clouds, which produce heavy ● Once over the top of the mountain the air will
rain and possible thunder and lightning. usually drop down the other side, warming as it
does so. This means it has a greater ability to
carry water moisture and so there is little rain on
the far side of the mountain.
Mechanism for moist air to rise Heating and convection currents Forced up when encountered with physical barrier
Characteristics of rainfall Lasts for a short time but brings intense rainfall over Brings rain only on the windward side of the
the area. mountain where air had risen up.
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Air pressure
Air pressure decreases as altitude increases. Air is less dense at higher altitudes thus, the lower air pressure.
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Wind
Term Definition
Wind Movement of air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure
Wind speed Wind speed, or wind flow velocity, is a fundamental atmospheric quantity.
Wind direction Wind direction is reported by the direction from which it originates.
Prevailing wind Prevailing winds are winds that blow predominantly from a single general direction over a particular point on the Earth's
surface
Fig. 4: Formation of land and sea breeze
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Fig. 5: Northeast monsoon
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Fig. 6: Southwest monsoon
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What are the climatic types and where are they experienced? (pg 91-93)
Equatorial Monsoon Cool temperate
Location (Latitude) 10° north & south of Equator 5-25° north & south of Equator 45-60° north & south of Equator
Place examples Iquitos, Peru Mangalore, India London, UK
Temperature High Moderate Low
Rainfall High Moderate Low
Seasons Rains throughout the year, hence Has distinct wet and dry seasons. Experiences four seasons.
there is no distinct wet or dry
season.
Fig. 7: Climographs of three types of climate
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What is the greenhouse effect and how does it work? (pg 102)
● It is a natural process which is essential to life on earth.
● The earth’s surface is warmed in the day by absorbing the shortwave radiation from the sun.
● It is kept warm at night as greenhouse gases (e.g. ater vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and chlorofluorocarbons) trap
longwave radiation from the earth’s surface.
What is the enhanced greenhouse effect? (pg 103)

● An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which leads to a rise in global temperatures.
● It occurs when human activity causes greenhouse gases to be released at a far greater rate than that of natural emissions of greenhouse
gases.
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What are some natural causes of climate change? (pg 100-101) +

How do human activities lead to the enhanced greenhouse effect? (pg 103-108)
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How does climate change affect people? (pg 109-111)
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What are the responses to climate change? (pg 112-117)
Response Description of strategy Successes Limitations
Responses at the international level
Kyoto Protocol An international convention set Countries like France, Greece, Countries such as Denmark,
up with the goal of reducing the and Ireland have met or Spain and Austria did not achieve
levels of greenhouse gases in the exceeded targets set by the their targets.
atmosphere. Kyoto Protocol.
Not compulsory for countries with
First drawn up in Kyoto, Japan on The Kyoto Protocol is also low greenhouse gases emissions
11 December 1997, and came successful in encouraging to provide support to other
into force on 16 February 2005. sustainable development. The countries. For example, countries
Clean Development Mechanism with low greenhouse gas
(CDM) gave Certified Emission emissions do not have to provide
Reduction (CER) credits to energy-efficient technology to
countries which carried out countries with high greenhouse
emission-reduction projects (e.g. gas emissions. Hence, countries
installing energy-efficient with high greenhouse gas
infrastructure). CDM also helped emissions may not be able to
developed countries reduce their achieve their emission targets as
greenhouse gas emissions when easily.
they take on emission-reduction
projects in less developed Overall, limited effectiveness on
countries. reducing global greenhouse gas
emissions because countries
which did not sign the Protocol
(e.g. China, India, US) continued
to contribute significantly to the
global emissions.
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Copenhagen Conference Purpose was to improve on the Brought together a group of Targets set by various countries
measures developed for the important political figures to are insufficient to reduce
Kyoto Protocol to deal with the discuss the measures that will emissions to within 2°C of the
issue of climate change. address the issue of climate temperatures before 1850.
change effectively.
No agreement made on how the
The Copenhagen Accord drawn reduction of greenhouse gases is
up during the Conference is an to be carried out, making it
international agreement with the difficult for countries to take any
long-term goal of keeping any action.
increases in the global mean
maximum temperature to within Many developed countries
2°C of the global temperatures refused to sign the Copenhagen
before 1850. Accord, and the accord is not
legally binding. The targets set by
Targets for the reduction of various countries to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions were greenhouse gas emissions were
successfully set during the a guideline rather than a
conference. Developed countries condition to be fulfilled. Hence,
were committed to reduce many countries did not keep to
greenhouse gas emissions by their targets.
various amounts by 2020.
Developed countries have also
agreed to provide a total of
US$30 billion to less developed
countries for the period between
2010 to 2012 and provide long-
term financial aid of US$100
billion a year by 2020. The funds
will help less developed countries
reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions.
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Responses at the national level
Singapore
Singapore Green Plan 2012 Aims to generate 60% of As early as 2010, about 79% of Natural gas requires complex
Singapore’s energy needs using Singapore’s electricity was being treatment plants to process and
natural gas by 2012. generated from natural gas. This pipelines to transport. These
exceeded the Ministry of pipelines have high maintenance
Natural gas is a cleaner form of Environment’s target ahead of costs because they need to be
energy in comparison to coal schedule. laid underground and have to be
because it does not produce checked regularly for leakage.
smoke.
Green Mark Scheme Aims to encourage more new Existing ‘green’ buildings such as Construction companies and
‘green’ buildings, which are more Plaza by the Park, Standard developers in Singapore are
energy-efficient. Buildings which Chartered @ Changi and the more conservative about
are more energy-efficient use National Library Building, have adopting new ideas about ‘green’
less energy to provide the same reported energy savings of 15- buildings.
service. Examples of such 35% compared to conventional
buildings are buildings that run buildings. This cuts down ‘Green’ buildings are built using
partly on solar energy. greenhouse gas emissions by processes that are
reducing the use of fossil fuels to environmentally friendly and
generate electricity. resource-efficient and may also
cost more to build because
‘green’ materials may be more
expensive. Examples of ‘green’
materials are bamboo or recycled
metal that are non-toxic,
reusable, renewable or
recyclable.
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Plant-A-Tree Programme Aims to maintain Singapore’s The programme has contributed Trees takes many years to
status as a Garden City by to an estimated 60,000 trees mature, so the positive effects of
planting trees. Residents are planted yearly throughout the tree planting takes time to
encouraged to donate money to Singapore by the National Parks materialise. Even relatively fast-
buy a tree or take part in tree Board (NParks). Trees are the growing trees such as angsanas,
planting events that take place lungs of the environment as they raintrees and yellow flames that
monthly throughout Singapore. remove carbon dioxide from the were planted by NParks took 25
atmosphere. years to reach their full height.
India
National Urban Transport Policy Aims to reduce the number of Achieved success after it was Public transport in cities requires
(NUTP) vehicles on the road by linked with India’s Jawaharlal extensive infrastructure
developing public transport and Nehru National Urban Renewal consisting of underground or
non-motorised means of Mission scheme (JNNURM). above-ground rail systems, road
transportation such as cycling. Fundings from JUNNURM networks and comprehensive bus
The policy also calls for the use enabled state and national feeder systems to be effective.
of cleaner technologies and for government’s implementation of Such systems require plenty of
reduced travel distances within urban transport networks. time and human resources to
major cities. Projects resulting from NUTP and establish.
JNNURM improved pedestrian
infrastructure around transport In one city alone, such
zones in Hyderabad. infrastructure often costs a large
sum of money and construction
For example the development of takes many years to complete.
cycle tracks in Pune and fare
integration between Increase in number of citizens
Ahmedabad’s existing transport who are wealthy enough to afford
systems and a new Bus Rapid private vehicles may reduce
Transit System (BTRS), demand for public transport.
encouraging public transport
usage. At the start, only 20 cities
in India had implemented a
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BRTS. By 2010, it increased to

68.
NUTP also achieved rail

expansion in Delhi as a
successful result. The
implementation includes 186 km
of metro rail that transports over
1.8 million passengers per day,
has kept 91,000 vehicles off the
city’s roads each day and
reduced 6.3 million tonnes of
greenhouse gas emissions each
year. Subsequently, the metro rail
was also awarded $9.5 million
worth of Certified Emission
Reductions (CER), the first time
credits were ever awarded to a
metro network. CER credits allow
India to offset its carbon dioxide
emissions and help meet the
Kyoto Protocol target.
Energy Labelling Programme The programme encourages The label is compulsory for frost- Standards and labelling are not
consumers to choose products free refrigerators, fluorescent developed for appliances such as
which promote energy lamps and air conditioners, and is battery chargers, computer
conservation and help reduce the voluntary for other appliances monitors, heat pumps and
nation’s greenhouse gas such as ceiling fans, television freezers.
emissions. sets, washing machines and
computers. The majority of the public is
unaware of the labelling
There is an increase in sales of programme, showing there is
energy-efficient products since need for a stronger awareness
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2007. As of 2011, two major campaign.

laptop manufacturers have
pledged to adopt the labelling The success of these policies is
system. also hindered by the Indian
Government’s promise to use
coal-fired power stations to
increase electricity access for its
citizens, which emits large
amounts of greenhouse gases.
The Indian Network of Climate Network comprising of 220 In November 2010, INCCA India has a rapidly developing
Change Assessment (INCCA) scientists from 120 research released its first assessment on economy and thus, produces
institutions aiming to promote the predicted impacts of climate large amounts of greenhouse
domestic research on climate change in India for the next 20 gases that are emitted from
change. Research provides data years. Issues raised were industrial processes and
on problems and risks associated potential effects of climate urbanisations.
with climate change and allows change on weather, sea levels,
policies to be formulated and ecosystem, biodiversity, Recommendations by INCCA to
implemented. agriculture, human health and reduce greenhouse gas
water supply. emissions may not be taken up
by the government as it hinders
The research network India’s economic development.
recommended systematic and
continuous observations on
India’s physical and biological
systems.
It also recommended the

establishment of region-specific
committees to monitor the effects
of climate change and develop
action plans for that specific area.
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Global Tourism – Gateway 1
Who are the tourists? (pg 5)
Term Definition
Tourists Persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for more than 24 hours but not more than a
year.
International tourism Tourism outside of tourist’s own country.
Domestic tourism Tourism within tourist’s own country.
How do tourist destinations differ from one another? (pg 5-19)
Types of Tourism What is it? What takes place there? Give two examples
Places of Scenic Beauty Travel to places with awe- Honeypot tourism, i.e. tourism ● The Grand Canyon, USA
inspiring scenery. that attracts large numbers of ● Victoria Falls, Zambia and
people due to a site’s scenic Zimbabwe
beauty.
Places with Good Facilities
MICE facilities Travel for business Meeting, incentives, conventions ● Marina Bay Sands Expo and
and events Convention Centre
● Suntec Singapore Convention
and Exhibition Centre
Educational facilities Travel for educational purposes Study tours and intensive ● Angkor Wat, Cambodia
or to learn something about the overseas educational ● University of Cambridge
place, such as its language or programmes
heritage.
Medical & spa facilities Medical tourism - travel to International travel to seek better ● South Korea for cosmetic
undergo medical procedures that medical treatment or health care surgery
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would enhance or restore health. services than what is available in ● Singapore for quality medical
the home countries. facilities and treatment
Health tourism - travel to ● Dead Sea for spa facilities
enhance, maintain or restore
minds and bodies.
Theme parks Travel to places with amusement Entertainment for both young and ● Legoland, Malaysia
park settings or are attractions old ● Disneyland, Florida
that have a central subject or
theme, such as movies.
Places with Rich Culture Refers to the distinct ways in

which people live that have
developed over time. Which
includes their language, social
customs, values and beliefs.
Heritage tourism Travel to experience different Traditional festivals, museums, ● Tower of London, UK
cultures and to understand the national and historical ● Forbidden City, Beijing, China
history of places better. monuments ● UNESCO World Heritage
Sites
Film-induced tourism Travel to see locations which are Visiting sites featured in films to ● Various locations in New
featured in films. understand how certain scenes Zealand (The Lord of the
were filmed or how these places Rings)
inspired parts of the film. ● Lotte World, Seoul, South
Korea (Stairway to Heaven)
Gourmet food & shopping Travel to enjoy certain cuisines or Eating and shopping ● Hong Kong
tourism to shop. ● London, UK
Pilgrimage tourism Travel to take part in a religious Journey to a sacred place, such ● Jerusalem in Israel
activity. as a shrine, a mosque, a temple (Christianity)
or a church, which are important ● Mecca, Saudi Arabia (Islam)
to a person’s beliefs and faith.
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Places of Conflict Travel to areas where wars, Dark tourism, i.e. traveling to ● Ruins of Pompeii, Italy
battles, man-made tragedies and sites associated with death and ● Ground Zero, New York City,
unfavourable political situation tragedy, usually done by USA
have occurred. survivors, relatives and friends of
those affected, as well as people
interested to know more about
the event.
Space Tourism Travel beyond Earth’s Short, suborbital flights or longer ● Trips to International Space
atmosphere into space. trips to a space station. Station
● Suborbital flights by Virgin
Galactic
What factors affect the nature of tourism? (pg 20-23)
Roles of Different Groups in Promoting Tourism
Government International Organisations
● Influences number of visitors and their length of stay ● Groups of different countries working together for a common
● Authorise air landings purpose, which may encourage or discourage tourists from
● Allow building of tourism facilities, e.g. hotels visiting certain places.
● Building infrastructure projects, e.g. airports, roads and ports
● Ensuring safety and security Examples:
● Set up agencies that devise strategies to promote tourism
through marketing campaigns and promotional events OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)
● Meets regularly to promote sustainable growth of tourism.
Example: Singapore Tourism Board ● Addresses economic sustainability and employment issues in
● Government agency that promotes Singapore as a tourist tourism.
destination. ● Produces guidelines on measuring social and economic impacts
● Aims to develop Singapore as a leading tourist attraction for of tourism.
leisure and business. ● Produces analysis of key challenges that affect tourism, e.g.
○ Develops tourism as an industry, facilitating tourism-related employment and local development.
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businesses (e.g. hotels, resorts, cruises and airlines) to invest

in Singapore. UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organisation)
○ Encourages development of new attractions, e.g. River Safari ● Promotes tourism as a way of spurring economic growth and
and Integrated Resorts. environmental sustainability.
○ Creates new business opportunities. ● Strives to improve knowledge and policies worldwide.
WHO (World Health Organisation)

● Provides leadership on global health matters.
● Influences global behaviour towards health issues.
○ WHO provides situation updates and health advisories on
avian influenza (H5N1) from 2003 to 2013.
○ Such information discourages tourists from visiting at-risk
countries.
Media (e.g. TV, radio , newspaper and the Internet) Travel Writers
● Nature of media reports influence decisions of tourists to visit ● Visit and write reviews about places in guidebooks, travelogues,
certain locations. magazines, blogs etc.
○ Positive reports like interesting culture and attractive scenery ● Evaluates destination for readers, in terms of accommodation,
encourage tourists to visit. transport, food options etc.
○ Negative reports like incidence of violence and disease ● Provides advice on best and cheapest places to visit, and
outbreak will deter tourists from visiting. behaviour guidelines for tourists.
● Media reports make people more aware of tourist destinations ● Inspire readers to travel to destinations that they may not have
that they are previously not aware of. considered before.
4
In what ways is tourism changing? (pg 28-36)
Trends Give two examples
Origins ● More than half of the international tourists still ● More than 10 million people travel from
originate from the world’s most developed Europe to North America and the Middle
countries in Europe and North America. East every year.
● Increasingly more international tourists from ● Less than 5 million tourists from Asia to
rapidly developing countries in Asia Pacific and North America and Australia.
International South America.
Tourism
Destinations Tourists are unevenly distributed throughout the world. ● France has 79.5 million international
● Europe received slightly more than half of all tourist arrivals in 2011.
international tourist arrivals at 504 million in 2011. ● China has 56.5 million international tourist
● Asia Pacific region received the second highest arrivals in 2011.
international tourist arrivals at about 217 million.
Domestic Tourism Despite the fact that international tourism has grown ● In 2010, 83% of all tourist arrivals
immensely over the last 60 years, domestic tourism worldwide were domestic tourism.
has grown along with it ● In the Philippines, domestic tourism
receipts in 2010 were US$22.9 billion,
compared to US$3.2 billion for
international tourism.
Mass tourism ● Large number of tourists visiting a particular place International tourists from China, South Korea
together. and Vietnam
● Growing mass tourism with increased affluence
Evolution of and leisure time.
mass tourism to
niche tourism Package ● Tour arranged by travel agent, with transportation, Chan Brothers Travel and Dynasty Travel
holidays accommodation and most meals included. provide a whole range of different packaged
● Since 1970s , package holidays have been a tours.
major form of tourism.
1
Niche tourism ● Special-interest tourism based on a particular ● Whale-watching in Hawaii

area, interest or activity, done either by ● White-water rafting and bungee jumps in
independent travellers or combined with package New Zealand
tours.
● Appeals to travellers who seek ‘new destinations’,
activities and experiences.
Ecotourism ● Form of niche tourism. Waitomo Caves in New Zealand

● Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves
the environment and improves the well-being of
local people.
○ Minimise impact;
○ Build environmental and cultural awareness
and respect;
○ Provide positive experiences for both visitors
and hosts;
○ Provide direct financial benefits for
conservation; and
○ Raise sensitivity to host countries’ political,
environmental and social climate.
Short-haul and ● Short-haul destinations can be reached by car, ● Singapore to Hong Kong (4 hrs)
long-haul bus, train or a flight within approximately 5 hours. ● Singapore to Europe (12-15 hrs)
destinations ● Long-haul destinations are usually a long distance
away from the tourist's home country reachable by
flight of generally 5 hours or more.
2
What influences tourism trends? (pg 36-44)
3
Why is tourism subject

to regional fluctuations?
(pg 45-51)
4
What are the impacts of tourism? (pg 56-65)
Impacts Positive Examples Negative Examples
Employment Opportunities Seasonal Unemployment
Growth of tourism led to increase in In 2011, UNWTO Some tourist activities depend on climatic During the peak
number of jobs directly and indirectly estimated that the conditions. Which causes a rise in tourist winter season from
linked to tourism, e.g. travel agents, tourism industry arrivals for several months followed by a Dec to Feb,many
tour guides, hotel and restaurant employs over 200 drop for the next few months. tourists visit
staff etc. million people Sapporo, Japan to
worldwide. As a result, people in some tourism- engage in winter
More tourists means higher related jobs may have to find other sports.
occupancy rate for hotels. Hotels will sources of income when employment in
need to hire more staff such as front the tourism sector is temporarily Many people are
desk personnel, waiters and unavailable. employed in ski
chambermaids to cope with the resorts to deal with
increase in room occupancy rates. This causes a decrease or instability in the high tourist
Economic income, and affects the economy of the demand. However,
Impacts country. after the peak
season, workers
have to find other
sources of income.
Growth in Income Underuse of Facilities
Growth of tourism increases tourism For every US$1 Facilities built specifically for certain Some of the venues
receipts as more tourists are spent by a tourist events may be underused when the built for the 2008
spending. This increases the income in Phuket, 70 event is over. As the cost of maintenance Summer Olympic
of individuals as business improves, cents go to the may be very high, such facilities may be Games in Beijing,
and also for a country as tax revenue Global economy, neglected when there are few tourists China deteriorated
increases. 24 cents go the visiting them. a few years right
Thai economy after the Olympic.
However, there is possible leakage and 6 cents go to
1
to other countries for the import of Phuket economy. Part of the Beijing
goods and services to run tourism National Aquatics
businesses. Centre had to be
renovated into a
water park to
become more
profitable.
In fact, only major

sports venues in
China made
enough money to
cover the
maintenance cost
every year.
Increase in Foreign Exchange Shortage of Services
Foreign exchange is money earned International hotel Tourist infrastructure needs large amount Locals may suffer if
from other countries in exchange for chains such as of land, water and power. This could lead land is prioritized
goods and services. InterContinental, to shortage of services, like water for tourism
Marriott and supplies or power in non-tourist areas. development, and
Growth in tourism means a larger Shangri-La water and electricity
amount of money earned from other exchange their are diverted to
countries (where the tourists come own currency to support tourist
from), which allows the receiving buy the Singapore areas at the
country to purchase goods and Dollar (SGD) in expense of non-
services from elsewhere in the world. order to make tourist areas.
investments in
Singapore. This
Increases
demand for SGD
and contributes to
Singapore's
2
capital inflow.
Tourism is also
Fiji's largest
foreign exchange
earner. It makes
up for about 20-
25% of the
country's
economy.
Infrastructure Development
Infrastructure built to enhance Underground rail

tourism also benefits locals (e.g. systems were
transport and communication expanded in
networks, electrical frameworks and Athens, Greece
systems for water and waste and Beijing to
disposal). move large
number of visitors
Developing infrastructure also during the
creates employment for local Summer Olympic
workers as many workers are Games.
needed during the construction
process.The increased spending in Both rail systems
the local economy from materials continue to serve
purchase encourages economic local populations
growth as well. and tourists even
after the Games.
Preservation of Culture and Local Customs Dilution of Culture and Local Customs
Socio-cultural Preservation of culture is the Historical Christ Identity, culture and values of a place will Tourists pay a hefty
protection of the way people live, Church in be lost when tourism causes all of these fee to enter the
including their economic activities, Malacca has been to be done for the purpose of income. village of Kayan
3
traditional beliefs and religious carefully restored Lahwi in Thailand

practices. This could apply to both and now attracts Economic activities of an area may and treat women
heritage and customs. tourists as part of change to focus on serving tourists. with brass neck
Malacca’s colonial coils as exhibits.
Preserved historical and cultural history. New buildings like hotels may replace
sites make a place more attractive to historical ones and locals may be forced Some Kayan Lahwi
tourists. The restored sites also Entry fees to sites to relocate. women continue
enhances local community’s sense like the Angkor with this tradition
of history and belonging. Wat complex in Local cultural festivals and religious simply because it is
Siem Reap, rituals may be modified to cater to a source of revenue
Revenue generated from tourism Cambodia can be tourists. Some of these may even be for them.
can also fund the preservation and used directly to carried out several times a day for
restoration of cultural heritage. fund conservation different groups of tourists.
efforts.
Increased Crime
As tourists tend to carry valuable items, Groups of

crime rates in tourist areas tend to be Japanese tourists
higher. had been scammed
by a lady and her
There are also tourist traps meant to accomplices in
cheat tourists of their money, as they’re London, UK in
in an unfamiliar area and are less able to 2010.
guard against scams.
They took on false
As a result, the reputation of certain identities to get the
tourist areas may drop and deter tourists Japanese tourists
from visiting. to hand over their
credit cards, and
used those to
withdraw money or
buys expensive
items.
4
Conservation of Natural Environments Increased Congestion
Tourism provides funding to help The Sepilok Huge tourist numbers can cause In Rome, Italy,
protect or conserve the environment. Orang-Utan overcrowding in areas that are close to many older
Rehabilitation popular attractions. walkways and
Centre in Sabah, narrow streets are
Malaysia partly Due to the large amount of tourist shops filled with tourists
relies on visitor and crowd, accommodations that cluster such that travelling
entry fees to pay nearer to such areas become even more times are largely
its staff. congested. This causes vehicular and increased.
pedestrian traffic to become congested
In Kenya's nature and also air pollution.
reserves and
national parks, it
is estimated that a
single lion can
generate
Environmental US$7,000 a year
in tourist revenue
and herd of
elephants around
US$600,000 a
year. The money
raised is a way to
preserve the
animals and their
habitats.
Vandalism
Cultural, historical and natural sites may The thousands of

be vandalised by individuals or stones and bricks of
developers. the Great Wall of
China, which is
visited by about 10
5
million tourists a
year, are covered
with graffiti.
This deteriorates
the condition of the
tourist sites and
reduces the
lifespan of the
structures.
Pollution and Littering
Authorities sometimes fail to implement Many islands in the

measures that properly manage waste Caribbean have
left behind by tourists. This lead to limited space on
degradation of such areas. land to treat waste
from cruise ships.
As such, solid and
liquid waste are
sometimes dumped
directly into the
Caribbean Sea by
ships.
Destruction of Habitats
Popular tourist sites are overwhelmed The habitats of

with visitors during busy times. Habitats coral reefs and
and wildlife may be destroyed. exotic fish in
● Trampling on plants or taking parts of Egypt's Red Sea
the natural environment as souvenirs. have been
● Tourists can also make too much damaged by some
noise and frighten off the animals. swimmers who
collect shells and
6
corals, as well as
some hotels and
restaurants that
dump waste and
sewage into the
sea.
Increased Carbon Footprint
Carbon footprint refers to the amount of The carbon

greenhouse gas emissions that would be footprint of a one-
produced by activities that involve the way economy class
use of fossil fuels. flight from
Singapore to Kuala
It measures tourism’s impact on the Lumpur, Malaysia is
environment. 30kg of carbon
dioxide per
passenger.
How are the impacts of tourism managed? (pg 66-71)
Conservation Sustainable Tourism
What is it? Is the careful management and the use of resources such that A form of tourism that is organised in a way that allows it
these resources would not be depleted. to continue without inflicting damage unto the
environment or leaving negative impacts on surrounding
society and culture. It should also address the needs of
visitors, the industry and host communities.
Why do it? ● A well-protected environment attracts more visitors to visit and previous tourists to return.
● This leads to a steady, repeated arrival of tourists will continue to benefit locals economically.
● In turn, income from tourism will motivate locals to care properly for the tourism-sites.
● This ensures a feasible and regular flow of income from tourism in future.
7
How is it done? ● Setting up laws and regulations. ● Training locals to perform skilled tourism jobs, such as
● Support from the local people. marketing and management.
● Developing homestay accommodations, where
visitors can pay the locals directly for accommodation.
● Promoting local food and drink in restaurant to provide
a market for local food distributors and producers.
Examples UNESCO provides funding to threatened sites like Australia’s

Great Barrier Reef to conserve them as World Heritage Sites.
TENSIONS...
Between Tourists & Locals Between Tourists & Environment
What is it? Needs of tourists conflict with the needs of the locals. Needs of tourists conflict with the need to conserve the
environment.
Examples Bali, Indonesia: Machu Picchu, Peru:

● Tourist sites such as Kuta are often congested due to ● ‘Inca Trail’ slowly eroded by the more than 75,000
busloads of ever-increasing foreign tourists. This makes it tourists that hike on it each year. They also leave
more difficult for locals to conduct their daily business. behind a lot of rubbish on the trail.
● Tourism industry consumes 65% of island’s water, ● In 2010, authorities had to ban the use of helicopter
depriving locals of their water supply. to reach the site, for fear that the noise disturbs the
● Tourists fail to respect local customs and values by area’s indigenous animal and plant species.
engaging in public display of affection. ● Sheer weight and combined footsteps of tourists
visiting Machu Picchu every year slowly damage the
land and artefacts on the site.
MANAGING TENSIONS
Who? Government authorities play an important role in balancing and resolving tensions. Many countries set up agencies or
organisations to manage these tensions.
8
How? By imposing measures to help balance the needs of tourists against the needs of the environment and of the locals.
Examples ● Limit number of visitors at a site to reduce congestion and degradation.

● Withhold permission to proceed with tourism-related projects that may cause harm to the environment.
● Employing staff to maintain and repair a site and prevent tourists from tampering with it.
● Holding discussions with locals regarding needs and concerns.
● Restricting tourism access to some areas.
Challenges While residents may be happy with the limiting of how many visitors are allowed to a site, business owners might object to
it due to low rates of pedestrian traffic.
Responsibilities of various groups in protecting tourist areas (pg 72-75)
Groups What is done by them? Examples
Local communities Local communities play a key role in conserving With the help of the government, villagers of
and protecting tourist areas and benefit Candirejo (near Borobudur in Central Java,
economically from tourism, and can benefit Indonesia) set up a cooperative in 2003 to
economically, especially through community- manage and implement the community’s
based tourism. tourism-related programmes.
Community-based tourism may be done in These programmes include developing

partnership with a government or non- homestay accommodations, developing organic
governmental organisation (NGO). farms and organising local transport. It also
trained villagers to produce handicrafts, provide
catering and work as tour guides
It was reported that there are now 63 new jobs,

5 new businesses and 12.5% increase in
average income per villager from 2001 to 2003.
Visitors Visitors or tourists have a responsibility to In 2007, the Tourism Sustainability Group, set
respect both the environment and the local up by European Commission in 2004,
9
population of the place they are visiting. They encouraged tourists to select their holiday
should visit a place without causing damage or destinations based on the conservation efforts of
offence. the place.
This will help to minimise their carbon footprint

while they are on holiday. In turn, their visits
become more rewarding with the knowledge that
they have done their best to avoid damaging
these environments.
Tour operators Tour operators may belong to associations that Phuket Alternative Tours (PAT), set up by a
are increasingly concerned with conserving and team of tour operators in Phuket in 2006 require
protecting environments visited by tourists. This members to sign an Environmental and Cultural
is because fewer tourists are likely to visit a Code of Practice, which commits them to
place if the unspoilt landscapes, rich operate in an environmentally sustainable way,
biodiversity and unique cultures deteriorate. to seek to enhance the natural environment and
the way the industry uses it and to create
awareness about environmental conservation
for visitors to Phuket.
Non-governmental organisations Some of them are concerned with tourism’s Since 1990, The International Ecotourism
(NGOs) impact on natural and human environments. Society (TIES) has developed guidelines,
conducted training courses, provided technical
assistance and published research papers
related to tourism and environment.
It has worked with numerous organisations,

including travel associations and conservation
groups in 124 countries.
Groups like TIES can be instrumental in

achieving sustainable tourism and for protecting
the environments frequented by tourists.
Planning authorities Can determine how many visitors a site can Singapore Tourism Board (STB) ensures that
10
cope with and allocate space for infrastructure while attracting large numbers of tourists to
like roads and hotels. Singapore, its development plans also take into
account the need to conserve national heritage.
Enforces rules, regulations, values and
principles for sustainable tourism in The STB has implemented programmes to
consultation with the industry and community. conserve the ethnic districts of Singapore. It
involves enhancing the cultural zones of
Chinatown, Kampong Glam and Little India. As
a result, visitors and locals will have a greater
appreciation of Singapore’s heritage.
Groups Strengths Limitations
Local communities Involve locals in decision making Difficulty in obtaining external funding
Enlist residents in discussions, consultations May face funding problems when setting up
and decision making about tourism businesses or investing in vehicles to facilitate
management strategies to be carried out. tourism in their area.
Increase in tourism-related employment and Shortage of skilled labour

business for locals May not have enough skilled labour, such as
Community-based tourism often make locals a managers or consultants, that can successfully
priority when it comes to business and help manage the impact of tourism. May need to
employment opportunities. seek the help of NGOs or other organisations to
provide skilled labour or training.
Visitors Fund conservation and preservation Damage tourist attractions

Visitors spending can provide funds to help Visitors can damage a tourist attraction through
conserve environments, preserve culture or behaviours like vandalism and littering. In some
maintain a tourist attraction. cases, the sheer number of tourists alone can
damage a tourist site through their collective
Provide income opportunities for locals footsteps, noise or touch.
Visitor spending can also provide locals with
11
income from employment and businesses. Dilute local culture and customs
The dilution of local culture becomes more
Raise awareness to conserve and preserve pronounced when visitors outnumber locals in
attractions an area and commercial activities focus mainly
Visitors to a destination may realise the value of on tourism. As a result, visitors may complain
conserving and preserving the destination. that a place or a performance does not feel
These visitors also raise awareness about the ‘authentic’.
destination at home by sharing their experience
via word-of mouth.
Tour operators Provide feedbacks on tourist attractions Need to generate profits

Tour guides’ inputs about the social and Tour operators are businesses and need to be
environmental conditions of a tourist attraction profitable, or to make money, to survive. The
are often used by local communities and need to generate profits can sometimes bring
planning authorities to plan tourism tour operators into conflict with other
management strategies in a tourist attraction. stakeholders. It may also override concerns to
preserve the environment when addressing
Regulate tourist behaviour these concerns would reduce their profits.
Tour operators are often in the best position to
regulate undesirable tourist behaviour as they
spend a lot of time with tourists. Moreover, tour
operators have an incentive in maintaining the
quality of an attraction because the attraction is
their source of income.
Non-governmental organisations Facilitate communication between various Difficulty in obtaining external funding
(NGOs) stakeholders As non-profit organisations that often rely on
NGOs sometimes act as channels of donations, NGOs may be hampered by the lack
communication between various stakeholders, of financial resources.
and also help encourage other stakeholders,
such as local communities, to actively
participate in managing the impact of tourism.
Support various stakeholders in managing
12
the impact of tourism

NGOs support the tourism management efforts
of various stakeholders such as local
communities and planning authorities by
providing additional manpower, expertise or
marketing campaigns.
Planning authorities Develop and maintain infrastructure and Difficult to plan for unforeseen factors
attractions Even the most well-planned and well-funded
Planning authorities often successfully develop, programme can sometimes fail due to
approve, fund and maintain infrastructure that unforeseen factors, such as extreme weather,
help manage the impact of tourism. natural disasters of a general lack of interest
from the public.
Draft laws and policies
Planning authorities can also draft laws and Opposing stakeholders
policies that help improve the quality of tourist Stakeholders, such as local communities or
site. NGOs, may oppose the management strategies
● Craft laws that limit the number of visitors of planning authorities.
to an attraction or regulate the type of ● When management strategies affect their
commercial activity in an area. likelihood or change their way of life.
● Impose entrance fees to a tourist site. ● When stakeholders feel that a different
approach is needed to solve a problem.
Work with other government agencies ● Tourism management strategies often have
As part of the government, planning authorities limited impact without cooperation from
can cooperate more easily with other stakeholders.
government agencies to manage the impact of
tourism. Planning authorities also have the
advantage of being able to utilise a range of
government resources.
13
Global Tourism – Case Study: Tourism in Singapore
[pg 76-80]
Nature of tourist activity Singapore has a wide range of activities to offer tourists with different interests and needs.
● Places with rich culture and heritage (e.g. Chinatown, Little India and Kampong Glam).
● Places with purpose built attractions (e.g. Integrated Resorts (Marina Bay Sands and Sentosa) and
Gardens by the Bay).
● Special events (e.g. the annual Formula 1 Singtel Singapore Grand Prix and the 2010 Youth
Olympics).
● MICE (Meetings, Incentives, Conventions and Exhibitions) facilities (e.g. Singapore Expo, Suntec City
and Resort World Sentosa) for business and leisure tourists.
● Medical and Health tourism (e.g. Raffles Hospital, Paragon Medical Centre for medical tourists).
Impact of tourism development The development of Chinatown into a tourist attraction has social, civic and economic impacts.
Social Impact:
● During the time of the British until early 1980s, Chinatown was an overcrowded Chinese enclave.
● In 1983, the government removed street hawkers and relocated residents in high rise flats within
the area due to overcrowding and unhygienic working and living conditions along streets and in
double-storeyed shop-houses.
● Cleaned-up Chinatown without street hawkers after the mid-1980s brought about a decline in
pedestrian traffic.
● This resulted in Singapore Tourism Board implementing the Chinatown Experience Guide Plan
(CEGP) in 1998, targeting the birth of Chinatown Food Street jointly invested by private stakeholders
and government agencies for a million dollars.
● New businesses (e.g. accommodations and shops) moved in and Chinatown was revitalised.
● Government revenue from taxation of these businesses funds the preservation of cultural
heritage.
● From civics point of view, impact is seen as in civic pride as senior citizens are often seen playing
chess or happily chatting away in Chinatown’s public parks.
Economic benefit:
Post-2001 Chinatown benefits from heavy tourist traffic being a centre for souvenirs, authentic
Chinese cuisines, conservation shop-houses with intricate architecture and five-foot wide covered
1
Global Tourism – Case Study: Tourism in Singapore
passageways along Temple Street with historical icons and budget hotels and inns.
Cultural impact:
Seen in Chinatown as Singapore’s cultural heart where loads of international tourists visit the
Chinatown Heritage Centre, the Sri Mariamman Temple at Pagoda Street and the Buddha Tooth Relic
Temple and Museum at South Bridge Road.
Management of impact ● To ensure the sustainability of Chinatown as the Cultural and Heritage heart of Singapore, and
as part of the CEGP, STB and National Heritage Board created the Chinatown Heritage Board and
installed 33 heritage markers throughout Chinatown.
● E.g., heritage marker SB20 is Sri Mariamman Temple at Pagoda Street.
● This is to ensure the sharing of the Chinatown heritage with the younger generation.
● To discourage large number of residents from developing persistent gambling habits, one
management measure proposed is raising the casino entry level.
● Another measure is fining IRs for being lax in observing social safeguards.
● E.g., MBS has been fined about US$300,000 for allowing some locals free entry and some below 21
years to enter.
Is this the way to go? ● The positive economic impacts seem to outweigh the negative impacts.
● E.g., tourism provides employment and business opportunities for locals ranging from
transportation to accommodations, food and beverage, entertainment to tour services.
● In 2012, tourism receipts hit US$19.5 billion while tourist industry contributed to more than 4% to
the nation’s economy.
● Government revenue is likely to increase through taxation of tourist-related jobs and businesses.
● Tourism also provides incentives for a country to improve its infrastructure and attractions and
promote its local culture, customs and heritage.
● It is also a platform for international business networking.
● Hence, tourism is the way to go to.
2
Food Resources – Gateway 1
How do food consumption patterns vary between DCs and LDCs over time? (pg 93-98)
Indicators of food consumption
Food consumption per capita Daily calorie intake Starchy staples as a percentage of all calories
Definition Average amount of food a person Energy obtained from food Proportion of person’s energy obtained from food
consumes per year. consumed per capita per day. coming from starchy food (e.g. carbohydrates).
Unit kg/capita/year Kilocalories or kcal %
Changing food preference
Food type Trends Examples
Cereals ● Consumption of cereals per capita decline with higher income, ● In Africa and other parts of Asia, cereals
as people begin to be able to afford more meat.. make up as much as 70% of people’s
● However, cereal consumption in China and India is higher than calories intake. Lower consumption of
the USA as rice is a staple food in Asian societies. cereals in DCs which is around 30% of
calorie intake.
● Crop-based product is 40% of people’s
diet in LDCs but only 13% in DCs. As
income increases, rice is substituted with
wheat (bread and noodles).
Meat ● Increase in income generally linked with an increase in meat ● In LDCs, the demand for livestock (cows,
consumption. pigs or chicken) has increased
● Higher consumption of meat in DCs compared to LDCs but the significantly since 1960s due to rising
rate of increase is smaller for DCs due to health concerns. incomes.
● People in DCs are consuming less red
meat as this has been linked to health
problems such as obesity and heart
disease.
1
Fruits and vegetables ● Increased consumption of fruits and vegetables in LDCs has International organisations such as World
come about mainly due to increase in incomes in LDCs. Health Organisation (WHO) and Food and
● In DCs, this occurred due to health benefits Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the UN
promote consumption of fruits and vegetables
as a significant amount of fruits and
vegetables in a person’s diet reduces the risk
heart disease, cancer and diabetes.
Why do food consumption patterns vary between DCs and LDCs? (pg 99-108)
Factor DC LDC
Economic
Disposable income ● Increasing disposable income and higher ● Increasing disposable income but lower
disposable income than in LDCs. disposable income than in DCs.
● Only 20% of increased income in New ● Up to 60% of increase income in Republic
Zealand, France and US is spent on food. of the Congo is spent on food.
● Spent on expensive food found to have ● 1959-1991, Taiwan experienced high
certain health benefits, e.g organic food economic and income growth, leading to
and olive oil. 50% fall in rice consumption per capita,
and increase in consumption of meat (4
times), fruits (5 times), and fish (2 times).
Pricing ● Less affected by food prices due to higher ● More affected by food prices due to lower
disposable income. disposable income.
● While prices of food also went up in DCs, ● Food price crisis of 200-2008, sharp rise
people were less affected, and only had in price of staple food. This caused about
to choose less expensive options instead. 100 million people worldwide to
experience chronic hunger and poverty,
as well as food riots and street protests in
LDCs.
2
Socio-cultural
Religious belief Affects choice of food and how food is prepared.
Religion Food Practices
Islam ● Consumption of halal food.

● Meat must come from animal killed in a way approved by Islamic law.
● No pork.
Buddhism ● Vegetarian diet or very little meat consumed, as a result of belief in not
harming animals.
● As a result of religious influence, countries in South Asia (e.g.
Hinduism
Bangladesh, Iran, India, Sri Lanka) and Southeast Asia consume the
least meat per capita than elsewhere in the world.
Judaism ● Consumption of kosher food, which conform to Jewish law.
Food preferences Although fast food is popular in DCs, people Due to globalisation, fast food chains like
are moving away from it due to health Dominos’ Pizza, McDonald’s and Pizza Hut
concerns. Instead, they’re moving towards have opened their outlets in LDCs and
the consumption of organic food instead, as gained popularity especially with the young
these are grown without the use of artificial adults.
inputs such as chemical fertilisers or growth
hormones.
Migration ● Migrants to a new country may adapt to the local diet.

○ Pakistanis living in Norway have reduced their consumption of cooked vegetables
and increased their consumption of local Norwegian cuisines.
● Migrants also introduce new cuisines to the local population.
○ Korean retirees and the growing number of South Korean students studying English
in Manila, the Philippines introduced Korean cuisine to the local population.
○ Curry became popular in the UK as a result of migrants from South Asia.
3
Population growth ● Lower population growth rate in DCs. ● Higher population growth rate in LDCs.
● Increasing demand for food over the ● Increasing demand for food over the
years is lower in DCs. years is greater in LDCs.
Changing diets ● Due to globalisation and migration, diets ● In LDCs, traditional rice-eating societies
in DCs tend to increase in variety and like Taiwan are consuming increasing
gradually incorporate a mixture of foods amounts of wheat as an ingredient in
bread, cakes and pastries.
Political
Stability of food supply ● Can ensure food stability as they have ● Generally lacks access to technology or
greater access to technology for food finances to implement technology on
production. large scale.
● Can increase food imports more easily to ● Less able to deal with fluctuations in food
ensure food stability. prices, and therefore, importing food can
○ E.g. Singapore may rely on food be problematic.
imports to make up more than 90% of ○ E.g. Jamaica not able to import food
its food supply. after 2004 hurricane disaster as it was
too expensive.
● During Libyan civil war in April 2011, food
stocks in country were rapidly depleted
and not being replenished due to the
chaotic situation.
● Extremely low rainfall destroyed most of
Zimbabwe’s corn harvest in 2008,
causing food shortage.
Food safety ● Refers to a system that provides guidelines and ensures proper handling, preparation and
storage of food that prevents foodborne diseases and removing those foods from the
shelves.
● Government play active role by setting food safety standards and ensuring the standards
are met.
● 2011 earthquake in Japan and subsequent nuclear radiation contaminated farmland and
water resources. Seafood imports from Japan to Singapore was restricted for many
4
months to ensure the safety of consumers in Singapore.

● Outbreak of ‘mad cow disease’ in the late 1990s in Europe and again in 2005 in US and
Canada led to decrease in consumption of beef.
What are the consequences of variations in food consumption patterns? (pg 109-117)
Impact of inadequate food consumption on individuals and countries
Impacts Examples
Health ● Malnutrition is a condition in which the body does not get the ● 16% of people in LDCs suffer from malnutrition. In DCs,
sufficient or balanced amount of nutrients it needs to the proportion is lower, affecting elderly people who had
maintain healthy tissues and organ functions. trouble eating and also people with eating disorders like
● Ill health can also result from inadequate food consumption. anorexia.
● Severe food shortage can lead to starvation, which is the ● Lack of vitamin A can cause visual impairment and
state of extreme hunger from a severe lack of food. blindness, as well as diarrhoeal diseases and measles,
leading to loss of educational opportunities for children.
● Lack of calcium and vitamin D can cause osteoporosis,
leading to higher occurrence of bone fracture and thus,
loss of work-days and productivity.
● In Mali in 2012, 5 million people were threatened with
starvation due to a poor harvest and civil rebellion.
Economic ● Insufficient food consumption can cause people to fall sick ● In Sierra Leone, India, Sri Lanka and Ethiopia, low levels
more easily and lower productivity. of nutrition intake over the medium to long term was
● As a result of poor health, public health expenditures will associated with lower levels of productivity.
increase when the demand for health services increase. ● For LDCs, higher spending on health care can be at the
● While food aid and financial aid can be given to help expense of other areas such as education, housing,
countries cope with insufficient supply of food, this may lead transportation and even agriculture.
to long-term debt problems. ● While US contributes about 50% of all global aid, these
come with conditions that often make it more expensive
for LDCs to get food through aid.
5
Political ● Malnourishment and starvation often cause political ● Food prices in Mozambique increased by about 30% in
instability in the forms of war and social unrest, where 2010, resulting in protests that turned violent and left 400
people protest of behave violently, often to communicate injured and at least 10 dead.
their unhappiness about a political system or situation.
Social ● People may resort to scavenging - searching through things ● Poor people in Manila scavenge for food in a large
that other people discarded - to overcome inadequate food landfill area called ‘Smokey Mountain’.
supply. However, this carries health risks because
scavenged food may carry high levels of bacteria or
chemicals.
Impact of excess food consumption on individuals and countries
Impacts Examples
Health ● Excessive consumption of food can lead to obesity, which ● Obesity more common in DCs than in LDCs.
can lead to health problems like high blood pressure, ● From 1971 to 2000, obesity rates in US rose from 14.5%
coronary heart disease, diabetes and certain cancers. to 30.9% of population due to higher disposable income.
● Can also lead to kidney failure, liver diseases and ● Rising income is also causing obesity to become more
hypertension. common in LDCs like Brazil, South Africa, China and
India. Obesity rates in Mexico and South Africa exceed
average obesity rates of DCs.
Economic ● Obesity-related health issues can lead to lower productivity. ● People with BMI over 40 were twice as likely to fall sick
● Governments have to channel more funds to health care or be injured while working.
system to address obesity-related health issues, at the
expense of economic development.
Social ● Societies with excess food available or consumption may be ● Food wastage in DCs is 95-115 kg/capita compared to 6-
less careful in handling food. Food thrown away can put 11 kg/capita in LDCs.
more strain on landfills.
● Inappropriate dieting to lose weight may lead to depression
and dieting-related physical illnesses.
6
How has the production of crops changed since the 1960s? (pg 121-123)
Increased intensity of Since the 1960s, there has been an increased production of rice, wheat and GM foods.
production of food crops
Intensification: Increase in the productivity of a farm. The productivity of a farm is measured by the amount of
food produced compared with the amount of resources, such as land and labour, used to produce the food.
Productivity: Measured by calculating the ratio of outputs per unit area of land to inputs per unit area of land.
Productivity = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 / 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Two ways productivity is measured:

1) Labour per unit of area refers to the number of people working on a unit area of land. When less labour
is used to produce the same amount of crops, it shows an increase in farm productivity.
Labour per unit area =

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑠 / 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠)
2) Crop yield refers to the amount of crops produced on a unit area of farmland. When more crops are
produced with the same amount of land and labour, we say that crop yield has increased, which
indicates higher farm productivity.
Crop Yield = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠) / 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐻𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠)
The amount of wheat harvested increased worldwide from 1960 to 2010, even though the area of farmland
used remained relatively constant globally over the years. There has been an increase in crop yield from 1.2
tonnes per hectares in 1960 to 2.9 tonnes per hectare in 2010.
World production of rice rose steadily from 525.5 million tonnes in 1970 to 1,119.2 million tonnes in 2010.
In 2010, the global average crop yield of rice was 4.3 million tonnes per hectare, as compared to 2.4 million
tonnes per hectare in 1970. Due to rapid population growth and increase in demand for food, countries
have intensified food production to meet the demands.
Increased production of ● GM crops were introduced in 1966.
1
genetically modified food ● Genes altered to make crops more resistant to diseases and grow faster, thereby increasing crop yield.
crops ● Between 1996 and 2011, total land area in the world used to grow GM crops increased from 1.7 million ha
to 160 million ha.
What factors affect the intensity of food production and supply? (pg 124-136]
Physical
Climate
● Temperatures and amount of rainfall affect the growth of crops.
● Crops such as pea, broccoli and strawberry require cooler climates. Other such as soya bean and tomato require warmer climates.
● Plants such as maize require more water than soya bean.
● In the tropics, the long growing season enable farmers to have 2 to 3 harvests in a year.
● In places with winter, food production can only occur during the warm season where temperature and rainfall is suitable for growing crops.
Soils and drainage

● Fertile soils contain minerals essential for plant growth. Crop yield is higher in areas with fertile soil.
● Fertile soil combined with flat terrain and large water supply in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam results in very high production of rice.
● The clayey soil allows water to be retained to grow rice.
● Growing of oats require sandy soil which is well drained.
Relief
● The rain is more likely to remove the topsoil on steep slopes. The topsoil is rich in nutrients.
● Terracing – cutting of steps into a hillside to create flat land for cultivation.
● However sloping land is suitable for the growing of crops such as grapes, tea and coffee which needs well-drained soil.
● Temperatures decrease with increasing altitude.
● The cooler temperatures of mountainous areas may be suitable for growing certain cool climate crops.
Social
2
Land tenure
● Land tenure is the system by which agricultural land is occupied.
● In LDC, most farmers are too poor to afford their own farmland. They usually pay a sum of money or portion of their harvest to landowners or
the government to rent the land.
● Due to lack of security of tenure, farmers tend to be unsure of whether their land would belong to them in the future. As a result, they lack
incentives to make improvements to their land and care more about maximising short-term profits, which often come at the cost of land
degradation.
Land fragmentation
● Land fragmentation is the division of land into many smaller plots over many successive generations of farmers.
● It is common inheritance practice for the farmer to divide his land amongst his many children.
● Small plots of land mean lower total output. Small plots make it unprofitable to use machines to increase output.
● For example, Tivland, Nigeria, due to land fragmentation, sizes of farms are smaller and farmers are unable to produce sufficient yield.
Economic
Purpose of farming
Subsistence farming Commercial farming
Purpose Production of crops to feed farmer and his family. Large-scale production of cash crops intended for sale.
Land Small (1-3 ha) Large (30 ha to thousands of ha)
Labour Family members Hired labour
Capital Simple farming tools and seeds from previous harvest Machinery such as tractors and combine harvesters
Crop yield Low High
Examples ● Widely practised in Sub-Saharan Africa ● Widely practised in Europe, North and South America,
● Growing of staple foods like corn and cassava Australia and Asia
3
● Livestock production, wheat, corn, tea, coffee, sugar cane

and banana
Demand
● Demand for certain types of food depends on tastes and preferences of consumers, and affect amount of crops produced.
● E.g. increase meat production in China led to increased import of corn from US to feed livestock, which caused corn production in US to
increase.
Trade
● International trade of food growing as countries increasingly rely on one another to secure an adequate and varied food supply.
● Free trade - no tax on imports - allows for imported food to be competitively priced. However, free trade tends to benefit wealthier countries,
which are the main sellers of cheap food.
● LDCs may also lose land for agriculture as more of it is used to farm cash crops.
● E.g. in Sudan, land increasingly used to produce animal feed, leading to decrease in production of staples like sorghum.
Agribusiness
● Refer to large farming companies that are involved with most industries along a food supply chain.
● Larger companies have the resources to invest in the R&D of food crops to increase yield.
● They are also more able to withstand the impact of changes in the environment.
Political
Government policy
● Agricultural policies decide how limited resources like money and land may best be used to intensify food production.
○ Punjab Agriculture Department educated farmers in a 2012 programme about the best available seed varieties, pesticide treatment and
irrigation methods.
● Food policy refers to a decision made by a government that affects how food is produced, processed, distributed, purchased and packaged.
○ Stockpiling - setting aside and storage of food to ensure food security during emergencies.
○ Singapore today imports food from a variety of sources, such as China, when it used to only import from Malaysia.
4
ASEAN
● In October 2011, ASEAN signed an agreement with China, Japan and South Korea, which commits them to supply rice for a reserve during
emergencies.
● In 2012, Thailand started a programme for other ASEAN nations to intensify rice production in the region. It agreed to work with neighbouring
countries such as Cambodia to increase their efficiency in rice production.
CAP of the EU
● Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) came into force in 1962 to encourage better agricultural productivity, ensure that consumers have a stable
and affordable supply of food, and encourage sustainable farming practices.
● Helped 14 million farmers in EU to increase productivity through providing assistance in restructuring farms to make them more productive,
providing subsidies for agricultural produce, and imposing taxes on imported food products.
Technological advances
Green Revolution
● Rapid increase in the productivity of agriculture through the use of science and technology. It spread worldwide in the 1960s.
● Great success in LDCs.
○ High-yielding varieties (HYVs) are improved strains of crops developing through cross-breeding of selected varieties found to exhibit
favourable characteristics. IR8, a variety of HYV rice, was promoted throughout Asia as it enabled farmers to produce twice as much grain
as traditional varieties.
○ Fertilisers are applied to the farm because nutrients in the soil will be depleted gradually, especially after continuous use of the farmland.
They bring back nutrients to the soil.
○ Pesticides are chemical substances used to kill insects and smaller animals that destroy crops. E.g. use of Malathion widely in the 1980s
to address a fruit fly problem in fruit orchards in California, US.
○ Irrigation is the method of supplying water to the land other than by natural means such as rain. The Great Man-made River in Libya is
one of the most extensive irrigation projects in the world, and it has made it possible to grow crops in the Sahara Desert.
○ Mechanisation has allowed farmers to use advanced machinery to perform tasks that they would otherwise have to do manually. E.g.
the combine harvester has reduced reliance on human labour while increasing productivity.
5
HYV crops (1960s-present) GM crops (1990s-present)
Method of development ● Cross-breeding ● Alteration of genes
Benefits ● Shorter growing season ● Shorter growing season

● Resistant to pests and diseases ● Resistant to pests and diseases
● Resistant to extreme weather conditions
● Health benefits
Examples ● Super Rice ● Golden Rice

● Wonder Rice ● Bt-cotton
● FlavrSavr Tomato ● Bt-corn
What are the effects of continuing intensification of food production? (pg 137-139]
Effect of irrigation Poor irrigation management may cause waterlogged and soil degradation.
Waterlogging occurs when too much water seeps into the soil and causes the soil to be over saturated and causes
the roots of crops to be deprived of air and nutrients, eventually causing them to die.
Salinisation occurs when water added to the soil during irrigation evaporates and salt left behind on the soil. It can
also occur when there is no proper drainage of excess water and the groundwater reaches the upper layer of soil,
bringing up dissolved salts from the ground. Salt concentration in Saline soils is too high for crops to grow well.
E.g. In Murray-darling Basin in Victoria, Australia, salt are concentrated in some parts due to irrigation development
and land clearing. Salinisation occurs in its low terrain, low rainfall and high evaporation rate.
Effect of chemicals The overuse of fertiliser and pesticides causes chemicals to become concentrated in the soil.
Eutrophication occurs when chemicals seeps into groundwater and eventually flowing into rivers, rivers become
nutrients for algae to grow. Algae blooms deplete oxygen in the water and block sunlight, resulting in death of aquatic
plants and organisms(fish).
6
E.g. This is a serious concern for the USA, since about 23 percent of the freshwater used in the country comes from
underground water sources.
Pesticides used by farmers to destroy pests and weeds may contaminate soil. They can seep into groundwater and
river, killing aquatic creatures and plants, thereby disrupting water ecosystem. It will also contaminate water supplies,
consuming by humans may cause poisoning.
GM food Benefits
GM foods increase income for farmers by increasing the productivity of farms. GM crops that are pest-resistant help
farmers to save money on pesticides. Farmers will earn higher with higher crops yields.
Certain crops have been genetically modified to have higher nutritional value. E.g. Golden rice has been developed
to have higher levels of Vitamin A. The increase intake of VA through rice can help prevent blindness.
GM crops decreased environmental pollution as it reduce dependence on chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
Threats
GM crops are expensive because a lot of research and time have been put into them. Therefore, they require high
capital investments. Small scale farmers and LDCs will not be able to afford the GM seeds and they are not benefited
from GM crops. This will further widen the gap between wealthy and poor farmers.
There are potential health risks of consume GM crops. Incorporating foreign genes into plants may have adverse
effect on human health, such as allergic reactions. Extensive testing of GM foods may be required to avoid the
possibility of harm to consumers.
GM crops have the potential to harm other organisms and have negative effects on insects and animals, this can
cause a reduction of biodiversity. E.g. Monarch butterfly are feed exclusively on milkweed. Nearly half of the monarch
butterfly caterpillars died after eating milkweeds dusted with pollen from Bt-corn.
Why do food shortages still occur? [pg 140-148]
Physical
Extreme weather events
7
● E.g. Droughts, cold waves, heat waves and tropical cyclones.

● Cause crop damage or make it difficult to grow crops; cause significant food shortage especially LDCs which lack the financial resources to
recover from losses.
● Drought reduces water supply available for crops to grow；Tropical cyclones lead to flooding of farmland.
● E.g. In 2011, severe drought plunged East Africa into the worst food security crisis(famine and severe shortage of food). More than 11.5
million people are currently in need of food aid.
● E.g. Typhoon Nari that hit northern Philippines in 2013 brought heavy rain that caused floods submerging rice and vegetable farms.
Climate change
● Cause existing farmland become unsuitable for farming while lengthening the growing season; similarly, crops may be farmed in certain
areas that were not suitable for farming in the past.
● E.g. In Yunnan, China, production of apples, cherries, almonds and walnuts is reduced because they require cooler climate.
● Shrinking of glaciers due to global warming is predicted to reduce food supply over the coming decades.
● E.g. The glaciers in Himalaya are currently the source of water supply to many rivers in India and China, however these glaciers are
receding rapidly and could melt entirely by 2035, it could cut off water supply for farming in the river basins and result in potential fall in
agricultural productivity.
Pests
● E.g. Wild rabbits, moles and insects.
● Damage food crops as they brood rapidly and may destroy crops in one fell swoop.
● E.g. In 2009, farms in Liberia were invaded by numerous caterpillars which devoured all food crops, plunging Liberia into a state of food
crisis.
Political
Civil strife
● Country faces major internal conflicts such as riots, unrest or civil war .
● These lead to disputes over the control of resources which affected food production included land and water.
● For example, in 2011,a civil strife in Syria disputed agriculture and drastically reduced farmer’s access to fertilisers and seeds.
8
Poor governance
● Poor governance included corruption, policy errors and inability to implement policy or prioritizing other development needs over ensuring
food security which can cause food shortages.
● E.g. the extreme corruption in Zimbabwe under the leadership of Robert Mugabe has resulted numerous jobless and hungry.
● In the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh in 2010, over 40000 farmers had to forgo their farmland for development of a steel plant, mining and
a port due to prioritizing industrial development.
Economic
Food policy
● Food policy e.g. stockpiling of food either sourced locally or imported to ensure food security during emergencies.
○ E.g, in 2011, Algeria bought 800,000 tonnes of wheat to add to its stockpile and Indonesia quadrupling its stockpile.
○ This caused a shortage of grains in the global market, triggering price increases and further worsening the problem of food shortage in
some LDCs.
● Lack or removal of food subsidies in the form of cash and food vouchers of the poor, may trap their citizens in the cycle of poverty and food
shortages.
Cost of fertilisers and transport

● There is a positive correlation between rising cost of transport and fertilisers and food shortages
● However, rising costs lead to farmer’s financial burden hence limiting agricultural yields and more severe food shortage.
● Energy costs also correlate positively with fertilisers and transport costs because fuel is used to power machine.
● All these costs correlate positively with food prices.
● For example, in March 2011, increase in global crude oil prices cause Kazakhstan to increase the price of wheat to its neighbouring country
of Tajikistan.
Conversion of farmland to industrial crop production eg biofuel crops

● Rising demand lead to growing the more remunerative biofuel crops has caused food shortage.
● Biofuel crops are maize, sugar cane and oil palm.
● For example, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reported in 2009 that 25% of biofuel crops can feed 330 million people in
one year.
● The demand for biofuel crops has triggered increases in prices of food crops eg maize that can also be used for ethanol fuel.
9
● This prices rise further weakens the ability of the poor to buy, worsening food shortage problem
Rising demand for meat and dairy products from emerging economies such as China and India
● Rising affluence in Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS) has brought about rising demand for meat and dairy products,
caused the price out the poor in LDCs and deprive the of food that they are unable to afford.
● For example, about 800 million people especially in Sub-Saharan Africa do not eat enough to lead productive working lives because they
are poverty stricken and do not have enough money to buy food for their families and themselves.
Social
Lack of accessibility
● Refers to the ease at which food can reach residents via transport facilities such as road and rail links, so that food can reach people live far
away from shops.
● E.g. food outlets may be few and far apart from one another in many LDCs, thus people lack enough roads that facilitate access to food,
resulting in food shortage.
Inadequate logistics of food distribution and storage.

● Food distribution depends on the presence of a good transport network.
● May be affected due to physical barriers, e.g. mountains or events such as landslides.
● It is particularly significant when the local production cannot meet local demand, making imports necessary.
● E.g. One third of population of Timor-Leste experience food shortage in between harvests due to shortage of storage facilities and proper
transport links to reach remote communities.
Rapid population growth

● The high birth rates and high population growth rates in LDCs result in food supply unable to meet the growing demand.
● E.g. It is estimated that by 2025, 75%of Sub-Saharan Africans will have to rely on food aid. Its small amount of land suitable for farming is
declining due to rising of temperature and worsened by the high population growth, leading to a high risk of food shortage in the region.
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Living with Tectonic Hazards – Gateway 1

What is the internal structure of the Earth? (pg 6-7)

Core Mantle Crust

Composition Mostly iron and nickel N.A. Basalt (oceanic),

Temperature 3000-5000℃ 800-3000℃ N.A.

What is a tectonic plate? (pg 8)

Type of crust Location Thickness Type and age of rock

Oceanic Beneath deep oceans 5-8km Basalt - denser

Continental Beneath continental land masses 30-60km Granite - less dense

Why do tectonic plates move? (pg 8)

What are the different types of plate boundaries? (pg 9-17)

Mid-oceanic ridge Mid-Atlantic Ridge Earthquake,

Oceanic trench, Mariana Trench, Earthquake,

Convergent Continental-continental Fold mountain Himalayas Earthquake

Oceanic trench, Peru-Chile Trench, Earthquake,

Transform N.A. Nil N.A. Earthquake

Fig. 1: Oceanic-oceanic divergence

Fig. 2: Continental-continental divergence

Fig. 3: Oceanic-oceanic convergence

Fig. 4: Oceanic-continental convergence

Fig. 5: Continental-continental convergence

Fig. 6: Transform plate boundary

Fold mountains Rift valleys and block mountains

Location Convergent plate boundaries Divergent plate boundaries

Force involved Compressional force Tensional force

Fig. 1: Formation of volcano

Shield volcano Stratovolcano

Lava silica content Low High

Viscosity Low High

Explosivity of eruption Gentle eruptions Violent eruptions

Fig. 2: Shield volcano

Fig. 4: Factors affecting impact of earthquakes

Fig. 5: Formation of tsunami

Earthquake Impacts Explanation Example

Risks of living near volcanoes Benefits of living near volcanoes

Destruction by volcanic materials Fertile volcanic soil

Landslides Precious stones, minerals and building materials

Effects on weather Geothermal energy

Why do people continue to live in areas prone to earthquakes? (pg 49)

Fatalistic approach Acceptance approach Adaptation approach

Short-Term response Implementation Successes Limitations

Long-term response Implementation Successes Limitations

Risk vs. opportunity ● Risk: loss of lives, homes and jobs.

What is the difference between weather and climate? (pg 73)

What are the elements of weather? (pg 73-88)

Temperature calculation Definition Formula

Fig. 1: Factors affecting temperature (LADC)

Fig. 2: Inverse relationship between temperature and relative humidity.

Fig. 3: Formation of clouds

Convectional Rain Relief Rain

Fig. 4: Formation of land and sea breeze

Fig. 5: Northeast monsoon

Fig. 6: Southwest monsoon

Equatorial Monsoon Cool temperate

Place examples Iquitos, Peru Mangalore, India London, UK

Temperature High Moderate Low

Rainfall High Moderate Low

Fig. 7: Climographs of three types of climate

What is the enhanced greenhouse effect? (pg 103)

What are some natural causes of climate change? (pg 100-101) +

How does climate change affect people? (pg 109-111)

What are the responses to climate change? (pg 112-117)

Response Description of strategy Successes Limitations

Responses at the international level