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The scototaxis (dark/light preference) protocol is a behavioral model for fish that is being validated to assess the antianxiety
© 2010 Nature Publishing Group http://www.nature.com/natureprotocols
effects of pharmacological agents and the behavioral effects of toxic substances, and to investigate the (epi)genetic bases of
anxiety-related behavior. Briefly, a fish is placed in a central compartment of a half-black, half-white tank; following habituation,
the fish is allowed to explore the tank for 15 min; the number and duration of entries in each compartment (white or black)
are recorded by the observer for the whole session. Zebrafish, goldfish, guppies and tilapias (all species that are important in
behavioral neurosciences and neuroethology) have been shown to demonstrate a marked preference for the dark compartment. An
increase in white compartment activity (duration and/or entries) should reflect antianxiety behavior, whereas an increase in dark
compartment activity should reflect anxiety-promoting behavior. When individual animals are exposed to the apparatus on only
one occasion, results can be obtained in 20 min per fish.
INTRODUCTION
The dark/light preference model is already established as an of the gymnotid G. carapo, for which different dimensions of
‘ethoexperimental’ anxiety model in rodents1. It is based on the the test tank were needed).
natural aversive quality of brightly lit environments for mice, Behavioral responses in the dark/light preference protocol are
shaping a conflict situation in which the animal must deal with readily assessable and quantifiable by an observer, without the need
its natural tendency to explore in the face of an unpleasant envi- for extensive training. Briefly, animals are placed in an intersection
ronment. The rodent dark/light preference model is an explora- compartment, located between one white and one dark compart-
tion model, in the context that it measures locomotor activity ment; these spectra can be discriminated by both zebrafish43 and
in both environments as an index of anxiety2–5. The proposed goldfish44, and even though the authors are unaware of behavio-
actinopterygian dark/light preference task is a modification of ral spectral sensitivity experiments in the other species in which
an experimental manipulation used by Edward Thorndike6 dur- scototaxis has been observed, the very existence of this trait is
ing the beginning of the twentieth century to study motivation indirect evidence for this sensitivity. This intersection compart-
and learning in fish, and afterward by Satake and Morton7 in the ment is enclosed by two sliding doors, which are removed follow-
1970s to establish the effects of noradrenergic substances on the ing a habituation interval of 5 min. The animal is then allowed to
scotophobic (i.e., dark-avoiding) behavior of pinealectomized or explore the apparatus freely, and the observer records its behavior
scotophobin-injected goldfish. Recently, the proposed model was (number and/or duration of entries in either the black or white
used to establish dark/light preference in zebrafish Danio rerio8, compartments) for 15 min. This procedure is based on the work of
bluegill Lepomis macrochirus, crucian carp Carassius langsdorfii9, Mattioli’s group8, which observed the natural preference zebrafish
goldfish Carassius auratus9–12, guppy Poecilia reticulata12, Nile tila- for the black compartment. The duration of the session was
pia Oreochromis niloticus12, lambari Astyanax altiparanae, cardi- increased to 15 min, which is 5 min more than the original experi-
nal tetra Paracheirodon axelrodi12 and banded knifefish Gymnotus ment described by Serra et al.8, because the time course of explo-
carapo12, and to screen for the neurobehavioral effects of ethanol13 ration in this apparatus reveals significant changes after the tenth
and dopaminergic drugs14 in zebrafish. The main advantage of minute of observation. Behavior in this task (i.e., activity in the
this protocol is the presentation of a clear conflict situation for white compartment) reflects a conflict between the preference of
the fish; however, most models that investigate innate ‘fear’- and the animal for protected areas (e.g., black substrata, in a process of
‘anxiety’-like behavior in fish do not use such conflict. With the crypsis) and an innate motivation to explore novel environments.
exception of predator inspection tests15–17, most innate anxiety Crypsis in fish depends on the dorsal distribution of melanophores
tests use either the exploration of an open field or the vertical in the fish surface; the presence of dorsal and dorsally oriented
distribution of the animal in the water column to measure this melanophores tends to minimize refraction and reflection of
variable14,18–32 and aim to describe individual variability across light incident on the fish, reducing the effectiveness of visual infor-
a ‘shyness–boldness’ continua 15,33–37. This continuum can be mation for predators45. Appropriate cryptic coloration requires
mapped to Budaev’s15,34,35 two dimensions of ‘temperament’ in the appropriate background and behavior (in the present task,
fish (activity-exploration and fear-avoidance), which in turn preference for dark substrata). Antianxiety effects (i.e., increased
are trait instantiations of approach–avoidance state dimen- time in the white compartment) can be determined simultane-
sions38–40. Ex hypothesi, these dimensions are best analyzed using ously with a measure of increased or decreased swimming activity
conflict models41,42. This protocol will focus on the cyprinids (i.e., total number of entries in both compartments). Other meas-
zebrafish and goldfish; however, it has been successfully applied ures that can be observed are thigmotaxis (i.e., the tendency for the
to non-cyprinids without alterations to it12 (with the exception animals to stay nearer to the walls of the apparatus, especially
validation procedure, then no statistically significant lateral zebrafish in the dark/light preference task; significant increases were
preference (i.e., time spent in each compartment) should be observed in the time spent in the white compartment (150.1 ± 15.3%,
observed, showing that the preference in the dark/light tank in relation to the impoverished environment) and decreases in the
is indeed for the dark side of the apparatus and not for some frequency of BCF transient swimming (78.7 ± 3.5%) and freezing
other spatial constraint. (67.3 ± 9.8%) in this compartment. Our ‘enriched’ tank had hiding
places, rocks, vegetation and natural substratum, whereas the ‘impov-
Face validity of scototaxis erished’ tank had only water quality, temperature, aeration and light-
The dark/light preference protocol has face validity (i.e., the ability ing controls. These observations support the hypothesis that rearing
of a given task to appear to measure what it is supposed to measure, in ‘enriched’ environments reduces anxiety-like behavior in fish, an
in that the given task ‘looks like’ the endophenotype56 that it is mod- effect that has been observed in rodents73–75—in which it has been
eling57). Bakshi and Kalin58 proposed that the main endophenotype suggested that environmental enrichment reduces emotionality and
of anxiety is an aberrant expression of defensive behavior. As an induces ‘facilitation’ of motor skills73.
example, the anxiety or fear of brightly lit spaces is measured in this
Multiple test sessions in the dark/light preference task
model; the white compartment is avoided, and animals (zebrafish)
Contrary to rodent models such as, e.g., the elevated plus-maze and
spend most time (71.3 ± 26.2%) in the black compartment12. Other
dark/light transitions test, the dark preference (at least in zebrafish)
anxiety-related behaviors, such as thigmotaxis, freezing and BCF
does not present the so-called ‘one-trial tolerance,’ an effect in
transient swimming, also occur more in the white than in the black
which animals exposed a second time to the same apparatus tend
compartment (unpublished observations).
to present sensitization76 (i.e., increased time spent in the ‘safe’
environment) and there is lack of effect of benzodiazepines77–80.
Predictive validity of scototaxis
In a 1-week experiment in which animals were tested daily (at the
The dark/light preference protocol has predictive validity, defined,
same photoperiod), no evidence of sensitization or habituation
based on a psychometric point of view59–61 as the extent to which
was observed in any parameter tested81 (time spent in each com-
the dependent measure predicts behavior on a related meas-
partment, number of transitions, latency for exploration) (average
ure62. Unpublished data from our laboratory (Laboratório de
measures intraclass correlation r = 0.983, F(8,36) = 58.095, P < 0.001,
Neurociências e Comportamento, UFPA) show that increased
in a one-way random effects model where subject effects are ran-
dark compartment activity occurs in zebrafish, which also dem-
dom, and H0 for the F-test is that the true value for the intraclass
onstrate increased central area entries in the open field (r2[gl = 13] =
correlation coefficients is 0).
0.89, P < 0.01). Predictive validity is also defined as the degree to
which a model can predict the effect of antianxiety compounds Developmental factors in the dark/light preference task
with proved clinical efficacy2,63–65. It has been reported66 that anxi- Some results indicate that the preference for dark environments
olytic compounds predictably alter the time that zebrafish spent in zebrafish are age-dependent82, which is probably an effect of
in the white compartment of the apparatus, and similar results the maturation of melanophores83,84. Thus, in larval zebrafish,
were obtained, using chlordiazepoxide (0.0, 0.02 and 0.2 mg kg − 1), which show no pigmentation, a preference for light environments
in the Laboratório de Neurociências e Comportamento (153.4 ± is observed14,85, whereas a preference for dark environments is
11.4% [0.02 mg kg − 1] and 121.7 ± 4.1% [0.2 mg kg − 1] in relation observed in adult zebrafish8,12. These developmental differences
to controls) (unpublished data). should be taken into account, given that melanophores are impor-
tant for the ontogeny of defensive behavior in fish45.
Construct validity of scototaxis
The construct validity of most anxiety models rely on linking them Comparison with other tests
to species-specific defense reactions67. In this model, a behavioral Currently, there are few behavioral tests of anxiety, temperament
co-adaptation to heightened dorsal distribution of melanophores or emotionality in fish. The open-field, a test in which the animal’s
(i.e., preference for dark substrata to enable crypsis) is central to the exploration of a novel environment is the dependent measure, has
construct in question. In animal models, the construct of anxiety been used to test dopaminergic and glutamatergic drugs14,23,26,29,
is sometimes defined in terms of opponent motivational processes whereas the vertical distribution test has been used to assess sub-
being ‘activated’ simultaneously, creating an approach–avoidance stances that act on the nicotinic receptor30,32. However, none of
conflict: at the same time when animals tend to explore novel these tests have been validated using antianxiety drugs, such as
environments, they also tend to express fear of those novel benzodiazepines and serotonergic agents. Currently, this validation
MATERIALS
REAGENT SETUP ideal levels for each species can be found in databases such as FishBase.
Fish species The choice of species for use in this experiment depends mainly Table 1 presents optimal values for these parameters for zebrafish, guppy
on a high density of dark melanophores in the dorsum of the animal. In the and goldfish. Other environmental parameters, such as light and noise
Laboratório de Neurociências e Comportamento, we demonstrated the levels, also need to be considered.
existence of this pattern in zebrafish, goldfish, fighting-fish Betta splendens For example, as schooling fish, zebrafish can be kept at fairly high
(Bruno Rodrigues dos Santos, unpublished data), Nile tilapia, Cardinal tetra, densities: ~20 fish can be kept in volumes ranging from 400 ml as young larvae
guppy, lambari and banded knifefish12. Each of these species is also being (1–5 d post-fertilization; dpf) to 3 liters as the fish approach juvenile stage
used as a model animal in other types of research, including speciation (3 months, defined as the beginning of reproductive age)100. For general activity
events, development, social behavior and sexual selection. Thus, choosing assessment, tanks should be made of transparent glass, Plexiglas (acrylic) or
species is more a matter of validating the preference for them and matching polycarbonate, enabling easy observation of the animals. A different tank, for
scototaxis with the more general questions being asked by the experimenters. breeding, should be smaller (24 cm × 12 cm × 12 cm), and present either artificial
Zebrafish was one of the first species to be tested in this paradigm8 because or natural glass in the bottom, as well as a bottom layer of glass marbles.
it has become one of the preferred laboratory model organisms in genetics Preparation of drugs and toxins Administration routes for drugs and
and developmental biology107. toxins can vary; most used are intraperitoneal injection and waterborne
The description of the behavior of some of these species was made administration. The first procedure has the disadvantage of stressing the
elsewhere12; some species differences are of note (Fig. 1). Briefly, animal (even when the animal is anesthetized, as it should be in any
preference for dark environments was found in all these species; however, procedure involving injections); thus, identical handling and injection
the banded knifefish and the Nile tilapia failed to present enhanced locomo- procedures must be used for control and treated fish. The second procedure
tion in an all-white tank (a positive control for the validation of scototaxis; is used in most of the studies so far24,25,27,28,47,110,111 but has the disadvantage
see ‘Validation of test in laboratory’, under ‘Equipment Setup’). As such, of producing uncertainty in relation to the system bioavailability of the
use of species other than the ones presented here demand validation. drug in question; this limitation can be avoided if the researcher has access
Animal housing Animals should be housed in accordance with guidelines to high-speed liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry to
for the use of fish in research108,109, as well as in accordance with the more measure the presence and amount of the drug in the nervous system, plasma
general guidelines for the use of animals in research. Briefly, animals should or urine112. When using this latter route of administration, we recommend
be group housed in water conditions that are adequate for the species. dissolving the stock solutions in a 250-ml beaker containing 200 ml of
The main water quality parameters are temperature, oxygen saturation, de-chlorinated tank water, at a temperature of ~27 °C. Drug doses should be
nitrogen compounds, carbon dioxide, pH and salinity; information about calculated based on the weights of the salts. Stock solutions to be dissolved
Rat) behavioral transcription software experiments were performed in compliance with the recommendations of SBNeC (Brazilian Society
• Discard tank, glass for Neuroscience and Behavior), which are based on National Institutes of Health’s Guide for Care and
EQUIPMENT SETUP Use of Laboratory Animals, and also complied to the Canadian Council on Animal Care’s Guidelines
Transport and temporary housing equipments on the Care and Use of Fish in Research, Teaching and Testing.
Animals should be transferred from temporary
housing tanks (bucket or beakers) by using fish nets.
Dark/light preference tank Here we use the apparatus described else- using an adapted behavioral transcription software (X-Plo-Rat v1.1.0). Other
where8,12 and presented in Figure 2, although variations exist. An acrylic tank software are available for this type of data collection, following a similar
(15 cm × 10 cm × 45 cm height × width × length) is used that is divided rationale (i.e., recording the duration of ‘behavioral states’ such as entrance
equally into one-half black and one-half white. Walls and bottom are either in a given compartment, e.g., Ethovision, EthoLog and JWatcher). If compu-
black or white, so as to warrant uniform substrata for each compartment. terized transcription is not available, an observer can make hatchmarks on
The water column is kept at 10 cm, yielding a final volume of a data sheet for each compartment entry that the fish makes and use a timer
4.5 liters. Water should be de-chlorinated. The colored material chosen to determine the duration spent in either compartment. It is also possible to
should not be reflective, to avoid the tendency of those animals that present use automated video tracking software if the contrast between background
shoaling tendencies113,114 to behave in relation to their own reflection. The and the animal are altered; this can be done using GPL-licensed video editing
tank contains central sliding doors, colored with the same color of the software such as VirtualDub.
aquarium side, thereby defining an uncolored central compartment Equipment for validation of test in laboratory Interspecific variation in this
measuring 15 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm. test has been observed12, and scototaxis should not be treated as a fixed trait in
The species were used in our laboratory are small, ornamental fish, meas- a given species. As such, cross-validation should be made in each laboratory, as
uring a maximum 5 cm long. For longer animals, the size of the tanks should to warrant that the population or species in question presents this trait. Nega-
be changed accordingly. For example, in our tests with the banded knifefish, tive controls for this test can be made using all-white and all-black tanks, with
which measures ~10 cm, we used a tank measuring 15 cm × 10 cm × 55 cm, the same dimensions as the tank described above8,12; if different animals are
resulting in a central compartment of 15 × 10 × 20 cm12. used for each tank in the validation procedure, then no statistically significant
Location and/or illumination Tanks should be illuminated by environmental lateral preference (i.e., time spent in each compartment) should be observed,
light (75 W light bulb, located at 1.80 m above the aquarium top), which keeps showing that the preference in the dark/light tank is indeed for the dark side
illumination uniform and constant between trials. At this distance, environ of the apparatus, and not for some other spatial constraint. Also, the all-white
mental light tends to produce an average of 975 lux right above the tank. tank should produce increased locomotion, as a signal of increased anxiety-
Data collection apparatus The primary method for data collection used in like behavior8,12; however, the opposite result (decreased locomotion in the all-
our laboratory is the manual transcription of video-recorded experiments white tank) can also be expected, as freezing can be an anxiety-like behavior.
Discard tank After animals are tested, they should be removed carefully
from the test tank and transferred to a discard tank, with the same conditions
Table 1 | Water quality parameters for three species of fish. found in the housing tank (see ‘Animal housing’). Although multiple testing
does not affect the behavior of zebrafish (see ‘Multiple test sessions in the
Parameter Species dark/light preference task’), discarded animals should preferentially not be
used in another scototaxis session, especially if they were subjected to drug
Zebrafish Guppy Goldfish or toxicant treatments.
Danio Poecilia Carassius
rerio reticulata auratus
Temperature (°C) 18–24 18–28 < 41 5 cm
PROCEDURE
Setup ● TIMING 0.5–1 h per cohort of experimental animals
1| Ensure the apparatus is filled with de-chlorinated water before use (water column = 10 cm). Fill out data sheets with
subject number of animal, date, coded condition and experimenter initials before testing.
2| Bring the animal in an individual temporary transport recipient (e.g., bucket or beaker) into the behavioral test room.
3| Transfer the fish to the central compartment of the test tank with a net.
CRITICAL STEP Ensure that all animals are handled in a consistent manner and that each animal is placed in the central
compartment in the same position.
© 2010 Nature Publishing Group http://www.nature.com/natureprotocols
7| Discard the water used for test, wash the tank thoroughly with tap water and refill it with de-chlorinated water before
testing with another animal.
Data analysis
8| Perform preferred data analysis. In a previous study12, we used non-parametric (Kruskal–Wallis) analyses of variance to
assess the effects of treatment on the following measures: latency for first choice of environment; duration of entries in each
compartment (Fig. 1); and number of midline crossings. However, further unpublished study revealed that other variables,
such as latency to begin exploration after an environment was first chosen, frequency of entries in each compartment and
mean duration of entries, are sensitive to manipulations. In addition, non-parametric analyses of variance are not the only
way to assess the effects of independent variables on dependent variables; however, normality of the data should be
assessed before parametric tests are used. For more information, refer to standard statistics texts.
● TIMING
Steps 1–3, setup: for cohort of experimental animals, 0.5–1 h
Steps 4 and 5, testing: 15 min per animal.
Steps 6 and 7, cleanup: 1–2 min per animal.
? TROUBLESHOOTING
ANTICIPATED RESULTS
The following results exemplify data that we have obtained using the dark/light preference protocol to investigate the an-
tianxiety effects of rearing in an enriched environment in goldfish and zebrafish115. The results are robust and replicable, and
© 2010 Nature Publishing Group http://www.nature.com/natureprotocols
show generalization across both species. This type of manipulation yields consistent antianxiety effects in rodent models of
anxiety73–75; an experiment conducted in our laboratory (Laboratório de Neurociências e Comportamento), using the scoto-
taxis test, is described below.
In this study, adult zebrafish and goldfish were divided in four groups, depending on species (zebrafish versus goldfish)
and rearing environment (enriched versus impoverished, as described above). Animals were kept in their respective rearing
environment for 2 consecutive months before testing. One hour before testing in the dark/light preference tank, animals
were drawn randomly from the rearing tanks and transported to the behavioral observation room. An observer, blind to the
experimental condition of the experimental animal, recorded the behavioral data using the protocol described above. Data
were analyzed using two-way analyses of variance, followed by Tukey’s HSD as post-hoc tests. Results showed that being
reared in an enriched environment for 2 months increases the time that both species of fish spent in the white compartment
of the test tank, compared with those reared in an impoverished environment. Thus, we can conclude that environmental
enrichment can decrease anxiety-like behavior in this test, perhaps by reducing emotionality, as seems to be the case with
rodents73–75.
Summary
The scototaxis protocol is a novel behavioral assay of anxiety-like behavior in fish. It is easy to use, low-cost and valid
results can be obtained in a short, 15-min testing period. The patterns of results obtained using this protocol are replicable
across fish species, studies and laboratories.
Acknowledgments Part of this research was supported by grants from CAPES 8. Serra, E.L., Medalha, C.C. & Mattioli, R. Natural preference of zebrafish (Danio
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Unesp/Bauru for support with data collection. responses to a novel environment between three teleosts, bluegill Lepomis
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