Introduction – Energy from Matter

E=mc2

Einstein's famous equation from 1905 E=mc2 demonstrates

that energy (E) is equivalent with matter (mass m). It
suggests that the concept of mass is indeed, less basic than
Energy and matter are what can be believed from everyday experiences with
equivalent. massive bodies. In fact, energy can be transformed into
massive particles, and mass can be transformed into
energy. Energy in all its different appearances is a key
concept in physics.

The Nucleus
The building blocks of The atomic nucleus is made up of protons (charge +1) and
nuclei. neutrons (neutral). A light nucleus like helium (He)
consists of two protons and two neutrons. A typical
medium-sized nucleus is tin, with 50 protons and 69
neutrons. Uranium is a heavy nucleus with 92 protons.
One of the different uranium nuclei has 143 neutrons. This
nucleus is called 235U with 235 being the sum of the
The helium nucleus numbers of protons and neutrons.
has two protons and
two neutrons.

A light, medium and heavy nucleus.

Binding Energy

A peculiar and very important property of the nucleus is

that its mass is not the sum of the masses of the protons
and neutrons that make up the nucleus, it is less! This is
The mass of the because the strong nuclear force binds neutrons and
helium protons in the nucleus together and energy is required to
nucleus is less than separate them.
the sum of the masses This energy is called the binding energy, and by
2
of its building blocks. E=mc gives the nucleus less mass than the sum of the
masses of its constituents. This is also the reason why
many nuclei are stable. The binding energy per proton or
neutron is largest for medium-sized nuclei and less for
very heavy and for very light nuclei.

What is Fusion?

When light nuclei are brought together to form a heavier

nucleus (a process called fusion), energy is released. When a
deuterium and a tritium nucleus fuse, a helium nucleus and a
neutron are formed. The difference in mass between the initial
and final states is transformed into an energy release of 17.6
MeV, 3.5 MeV per participating nucleon, corresponding to
about 0.4% of the mass of the nuclei. The two nuclei in a
fusion process must collide at very high speed to overcome
the repulsion caused by the positive charges of the two nuclei.

Three isotopes of hydrogen

Fusion Powers the Sun and Other Stars
Gravitational Energy?

In the 19th century the sun and other stars were assumed to be
powered by gravitational energy: matter falling into the sun would
release energy, as would contraction of the sun. However,
calculations showed that the lifetime of the sun would be only about
30 million years, much shorter than estimates of the age of the earth
(now estimated at 4.6 billion years!). Gravitational energy must be
ruled out!

However, gravitation plays an important role for later stages of a

star's life.

Fusion Powers the Sun

The gas in our sun (hydrogen and helium nuclei) and in other stars is
hot enough to produce collisions where fusion can take place. In the
centre of the sun the temperature is about 15 million degrees
centigrade and it is even hotter in other stars.

Protons (hydrogen nuclei) are making fusion reactions and produce

helium according to the proton-proton cycle or to the carbon cycle,
proposed by Hans Bethe in 1939. Bethe received the 1967 Nobel
Prize in Physics.
The Supernova Explosion
When the hydrogen in a star is exhausted, the
star contracts due to gravitation. The
temperature increases, and helium can start to
fuse. This process continues until iron is
formed. If the mass is large enough the
gravitation is so strong that the star collapses
and becomes a neutron star (all protons being
transformed into neutrons) or a black hole. This
explosion is called a supernova. Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar and William A. Fowler received
the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics for their works
on the evolution of stars and formation of the
elements in the universe.

The Energy Source of Tomorrow?

 The fusion of light nuclei can give more energy
per kg material than fission. The energy
produced by fusion of one litre of deuterium
corresponds to the energy produced by
combustion of 600 litres of gasoline. A
particularly attractive possibility is to use heavy
hydrogen, deuterium, which is available in sea
water. In the world's oceans there is 1015kg of
deuterium available! Much research today is
devoted to make temperatures sufficiently high
for a fusion reactor to work.
JET is the world's largest
nuclear fusion experiment using
magnetically confined plasma.
This is a picture of the inside of
JET's torus which is used to
contain the plasma. (The plasma
can be seen to the right.) The
height of the inside of the vessel
is 4.2 metres.
Photograph courtesy of EFDA-
JET

What is Fission?
Splitting

Assume that a heavy nucleus can be split in two medium-

sized nuclei: the mass of the heavy nucleus is larger than the
A heavy nucleus like sum of the masses of the two parts.
uranium split in two
parts: the heavy The difference in masses, using the Einstein equation,
corresponds to an energy of about 200 MeV. This energy
nucleus has a larger
release for the splitting of one nucleus is very large
mass. compared to the energy release in chemical reactions,
actually 10-100 million times larger!
Fission of 236Uranium
The key to producing the splitting of a It turns out that this nucleus
heavy 235Uranium nucleus is the neutron, discovered is unstable and quickly
by Chadwick in 1932. Being neutral, the neutron is splits in two parts, and
not stopped by repulsion when approaching a undergoes fission. The first
nucleus and a new, heavier nucleus is produced. experiments to establish
When a neutron is captured by a 235Uranium fission were performed in
nucleus, a heavier 236U is formed. Berlin in 1938 by Otto Hahn
and collaborators. The
interpretation in terms of
fission were worked out
together with Lise Meitner
and Otto Frisch.

The First Reactor: Fermi 1942

Even if 200 MeV is a large amount of energy for These can, in turn, produce
one fission reaction, to make energy on a new fissions, i.e. start a
macroscopic level requires a large number of chain reaction. The first
reactions. The key to this is the fact that in the chain reaction - the first
fission of 236U a few neutrons (2-3) are produced reactor - was made in a
(discovered 1939). famous experiment by
Fermi in 1942.
 The Atomic Bomb and
Nuclear Energy

Fermi's 1942 experiment

made it clear that if the
chain reaction is not
controlled, the result would
be an explosion. The atomic
bomb was a reality in 1945.
The first nuclear reactor
producing energy was
started in 1954 in Obninsk,
Russia.

The Fission Process in the Nuclear Reactor

A neutron colliding with a 235U nucleus
causes it to split into two nuclei (fission
fragments, typically one heavier and one
lighter nucleus) and several free neutrons
(fission neutrons). The fission fragments,
like 144Ba and 89Kr, have a very high
velocity and disperse their kinetic energy
into the closest environment, heating it up.
80% of the energy released in a fission
process is carried by the fission fragments
that are radioactive and decay fast.
Fission neutrons striking the next
nuclei of uranium may start next
fissions, and the next, and the next ....
building up a chain reaction.
Some neutrons are absorbed in the
uranium isotope 238U which does not
split. It captures a neutron
becoming 239U, which after two beta
decays becomes 239Pu. 239Pu is a long
lived alpha-radioactive isotope.

235
U
Fission, i.e. splitting of nuclei of heavy
isotopes like 235U (or 239Pu) generates
energy in a nuclear rector. A neutron
collision with a heavy nucleus results in
fission into two nuclei called fission
fragments and into several neutrons.

Fission products and fission neutrons

have a very high velocity but slow down
quickly producing heat.

144
Ba
One of the most probable heavy fission
fragments of 235U-fission is 144Ba
(Barium). 144Ba is not stable, and
similarly to its lighter companion 89Kr
(Krypton), it beta-decays very fast,
through consecutive emissions of
electrons and anti-neutrinos to very, very
long-lived 144Nd (Neodymium).
 89
Kr
Fission fragments have masses around 90
and 140; most of them are radioactive.
Decay of the fission fragments builds up
a chain of other radioactive isotopes
(fission products). As these processes
continue also after the chain reaction in
the reactor has stopped, some heat will
Here, we see a decay continue to be produced after a reactor
chain of89Kr (Krypton), shutdown.
which decays through
some beta-decays to
stable 89Y (Yttrium).

Plutonium Buildup
Plutonium isotopes, mainly 239Pu, are
produced in reactor fuel when 238U
absorbs a neutron and the resulting
nucleus goes through two beta-decays.
Part of the 239Pu is fissioned by neutrons
directly in the reactor core, the rest
remains in spent reactor fuel as toxic and
unpleasant waste. It must therefore, be
well isolated from the biosphere for a
very long time.
239
Pu can be used as a weapon material
and therefore, must be under a strict
control. Moreover, 239Pu can become a
fuel for new types of reactors, like
breeder reactors. It can even be reused in
the existing reactors. This is a way to use
the otherwise useless 238U for a long
lasting energy production.