STRUCTURAL STEEL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL
TECHNICAL INFORMATION & PRODUCTSERVICE
Structural Details to Increase
Ductility of Connections
By: Omer W. Blodgett, P.E.
Senior Design Consultant
The Lincoln Electric Company
INTRODUCTION
Materials used in steel structures are increas-
ingly becoming thicker and heavier. A greater
chance of cracking during welding of beams
to columns, for example, has resulted due to
increased thickness of material. With weld
shrinkage restrained in the thickness, width,
and length, triaxial stresses develop that may
inhibit the ability of steel to exhibit ductility.
This paper will attempt to explain why these
cracks may occur, and what can be done to
prevent them, by expanding on information
presented in the AISC Supplement No. 1
(LRFD) or Chapter J 9th Ed. AISC Manual.
O parent ductility.
stress
psi
I I I I I I
£ strain in/in
Figure 1
APRIL 1995
FIELD RESULTS
I learned about the stress-strain curve (Figure
1) while taking "Strength of Materials" along
with laboratory work at the University of Min-
nesota. It took me a long time before I real-
ized that this applied only to simple tensile
specimens in the laboratory.
During World War II while I was working in a
shipyard, a docked, all-welded tanker, the
Schenectady, suddenly broke in two. At the
time, we had no answer as to what could have
caused such a catastrophic failure. We passed
it off as perhaps a poor grade of steel or poor
workmanship, and kept on welding our ships.
A short time later, we received a bulletin from
The Lincoln Electric Company in which it was
stated that ductility values come from simple
tensile specimens which are free to neck down.
The bulletin pointed out that if the same plate
had many transverse stiffeners welded to it,
the ability to neck down would be greatly re-
stricted, and the plate would fail with less ap-
DEFINING DUCTILITY
In Figure 2, Mohr's Circle of Stress has been
drawn, showing a tensile stress of 10 ksi up to
the ultimate of 70 ksi (numbered from 1 to 7).
The corresponding maximum shear stress is at
40 I
the top of each circle. For convenience, each I

point of shear (illustrated as a solid dot) is moved

--30 .•, ,,,•th ..
horizontally until it lies directly above the corre- ·• I •., I

sponding tensile stress (depicted as an open v, crlticat shear stress t • ":1

dot). Notice that these points form a straight line,

representing a simple tensile specimen. From ·, • n i •.•.,•"• •¢- ; '• 1•.
this line, it is possible to read off the maximum " / ,•,<'• - ! •i ,-
shear stress for a given tensile stress. This is , ,
10 2'0 30 40 50 60 70
the basic figure used by Professor Gensamer, applied tensile stress (ksi)
as shown in Figure 3.
Shear Tensile Relationship for a Simple Tensile Specimen
Gensamer introduced the concept of graphically
illustrating the maximum shear-stress theory of Figure 4

failure. In Figure (4), the horizontal axis repre-

sents the tensile stress (o), and the vertical axis
represents the shear stress (-[). The critical ten-
sile stress would be the ultimate tensile strength,
but exceeding this value causes immediate fail-
criticat shear ? Z•c
/stress •r
ure with little energy absorbed, that is, brittle fail-
ure. Exceeding the critical shear stress causes
slip or ductile failure. In a simple tensile speci-
men, the resulting shear.stress is one half of
the applied tensile stress. This means moving
up along a line having a 26.56 ° slope. This slope
o is not dependent upon the type or strength of
steel used. When this specimen reaches the-
yield strength (ay), the corresponding shem•
stress is at its critical value (•:CR)' This means
the critical shear (•:CR) is equal to one half of the
usual yield strength of the material in a simple
tensile test. Above the critical shear value, plas-
7 tensile
stress tic deformation takes place, with the specimen
(ksi)
slipping along millions of 45 ° slip planes. Dur-
ing this time, there is some work hardening of
the material. Finally, the critical tensile stress is
reached, and failure occurs.

Figure 2 ,'•
I 0
©
30'
4sot.-. •,'• I
'•=1/2o
20'
•-- L = W q I L-W I

10
/ ia 4so-•, f I
i v:, i ®
I f ' •' f I necked down tensilo specimen
: : t I I I I
I 2 3 /4 5 6 7 Ductility of Steel
tensile stress (ksi)

Figure 3 Figure 5

2 Steel Tips April 1995

In Figure 5a, the member is subjected to a ten-
sile stress (o) under the yield strength (ay). This
results in elastic strain and is recoverable when
the stress is removed. Notice also in Figure 5a
that a shear occurs which has a maximum value
of •:--1/20 on a plane at 45°, with the axis of the
applied tensile stress. If the applied stress (o) is
increased to a value of (0¥), the resulting shear
stress exceeds its critical value-tcR=l/2ov , then a
permanent slip occurs on planes at 45 °, as
shown in Figure 5b and 5c.
This is plastic strain and, if continued, will cause
the specimen to neck down (Figure 5d). As the
cross-sectional area continues to become
smaller, the tensile stress finally exceeds the
critical normal stress (tensile strength) and the
member fails.
All of this can be seen in the stress-strain curve
of Figure 6. Region (a) below the yield strength
covers the elastic strain portion. Region (c) cov-
ers the plastic strain portion with the member
necking down. Point (d) is tensile failure. In the
stress-strain curve of Figure 6, region (a) is all
elastic strain. The resulting shear stress (•) is
with more and more necking down. The ductility
of the simple tensile stress specimen occurs
because there is a shear stress component from
the particular load condition and, more impor-
tantly, it exceeds the critical value by a consid-
erable amount. Let us see if we can find out why
this test specimen is ductile; then we can check
the ductility of other loaded members or details.
The ductility of a simple tensile specimen oc-
curs because there are two shear stresse (%-3)
and ('•2-3) resulting from the applied tensile stress
(o3), as shown in Figure 7a and 7b. Notice that
when the stress (%) reaches its critical value
for failure (70 ksi in this example), the two shear
stresses have already exceeded their critical
value of 20 ksi. There are two shear stresses
because there are two circles: circle (1-3) and
circle (2-3). The third circle, (1-2), has no ra-
dius, and hence no shear stress, since it is a
point.
g
w 'ri'3 el
%!
r--TT7--- , _ .

under the critical value -OcR=l/2 ay, so no plastic

strain takes place. tension
=zer
0 ' 2 •0'3
In region (c) the resulting shear stress exceeds
the critical value and plastic strain takes place
Figure 7A

,G$rGt.e 1-3 aircte 2-3

Ptqstic , • Ptastic
-- 6aT• movement' •/' I mYJvement
m4ke;• Sl)•g;men I • I makes sp4K:imen
thinner
r ° w e O . • t = zen=

e 3Of i3(l-i) Z-3)

4t I .Thismqvernent •c.i.3)ioirlthe This movement •'a(z.alis ;n the I
.= 20 dir•ion Of (•3 direction af 0'3
I
lo! --I' I-- tatar ptost;¢ strain ]n d;rectlon of

•JZ •3 (I-3) '[' •'3 C2-3} I

' i I I •' : ; ,I ' fram fram
.oi .02 .03 .G4 .OS .Q6 .107 ,.(}6 .09 .10 .11 .t2 •t-3 'rz-3
Total $tra;n E Tn/in wiU tend to reduce the residual stres.• ((T3)

Figure 6 Figure 7B

Steel April 1995 3

Any value of shear for 1;1. 3 and 1;2-3 above the stress o3 and would tend to reduce any residual
critical 20 ksi will cause plastic strain. Notice in stress. This member should behave in a ductile
Figure 7a that both circle (1-3) and circle (2-3) manner. Plastic behavior takes place from 03 = *•
cause plastic strain $3(1-3) and £3(2-3)' Therefore 40 ksi up to 70 ksi, and is caused by two differ-
(o3) will be: •3 = E3(1-3) + s3(2-3). ent plastic strains E3(1.3) and £3(2-3)'
Since E3(1.3) ' - £3(2-3)' we then have: s3 = 2s3¢.3), Table 1 lists the data from a typical stress-strain
which will tend to reduce residual stresses curve for structural steel. Total elastic plus plas-
caused by welding. tic strain is listed in Column 3. The elastic strain,
calculated from s = °/E, is listed in Column 2. By
If the specimen is pulled to failure, o3 will reach
subtracting the elastic strain from the corre-
its critical value, or tensile strength; see Figure
sponding total rain, we obtain the plastic strain,
8. By this time, the two shear stresses are above
the critical value and plastic strain or movement shown in Column 4.
will have taken place. Notice that the total plas-
RESIDUAL S T R E S S E S ISOLATED
tic strain consists of two values: C3(1.3) and £3(2-3)'
The movement •3 acts in the direction of the Figure 9 illustrates that two important residual
stresses exist in the weld's termination zone. The
butt joint in the flange has a residual stress lon-
gitudinal to the length of the flange (o3), as well
40;
as a stress transverse to the flange (%). Longi-
t..-
tudinal stress is tensile along the center line of
the flange where the weld access hole termi-
crlticot shear • •\• I nates. It can be compared to tightening a steel • '
!
lr'cr_, s toad tine I
t.'•'} represents I
{ • O 'I I
I
; : .* I I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
normqt stress 0'3
Figure 8

weld (access
hole
I 2 3 4
normal elastic total plastic
stress strain strain strain
0 3 £e •T Ep

10 .00033 .00033 •roG¥,e

weld
15 .00050 .00050
20 .00067 .00067
25 .00083 .00083
30 .00100 .00100
35 .00117 .00117 ° 4o •_3
40 .00133 .00133
45 .0015 .00236 .00086
50 .0017 .00485 .00315
55 .0018 .01200 .01020
60 .0020 .03185 .02985
65 .0022 .08234 .08014
70 .0023 .20229 .20000
Figure 9
Table 1

4 Steel Tips April 1995

 high as shown on Mohr's Circle of Stress, and
the critical shear value will be reached at a much
lower tensile stress or load value. This will pro-
duce more ductility in the (o3) direction, greatly
reducing the chance of a transverse crack in the
flange at the termination of the weld access hole.
30 '•'•
I . . . . . . . . .
u : criti•t shear st•s,
-

·ut t' 2 _ :

10 2O 30 &O SO 60 70 80 EXAMPLE #1

Consider the unrestrained section, similar to a

Figure 10 simple tensile specimen, shown in Figure 12.
When there is no applied stress (o•) in the
through thickness direction or (o2) across the
cable lengthwise in the center in tension, with width, these values are zero. This will produce
compression spread out on both sides. The the largest of Mohr's circles, and the greatest
transverse stress (Ol) is tensile in the weld zone, value of shear (•;2.3) and ('•-3)' In both cases,
including a portion of the adjacent plate, going these shear stresses are equal to one half of
through zero, and then compression, beyond the the applied tensile stress (o3). These two shear-
adjacent plate. This transverse stress (o•) is also tensile lines are drawn in the lower portion of
similar to tightening a steel cable. the figure. Although there are two lines, which
would indicate good ductility, there is a differ-
ence between the two. One line represents neck-
RESIDUAL STRESSES APPLIED
lng down through the thickness, and the other
These residual stresses may be applied to a represents necking down across the width. Al-
weld detail having a narrow weld access hole, though the unit strains are the same in this case,
as shown in Figure 10. This hole terminates at the strain acting across the width would result
a point where (0•) and (03) are in tension. Since in greater overall movement or elongation over
the web at the edge of the weld access hole the length of the specimen.
offers some restraint against movement in the
through thickness direction of the flange plate,
stress in the (02) direction may have an appre-
ciable value. All of the circles will be small. Nei-
ther (T2.3) nor (T•.3) will probably ever reach the
critical shear stress value, and plastic strain or
ductility will not occur, as the right hand of Fig-
ure 10 illustrates. 'o, . .
If the weld access hole can be made wider, as -
'F
--(k•i)
0/ .
2 f - ; ? -- - : -
I cr;tiCOt .sh•_ Str•_•
-•- -•.,--"2d'k,; -
recommended by AISC Specification, Ninth Edi-
tion, so that it terminates in a zone where the
transverse residual stress (0•) is compressive
(see Figure 11), then a more favorable stress
condition will result in greater ductility in the (03)
direction. In this case, shear stress (-c•.3) will be
Figure 11

Apri11995 5
In the case of the restrained section shown in
Figure 13, (here L=W/4), the angle of maximum
shear stress lies along an angle of o - 76° and TO
' , - : :r I t - I . .
the resulting shear value is •: -- .23 03. The two
,,• sa
shear values (%-3) and ('¢2-3) produce two shear- ? o
tensile lines. The lower line acting across the 41t•

width does not produce enough shear to exceed

$0
the critical value, hence no plastic yielding. The I I I I
.01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .OG .07 •14 .09 JO .!1 .12 J ) .14 .lis Jll J? J!) .2Q
upper line indicating good plastic yielding, how- unit strO)n in/in

ever, acts only through the thickness and the Figure 14

overall movement would be less than the ex-
ample on the right. To get a better picture of this E
XAMP
LE#
2
behavior, the stress-strain curve shown in Fig-
There has been some discussion about the weld
ure 14 has been created for the two details.
connecting the beam flange to the column flange
as being brittle. Referring to Figure 15, the ma-
terial at point (A), whether it be weld metal or
base metal it cannot exhibit the ductility of a

J_ I
necking down across width necking dcTw• thru thickness necking • ocross wk• neckb•J down thru tl•cknesS
lrZ.3 · ]
· 2

i.

al

40' 40¸
I I

• 30.
v

H t i • shear stress _ •',

2o . . . . . . . - -- - • . . . . . . . . •l. .
qr'cr:2O ks, • ( • Y . . . . . . . . •i. '•.

10' · . '•,.,
ec•' ' •;b 10 / •!•

10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 10 20 30 40 5• GO 70
tensite stress (ksi) tensite stress (ksD

Figure 12 Figure 13

6 Steel April 1995

simple tension test. Ductility can only take place
if the material can slip in shear along numerous
slip planes. Four conditions are required for duc-
tility:
1. There must be a shear stress (•) component
resulting from the given load condition.
2. This shear stress must exceed its critical
value by a reasonable amount. The more it
exceeds this value, the greater will be the
resulting ductility.
3. The plastic shear strain resulting from this
shear stress must act in the direction which
will relieve the particular stress which can
cause cracking.
4. There must be sufficient unrestrained length
of the member to permit "necking down."
If conditions (1) and (2) are not met, there will
be no ductility and no yield point. The stress will
simply build up to the ultimate tensile strength
with little or no plastic energy absorbed. We call
this condition a brittle failure.
Figure 15 shows two regions in question:
Point (A) at the weld joining the beam flange to
the face of the column flange. Here there is re-
straint against strain (movement) across the
width of the beam flange (•) as well as through
the thickness of the beam flange (s2)-
Point (B) is along the length of the beam flange
away from the connecting weld. There is no re-
straint across the width of the flange or through
its thickness.
Figure 16 shows the three equations for strain
given in most strength of material texts, shown
O2
(•1 O3
1
•3 = "E (O3-•.[%-[[,[(•1)

1
•2= • (-•%+%-•o•)

1
s,= -• (-•%-•%+o•)

or it can be shown that

E [•E3+•2+(1-•)•,]
o•= (l+tz) (1-21z)

E [•3+(1-!Z)•2+[Lt•]
02= (1+•) (1-2•)

E [(1-tZ)•3+•2+p.•]
03= (1+[•) (1-21Z)

Figure 15 Figure 16
I
steel Tips April 1995 7
 ... • , , • : , .-•.;-•-, • v, • +
- - - r • I1' IIr I

02=0
in the flange. By using Poisson's ratio of iz=0.3
for steel the following strains are found for a
simple tensile specimen when stressed to
o3=30ksi.
a
i
,
o3=30ksi
!
· £3=+.001 £3 = +.001
!
!
L.
•.' s2 =-.0003
• - °

s• =-.0003
ol=O
Using these strains in the three formulas for re-
sisting stresses we find:
E [tz%+•ze2+(1-•)e l]
%= (1 +lz) (1-2tz) o• = Zero

30000 02 = Zero
o,- (1 +.3) (1-.6) [.3(+.001 ) +.3(-.O003)+.7(-.O003)]=Zero o3 = 30 ksi

o2=% =Zero This is plotted as Mohr's circle of stress in a

dotted circle. The larger solid line circle is for a
E [(1-p,)£3+$S:+!,te,] stress of 70ksi or ultimate tensile stress. The
°3= (1 +It) (1-21Z) resulting maximum shear stresses (%-3) and
(-c2.3) are the radii of these two circles or 35 ksi.
30000 The ratio of shear to tensile stress is 0.5. Figure
[.7(.001)+.3(-.0003)+.3(-.0003)]=30.0 ksi 18 plots this as line (B). Notice at a yield point of
°3:- (1.3) (1-.6)
55 ksi, the critical shear value is 1/2 of this or
27.5 ksi. When this critical shear stress is
ac1.3=35 reached, plastic straining or movement takes
place and ductile behavior will result up to the
ultimate tensile strength, here 70 ksi. Figure 19
shows a predicated stress-strain curve indicat-
ing ample ductility.
0.•=70
:

Figure 20 shows an element from Point (A) (Fig-

ure 15) at the junction of the beam and column
flange. Whether we consider weld metal or the
material in the column or beam makes little dif-
Figure 17 ference because this region is highly restrained.
Suppose we assume:
in upper box. For our use, these have been con- e3 = +.001 (as before)
verted into corresponding equations for stress,
•2 = Zero '•. (but now highly restrained
shown in lower box.
E1 = Zero J with little strain)
Figure 17 is an element of the beam flange from
From the given equations, we find the following
Figure 15 point (B). There is no restraint
stresses:
(%+o2=0) against the 30 ksi longitudinal stress

8 Steel Tips April 1995

 critical shear stress 'c=1/2 o • b o .y
The ratio of shear to tensile stress is 0.286. In
30 ·
27.5 Y•'t.•J, Figure 18, this condition is plotted as line (A).
...he
Notice it never exceeds the value of the critical
m 20 shear stress (27.5 ksi); therefore, there will be
fJ•
no plastic strain or movement, and it will behave
as a brittle material. Figure 19 shows a predi-
tll
ID
I0 ";'•'•'•, • iv , i , cated stress-strain curve going upward as a
straight line (elastic) until the ultimate tensile
10 20 30 40 50 55 60 70
stress is reached in a brittle manner with no
Figure 18
energy absorbed plastically.
Would it help if the strength and ductility of the
% = 17.31 ksi ) Increase to ( = 30.0 ksi
weld metal or base metal were changed? See
(7 2 : 17.31 ksi • ultimate tensile I, = 30.0 ksi Figure 21. The top figure is for lower strength,
(73 = 40.38 ksi strength = 70.0 ksi more ductile steel, tensile strength of 60 ksi and
a yield strength of 40 ksi. The lower figure is for
a higher strength, lower ductile steel, tensile
The lower portion of the sheet is a plot of Mohr's strength of 70 ksi and a yield strength of 55 ksi.
circle of stress. The maximum stresses are: Notice in the case of no restraint (B) that the
lower strength material will result in more ductil-
-c•. 3 = 1:2.3 = 20 ksi
ity. However, in the real world where there is

80

70

60

50
(/3

40
(/3

30

20

10

.05 .1 ,15 .2 .25 .3 .35

strain in/in
Figure 19

Steel Tips April 1995 9

 t

restraint (A), the lower strength material does Steel I

not provide any help against cracking. Neither TS=60 ksi I
material will provide any ductility. It might be ar- YP=40 ksi I.
30
gued thatthe higher strength material (lower fig-
ure) would be stronger. It still will perform in a
20
brittle manner if over stressed.
(/)
(/)

Assuming we have good workmanship with no '• 10

defects or stress raisers, the real success of this
ID
connection will depend upon getting the adja- · = i ,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

tensile stress (o) ksi

0'2

Steel
TS=70 ksi
l YP=55 ksi
!
i
i - • 03
i

i ,,' E3=+.001 30 . 1;=1/2 o¥=27.5 ksi

i ·
i '• 27.5.
l
I
(J1 • 20
O'J
E [g£3+g•2+(1-•L)•,]
ID
(71=
(1+•) (1-2•) U'J

• •' , , , i !
10 20 30 40 50 55 60 70
30,000
[.3(+.001)+Zero+Zero]=17.31 ksi or 30.00 ksi tensile stress (o) ksi
°1- (1+.3)(1-.6)
Figure 21
o2=0•=17.31 ksi

E [(1-ILL)E3+ - cent beam to plastically deflect before this criti-

O 3 =
(1+•) (1-2•) cal section cracks.

30,000
- - [(1-.3)(.001)+Zero+Zero]= 40.38 ksi or 70.00 ksi
°3= (1.3) (1-.6) CONCLUSION
1• 1.3=20
The way in which a designer selects structural
details under particular load conditions greatly
influences whether the condition provides
/,/"- ' " • O 3 = 7 0 enough shear stress component so that the criti-
cal shear value may be exceeded first, produc-
ing sufficient plastic movement before the criti-
cal normal stress value is exceeded. This will
result in a ductile detail and minimize the'
Figure 20
chances of cracking.

10 Steel Tips April 1995

 I

REFERENCES

AISC Supplement No. 2, January 1, 1989. To

the Specification for the Design, Fabrication &
Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings.

Bjorhovde, Brozzetti, Alpsten and Tall. "Residual

Stresses in Thick Welded Plates," AWS Weld-
ing Journal, August 1972.

Blodgett, Omer W. Weight of Weld Metal, The

James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Bul-
letin D417, April 1978.

Estuar and Tall. "Experimental Investigation of

Welded Built-Up Columns," AWS Welding Jour-
nal, April 1963.

Gayles and Willis. "Factors Affecting Residual

Stresses in Welds," AWS Welding Journal, Au-
gust 1940.

Gensamer, Maxwell. "Strength of Metals Under

Combined Stresses," American Society of Met-
als, 1941.

Parker, Earl R., Brittle Behavior of Engineering

Structures, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957.

Shanley, F.R., "Plastic Strain--Combined Load-

ing,'' Strength of Materials, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 1957; Chapter 11.

Steel Tips April 1995 11

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12 Steel Tips April 1995