Welding Technology and

Metallurgy of Stainless Steels

Shaju K. Albert
Head, Materials Technology Division
IGCAR, Kalpakkam 603 102
shaju@igcar.gov.in
 Structure of the presentation

• Welding processes
• Effect of weld thermal cycle
– Solidification
– Residual stresses and distortion
• Welding metallurgy
– Austenitic stainless steels
– Other stainless steels
– Dissimilar welding
 Welding Processes
• Solid state welding • Arc welding Process
– Resistance welding
– Friction welding – Shielded metal arc (SMA)
– Friction stir welding – Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA)
– Explosive welding
– Gas Metal Arc (GMA)
– Ultrasonic welding
• Fusion welding – Flux cored Arc (FCA)
– Oxy fuel welding – Submerged Arc (SA)
– Arc welding
• Hybrid welding
– Electron beam welding
– Laser beam welding
– Electroslag welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Process
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Process
 Flux Cored Arc welding Process (FCAW)

This process is similar to gas metal arc welding

Electron and laser beam welding (EBW & LBW)
processes
Design and Fabrication Aspects – Weld groove
Weld pool and Solidification front
Melting and Solidification

Partitioning of alloying
elements between solid and
liquid
Impurity and interstitial
elements more in the liquid
metal leading to segregation
Formation of undesirable
phases in the weld metal
during final stages of
solidification
 Weld thermal cycle
Peak temperature
decreases rapidly
with increasing
distance from the
weld centre line
Time required to reach
peak temperature
increases with
increases distance
from the weld Centre
line.
Rates of heating and
cooling decrease with
increasing distance from
the weld centre line

Part of the base metal affected by the weld thermal cycle is called heat
affected zone (HAZ)
Residual Stress and Distortion – Its
origin
Residual Stress Distribution in a weld
 Effect of residual stress in welds
• Cracking of the welds during fabrication
• Fatigue life is reduced
• Fracture toughness reduced
• Leads to stress corrosion cracking
• Dimensional stability of the fabricated
components is affected
Solution
• Stress relieving treatment
– Heat Treatment
– Vibratory stress relieving
Distortion in welds
Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel
• ASS easily welded – high joint efficiency
easy to ensure
• Several processes can be used
– MIG, flux-cored welding
– TIG
– Manual welding
– Resistance
– Laser welding
• Most welding is done on thin parts 1-5 mm
thickness
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 Welding: Steels vs Austenitic stainless steels

• Good thermal • Poor conductivity and

conductivity and low large thermal expansion
expansion coefficient coefficient
• Susceptible to cold • Susceptible to hot
cracking cracking
• Pre heating and post • Preheating and post
heating desirable to avoid heating can sensitize the
cracking joint
• PWHT may be required to • Heat treatment may
improve the properties cause deterioration of the
properties
 Weld microstructures contain δ(α)
304, 316 SS (typical)

70% Fe Vertical Section

of Fe-Cr-Ni System

Welds are allowed to retain several % α to resist hot

cracking
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 Concerns in welding

• Hot cracking (WM & HAZ)

• Loss of corrosion resistance (HAZ)
• Embrittlement on HT exposure (WM)
Filler metal must ensure required structure in weld
– 3-8% δ reduces hot cracking tendency
Higher Cr, Mo specified in filler to compensate for
segregation
Large thermal expansion coefficient & poor thermal
conductivity
High levels of residual stress
Large distortion
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 Minimum FN Required to avoid Cracking

Designation Nominal Composition WRC FN

(ASTM/AISI)
16-8-2 16Cr-8Ni-2Mo-0.1C 2
301 17Cr-7Ni-0.1C 2
304, 304L 19Cr-10Ni-0.06C, (0.02C) 3
316, 316L 17Cr-12Ni-2.5Mo-0.06C, (0.02C) 3
309 23Cr-13Ni-0.1C 4
347 18Cr-10Ni-0.06C-8xC ≤ Nb+Ta ≤ 1% 6

ASME NB2400:
above 5 FN in 304, 316 SS welds

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 Schaeffler Diagram

% ferrite in weld metal

M - martensite

Schaeffler diagram used to select fillers

Alloy elements counted with Cr or Ni to anticipate weld
microstructure (N not considered)
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 WRC-92
Diagram
(N included)

• WRC-92 diagram used for accurate prediction of

ferrite & selection of fillers for ASS & DSS
• Solidification in FA/F mode reduces hot cracking
24
Solidification Cracking

LONGITUDINAL TRANSVARESTRAINT

TYPE 347 STAINLESS STEEL

25
 Base Metal HAZ Cracking

• Cracking much higher in 316LN (0.7 FN) than in

316L (2.7 FN)

26
 Weld Metal HAZ Cracking

WELD METAL HAZ CRACKING

(FULLY AUSTENITIC SS 15Cr-15Ni-2Mo-0.3Ti)

27
 Avoiding Cracking
• Before welding
– Consumable with sufficient ferrite content
– Right grade of material
• P, S, Ti, Nb, Si, to be controlled
• Exploiting backfilling of the crack
• During welding
– Choice of welding process / heat input
• Reducing the volume of molten metal to minimize segregation
• Low heat input; but not by increasing the welding speed
• Welding sequence that would bring down the residual stress

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 Corrosion Resistance
• Corrosion resistance of ASS due to a thin
protective Cr2O3 film
• Passivity induced by Cr2O3 film protects
against general corrosion
• Localised corrosion (pitting) occurs if passive
film is disturbed
• Stress corrosion cracking occurs in chloride
media, when stress present

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 Ensuring Corrosion Resistance… 1

• Passive film must be protected during

processing
– inert atmosphere for heat treatments
• Welds and air heat-treated components
must be pickled and passivated
• Pickling dissolves unprotective Fe oxide,
passivation forms protective Cr2O3

30
 …2
• Use stabilised grades for high strength or L grades if
lower strength permissible
– current trend to use LN grades rather than 347/321 that are
susceptible to knife line attack, strain age cracking, hot
cracking
• High-Cr grades used for high T, high Mo, N grades for
aggressive media
• Avoid chloride media to prevent SCC
• Avoid contamination with Iron and steel
– Use only stainless steel brushes exclusively for stainless
steel brushes
– Use exclusive grinders for stainless steel grinding

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 M23C6
Sensitisation
grain
boundary Cr – depleted
zone (< 12%Cr)
schematic
explanation of unaffected
sensitisation base metal

• Sensitisation causes intergranular corrosion

• Carbide precipitation removes Cr to < 12%
(sometimes ~ 5%) - passive film is lost
• M23C6 must not form, to prevent sensitisation
– use stabilised or L grades
• N delays sensitisation kinetics
32
 TTT diagrams for 316, 321 SS

316 (18Cr-10Ni-2Mo) 321 (18Cr-10Ni-Ti)

• Long term ageing at high temperatures precipitates

M23C6, χ, σ, Laves
• carbide precipitation (M23C6) causes chromium
depletion – Ti, Nb added to stabilise C
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 Preventing sensitization in austenitic stainless
steel welds

• Before welding
– Choosing a base metal resistant to sensitization
• L or LN varieties, stabilized stainless steels
• During welding
– Using low heat input for welding
– Maintaining low interpass temperature
• Waiting for the temperature of the weld to come down
• Force cooling of the weld
• After welding
– Solution annealing of the weld
• Difficult to implement
 Embrittlement of Weld Metal
• δ-ferrite is metastable in ASS weld metal
– transforms to sigma (σ) or chi (χ) phase on
exposure to 600-950°C
– σ, χ embrittle weld metal
• lower levels of Cr, Mo, Si, Ti specified to
reduce intermetallic phase formation

35
 Heat Treatment of SS welds
• Solution annealing: 900-1150°C +
rapid/slow cool to RT
– dissolves precipitates, second phases
• Stress relieving: 550 - 820°C
– caution on precipitation effects
– done only when SCC is a risk
– common for cladded components
• Stabilisation for dimensional stability
before finish machining: 400-500°C
36
 High Temperature Structurals
• power plants – conventional, nuclear
304, 316, L, LN grades 347, 321 (250-600°C)
– sigma phase formation
• boilers, furnace liners up to 900°C
304H, 316H – creep property
• hydrocarbon cracking (900-1100°C)
310, 25Cr-20Ni-0.4%C

37
 Corrosive Service

• chemical and petrochemical plants

condensers – 316L, 317, 310
– Highly corrosive, no ferrite permitted
• nitric acid plant, nuclear fuel reprocessing
plants – 304L, 310Nb
– Must pass ASTM A262 Practice C test

38
 Cryogenic Components
• ASS have high toughness even at liquid He
temperature (4 K)
• 304LN, 304, 304N grades used in liquid He
plants, LNG storage tanks, cryogenic magnets
• 316LN used in LNG tanker ships
• 316LF consumables used (0-2 FN) when
impact toughness is critical

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 Welding of Martensitic Steels

Welding issues are similar to

that of alloy steels
Higher carbon grades used in
the quenched and tempered
condition
Problem of Hygrogen induced
cold cracking in HAZ.
Pre-heat and post-weld heat
treatment required if welded
with matching composition
martensitic SS electrodes.
Austenitic SS or Ni alloy
electrodes generally used which
avoids cracking problems
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without pre and post heating
 Welding of Ferritic steels
• Softer and more ductile than martensite
steels but poorer formability than
austenitic steels
• Formability improved by lowering level of
interstitial elements e.g. C & N to below
100 ppm. Low interstitial ferrites.
• Ferrite phase does not transform to
martensite but susceptible to 475 deg
embrittlement and sigma phase formation
in higher chromium grades
• Problem of grain growth during welding
leading to brittle structure in HAZ.
• Grains maybe refined only by cold work
and re-crystallization.
• Generally welded with austenitic SS
electrodes or TIG process with restricted
heat input.

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 Welding of Duplex steels

Weldability
• Duplex stainless steels have good weldability.
• All standard welding processes can be used.
• Not quite as easily welded as the austenitic grades but low thermal
expansion in duplex grades reduces distortion and residual stresses after
welding.

Recommended filler material

• For 2205 stainless steel use E2209( 24 Cr- 12 Ni- 3 Mo/ELC/Nitrogen) eg
ESAB 67.53 / 67.55 or Smitweld Arosta 4462 electrodes
• Alternatively for higher alloyed steels of E329 type use ESAB 68.53 /
68.55 or Smitweld Arosta 329
( 25Cr – 9Ni – 4Mo – 0.N ) electrodes.

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 Metallurgical concerns during welding

• Reduction in the volume fraction of austenite

– Addition of Ni or N in the welding consumables
• Ferrite grain growth in HAZ
• Precipitation in the HAZ
• Post weld annealing can lead to embrittlement, if
it is not carried out properly
• High volume fraction of ferrite make the weld
susceptible to hydrogen assisted cracking

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Variation in the microstructure of the duplex stainless
steel weld with addition of Ni and N

Base
metal

Weld metal
with Ni
addition

Weld
Metal

Weld metal
with N
addition

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 Steels for Urea service and strong oxidising
media
• Generally 316L Urea grade Sandvik 3R60 or Assab 724L with nil
ferrite are used
• Welded with TIG or E316L ( standard ferrite) for root pass and
316L ( controlled ferrite 0.6% max ) for filler passes.
ESAB 316 KCR electrode. ( SNAMPROGETTI approved )
Alternatively a modified 316L electrode with 4 – 5% Mn gives
improved resistance to cracking

• For stronger oxidising conditions in modern fertiliser plant a

modified AISI 310 composition steels have developed eg.
Sandvik 2RE69 ( 25CR – 220Ni – 2 Mo – 0.1N )
Welded with Smitweld Jungo 4465 electrode or equivalent

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 Steels For Strong Reducing Media And
Increased Pitting Resistance

• For service in strong reducing media

• eg. Sulphuric acid at intermediate concentrations and hot
phosphoric acid steels of the type 20Cr – 25 Ni – 4Mo – 2Cu have
been developed eg Sandvik 2RK65, HV9A, Uddenholm 904L and
Carpenter 20 Cb3
• Welded with Smitweld Jungo 4500, ESAB 69.33 electrodes
• Carpenter20 Cb3 welded with E320 electrodes

• Steels for increased pitting resistance Steels with higher

Molybdenum content have been developd eg. 317 and 317L
grades ( 3.5% Mo ) and Allegheny AL-6X which give exceptional
resistance to chloride ion pitting.
• Welded with matching electrodes with addition of 4% Mn or
0.2%N to stabilise austenite and prevent sigma phase formation
eg Smitweld Arosta 4462, 4439 electrodes
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 Dissimilar welding of CS to austenitic
stainless steel

• The two austenitic stainless steel electrodes commonly

used for mixed welding applications are E309 (L) or
E312 type electrodes
• Choice is made so that the final weld composition after
dilution from both metals falls in an area which avoids
the 3 zones of martensitic cold cracking, fully austenitic
hot cracking and brittle sigma phase at high chromium
levels
 Welding dissimilar steels

• Encountered in transition joints

between mild / low alloy steels and
stainless steels or welding of clad
steels
• Problems of martensitic cold cracking
on MS side, hot cracking in weld.
Differential thermal expansion.
• Use E309 or E312 electrode or consult
Schaeffler diagram
• Where thermal cycling is encountered
e.g. power plant use Inconel
electrode.
 Concluding Remarks

• Welding metallurgy is different for different type

of stainless steels
• All the arc welding processes and many of the
non-arc fusion welding and non fusion welding
processes are employed for welding stainless
steels
• A variety of welding consumables are available
for welding stainless steels
• Care should be taken to ensure that welding and
post welding processes do not lead to loss of
corrosion resistance of the stainless steels