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1 Adjectives 4 Verbs
2 Adverbs
3 Nouns 4.1 Transitive and intransitive verbs
4 Verbs
Transitive or intransitive?
5 Prepositions
A transitive verb normally takes an object. The object can be a noun, a noun phrase or a
pronoun.
Did you enjoy the film?
We need more printer paper.
It’s OK, I’ve found it.

A verb followed by a that clause is also considered to be transitive. You can omit that from the
clause.
I know that you’re busy.
He said he was coming later.

An intransitive verb does not normally take an object.

She cried.
The sun is setting.
Did you sleep well?

To link an intransitive verb with a noun, you need a preposition.

I agree with your comment. ✗Don't say:  I agree your comment.
We apologize for the delay. ✗Don't say:  We apologize the delay.
She waited for him. ✗Don't say:  She waited him.

ⓘ Transitive verbs are labelled [T] in the dictionary. Intransitive verbs are labelled [I].

Transitive and intransitive

Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.

Have you eaten anything? (transitive)
Have you eaten? (intransitive)

Sometimes the meaning is different.

They managed to recover some of the money. (= to get it back; transitive)
She is recovering from an operation. (= starting to feel well again; intransitive)

There is a group of verbs where the same noun can be the subject of the verb or its object.

• Many of these verbs are to do with cooking (e.g. boil, bake, cook, fry, roast)
I’m cooking some pasta. (transitive; pasta = object)
Some pasta is cooking. (intransitive; pasta = subject)

• Other verbs that behave like this are: begin, blow, break, change, dry, fasten, fill, open, ring,
start, vary.
Someone rang the bell. (transitive; bell = object)
The bell rang. (intransitive; bell = subject)

4.2 Verb patterns

Verb + -ing form

Some verbs are followed by an -ing form. Some of these verbs are: admit, avoid, consider, delay,
deny, finish, imagine, keep, mention, mind, miss, practise, recall, recommend, risk.
 They managed to avoid being seen.
I considered applying for a new job.
Can you imagine living in a house like that?

These verbs can also be followed by a noun.

We try to avoid trouble.
She considered their offer.
I can’t imagine a situation in which I’d lie to my parents.

If a verb is followed by a preposition, you use an -ing form after the preposition. Some of these
verbs are: accuse sb of, apologise for, complain about, concentrate on, discourage sb from,
dream of, forgive sb for, insist on, object to, persist in, prevent sb from, succeed in, thank sb for,
think about/of.
She dreamed of being a dancer.
They insist on having 24 hours’ notice.

These verbs can also be followed by a preposition + a noun.

She dreamed of a career as a dancer.
They insist on 24 hours’ notice.

Verb + to-infinitive

Some verbs are followed by a to-infinitive. Some of these verbs are: agree, arrange, ask, choose,
decide, expect, fail, help, hope, intend, learn, manage, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise,
refuse, want.
She agreed to help us.
I expect to see him this weekend.
They failed to notice that the money was missing.

Verb + -ing form or to-infinitive

Some verbs can be followed by either an -ing form or a to-infinitive. The meaning may be the
same, slightly different or completely different. Some of these verbs are: begin, bother, continue,
forget like, love, mean, prefer, regret, remember, start, stop, try.
The little girl started crying/to cry. (same meaning)
He’s stopped buying CDs. (= He does not buy CDs any more.)
He stopped to buy some CDs. (= He stopped what he was doing in order to buy some CDs.)
I tried to explain. (= I made an effort to explain, when this was difficult.)
I tried using less sugar. (= I did this to discover whether it would be successful.)

ⓘ For more information about particular verbs, their patterns and their uses, look up the
verb entries in the dictionary.

4.3 Modal verbs

The verbs can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will and would are modal verbs.

You use the base form of a verb (infinitive without to) after modal verbs. They have the same
form in all persons (I, you, he, she, it, you, they):
I can ride a bike.
We must go home.
He might be at work.

You can use modal verbs to talk about the present, past or future. Sometimes, when you talk
about the past, you use the perfect form: modal verb + have + past participle:
He could have done it.
You must have been very worried.

The verbs have to, need (to), be able to and be allowed to are often used in similar ways to
modal verbs:
We have to go home.

You use modal verbs when you want to talk about the following: ability, certainty, intention,
obligation, necessity, offers, permission, possibility, predictions, probability, requests, and
suggestions, advice and criticism.
Ability

You use can to talk about ability in the present or future.

I can ride a bike.
He can’t come with us tomorrow.

To talk about ability in the past, you use could or was/were able to.
I could ride a bike when I was five.
I was able to ride a bike when I was five.
We couldn’t hear you.
We weren’t able to hear you.

When talking about the past, you normally use was/were able to to talk about ability in a
particular instance:
Thankfully, they were able to get everybody out of the burning building.

Certainty

You use must when you are making a guess which you are fairly certain is correct.
He must be hungry.
They must have arrived by now.

You can use will when you are completely certain that your guess is correct.
It will rain this evening.
He will have left by now.

You use can’t when you are fairly certain that something is not true.
That can’t be Nick – he’s in China.
She can’t have been there – she was with me.

Intention

You use will when saying that someone intends to do something, or asking whether someone
intends to do something.
I will spend a few days at my sister’s.
They won’t stay long.
Will you be there on Saturday?

In British English, people sometimes also say I shall or we shall.

I shall spend a few days at my sister’s.

The negative of shall is shan’t.

We shan’t stay long.

When talking about the past or reporting someone’s intentions, you use would.
She said she would come with me.

Obligation

You use must or have to when you are saying that someone has a duty to do something, for
example because of a law or rule.
Passengers must wear seat belts.
You have to answer two questions in the exam.

In spoken English, you can also use have got to.

You’ve got to get permission from your parents.

When talking about the past, you use had to.

Passengers had to wear seat belts.
We had to answer two questions in the exam.

You use must not to express prohibition, to say that something is not allowed.
Visitors must not walk across the grass.
You mustn’t use your phone in here.

Necessity

You use must, have to or need to when you are saying that something is necessary.
 I must get some milk.
You have to enter a password.
We need to buy a ticket first.

In spoken English, you can also use have got to.

You’ve got to enter a password.

When talking about the past, you use had to.

We had to take the stairs because the lift wasn’t working.

When talking about the future, you use will have to or will need to.
We will have to leave at six.
You will need to buy a ticket first.

To say that something is not necessary, you use needn’t, don’t need to or don’t have to.
You needn’t finish the report today.
We didn’t need to buy a ticket.
I don’t have to wear a uniform at work.

Compare didn’t need to and needn’t have.

He didn’t need to go to work yesterday. (= He didn’t go to work because it wasn’t necessary.)
He needn’t have gone to work yesterday. (= He went to work but it wasn’t necessary.)

Offers

You use I’ll ..., Can I ...?, Could I ...? or May I ...? when you are offering to do something for
someone. May I ...? sounds more formal and polite.
I’ll carry this bag for you.
Can I get you some water?
Could I help you with that suitcase?
May I open the door for you, Madam?

In British English, people sometimes also use Shall I …?

Shall I carry bag this for you?

Permission

You use can, could or may when asking for permission. Could is more polite than can. May is
more polite and more formal.
Can I sit here with you?
Could I use your phone?
May I be excused?

You use can or may when giving or refusing permission. May is more formal.
You can use my phone if you like.
You can’t sit here.
Thank you. You may go now.

You can also use be allowed to to talk about permission.

Are students allowed to use the equipment?
We weren’t allowed to leave the classroom.

Possibility

You use may or could when saying that it possible that something is true but you are not certain.
He may be at home.
They could have already left.

You can also use might in this way, especially when talking about something that is possible but
unlikely.
He might be in his office but I think he’s probably gone home.

In questions, you use might or could.

Might he be in his office?
Could they have already left?
You use may not or might not (but not could not) in negative sentences to say that something is
possible.
She may not be at work. (= It is possible that she is not at work.)
They might not have left yet. (= It is possible that they haven’t left yet.)

To say that something is not possible, you use can’t.

She can’t be at work. (= It is not possible that she is at work.)
They can’t have left yet. (= It is not possible that they have left.)

Predictions

You use will to make predictions, to talk about what you think or guess will happen.
I think James will win the competition.

You use would when reporting what someone predicted.

He said the bus would be there in a minute.

Probability

You use should or ought to when saying that something will probably happen, although you are
not certain.
It should be a nice day tomorrow.
We ought to be there by six.

You use must have + past participle when saying what you think has probably happened.
She’s late. She must have been held up.

Requests

You use can, could, will or would when asking someone to do something. Could and would are
more polite than can and will.
Can you turn that music down?
Could you help me with something?
Will you phone me later?
Would you bring us some coffee, please?

Suggestions, advice and criticism

You use should and ought to when you think it is good idea for someone to do something.
You should get there early.
You ought to see a doctor as soon as possible.

You can also use these verbs in the negative, when you think something is a bad idea.
You shouldn’t say things like that.
You oughtn’t to put that there.

You use should (not) have + past participle, ought (not) to have + past participle or could have +
past participle when criticizing someone’s past actions.
You should have said something.
You oughtn’t to have left the engine running.
You could have told me that you were running late.

You use can, could and shall to make suggestions.

Shall we say six o’clock, then?
We can stay in and watch a DVD.
We could go to the cinema.

You often use should after verbs connected with advice, such as advise, demand, propose,
recommend, suggest, think, tell, warn.
His lawyer advised him that he should plead guilty.
Someone suggested that she should write a book about her experiences.
I think you should train as a teacher.

4.4 Phrasal verbs

What is a phrasal verb?

A phrasal verb is a verb that is made up of two or three words. The first word is a verb and the
second word is a particle (either an adverb or a preposition such as in, on or up).
get up
turn off
deal with
catch up with
look forward to

You cannot guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the meaning of each of its parts. For
example, in the sentence below, the meaning of the phrasal verb carry out (= do) is not related to
the normal meaning of carry or the normal meaning of out.
The scientists carried out an experiment.

Phrasal verbs are very common in both spoken and written English. Your English will often sound
more natural if you use a phrasal verb instead of a single verb.
It was too hard, so I gave up. (more natural than ‘It was too hard, so I abandoned it.’)
The teacher told us off. (less formal than ‘The teacher scolded us.’)
She found out the truth. (less formal than ‘She discovered the truth.’)

ⓘ For the meanings and uses of particular phrasal verbs, look up the verb (come, get,
take, etc.) in the dictionary.

Different types of phrasal verb

Intransitive phrasal verbs

Some phrasal verbs are intransitive – they do not take an object.
What time do we need to get up?
Look out – there’s a car coming!
The plane took off on time.

Transitive phrasal verbs

Some phrasal verbs are transitive – they take an object. The object can come before or after the
particle. These are called separable phrasal verbs.

She brought up her sister’s children. She brought her sister’s children up.
We called off the meeting. We called the meeting off.
Look up the word in the dictionary. Look the word up in the dictionary.

If the object is a long noun phrase, it usually comes after the particle.
• I turned off the lights in the front room. ✗Don't say:   I turned the lights in the front room off.
• He took out a high-interest short-term loan. ✗Don't say:  He took a high-interest short-term loan
out.

If the object is a pronoun (it, him, them, etc.), it must come before the particle.
• She brought them up. ✗Don't say:   She brought up them.
• We called it off. ✗Don't say:  We called off it.

ⓘ
The dictionary uses a special symbol (↔) between the verb and a particle, to show you
that a phrasal verb is separable.
bring sb ↔ up
call sth ↔ off

Some verbs must have the object between the verb and the particle.
• Doing the same thing every day was beginning to get Jo down.
✗Doing the same thing every day was beginning to get down Jo.

ⓘ
The dictionary shows this type of verb as follows:
get sb down

Some verbs must have the object after the particle. These verbs are called inseparable phrasal
verbs.
 • We’ll look after the children. ✗Don't say:   We’ll look the children after.
• He didn’t take to the work at first. ✗Don't say:   He didn’t take the work to at first.

ⓘ
The dictionary shows inseparable phrasal verbs as follows:
look after sb/sth

Phrasal verbs with two particles

Some phrasal verbs have two particles: an adverb and a preposition.
cut down on
get on with
keep up with

Some of these verbs can also be used without the preposition.

I’m trying to cut down on salt. I’m trying to cut down.

She doesn’t get on with Pete. She and Pete don’t get on.
He couldn’t keep up with the others. He couldn’t keep up.

Others cannot be used without the preposition, for example:

• Let’s see what she comes up with. ✗Don't say:   Let’s see what she comes up.
• I’m looking forward to the end of term. ✗Don't say:   I’m looking forward.

The parts of these verbs are never separated. The object always comes after both the adverb and
the preposition.

• He couldn’t keep up with the others. ✗Don't say:  He couldn’t keep with the others up.)

4.5 Short responses

so, not

When you answer a question or respond to what someone has said, you can use so or not with
the following verbs to avoid repeating the same words: appear, believe, expect, guess, hope,
imagine, seem, suppose, think.

You use so for a positive response.

‘Will you finish today?’ ‘Yes, I expect so.
‘Are they coming on Saturday?’ ‘Yes, I believe so.’

For a negative response, you use not with some of these verbs.
• ‘Didn’t she like it?’ ‘I guess not.’ (NOT ‘I don’t guess so.’
• ‘Will this happen again?’ ‘I hope not.’ ✗Don't say:   ‘I don’t hope so.’

With other verbs, it can sound formal or unnatural to use not. It is more usual to say I don’t ... so.
• ‘Is she leaving?’ ‘I don’t think so.’ ✗Don't say:  ‘I think not.’
• ‘Are they coming?’ ‘I don’t imagine so.’ ✗Don't say:   ‘I imagine not.’

Subject + auxiliary/modal verb

To avoid repetition, you can also use an auxiliary or modal verb instead of a complete clause.
‘You’re not listening to me!’ ‘I am!’ (= I am listening to you.)
‘Who won the race?’ ‘I did.’ (= I won the race.)
‘Have you finished your essay?’ ‘No, I haven’t.’ (= No, I haven’t finished my essay.)
‘They were all really worried.’ ‘We were, too.’ (= We were really worried, too.)

so, neither/nor

You can also use the following structures to avoid repeating the same words when you respond
to a statement.

so + auxiliary/modal verb + subject, to respond to a positive statement

‘I’m having a great time.’ ‘So am I.’
‘Emma failed her driving test.’ ‘So did Sophia.’

neither/nor + auxiliary/modal verb + subject, to respond to a negative statement

‘I didn’t like the film.’ ‘Neither/Nor did I.’
 ‘We weren’t at all pleased with the results.’ ‘Neither/Nor were we.’

4.6 Using the continuous (progressive) form of verbs

How to form the continuous form of verbs

You form the continuous form (also known as the progressive form) of a verb using be + -ing.
I’m doing my homework. (present continuous)
He wasn’t joking. (past continuous)
We’ve been waiting for three hours! (present perfect continuous)
He had been working since eight o’clock. (past perfect continuous)
We will be staying with some friends. (future continuous)
By noon, she will have been working for twelve hours. (future perfect continuous)

When to use continuous forms

In general, you use continuous forms when talking about something that is, was or will be
temporary, ongoing or incomplete at the time referred to (as opposed to something permanent
or something that has been completed).
I’m staying with a friend at the moment. (a temporary situation)
They were living in Spain at the time. (a temporary situation)
She’s been studying since four. (ongoing; she is still studying now)
At four o’clock, he had been waiting for two hours. (ongoing; he was still waiting at four o’clock)
I’ll still be working at midnight. (ongoing/incomplete; I will finish work after midnight)

When not to use continuous forms

You do not usually use continuous forms:

• with state verbs (verbs that express states of being, feeling, thinking, possessing, etc. rather
than actions) like admire, be, believe, exist, hate, have, know, like, love, need, prefer, remember,
think understand, want.
• The house consists of two floors.✗Don't say:   The house is consisting of two floors.
• I like it here very much. ✗Don't say:   I am liking it here very much.
• I didn’t believe what I had just heard. ✗Don't say:   I wasn’t believing what I had just heard.
• I don’t need any help right now, thanks. ✗Don't say:   I’m not needing any help right now, thanks.

• with sense verbs (feel, hear, see, smell, sound, taste).

• Did you hear that sound? ✗Don't say:   Were you hearing that sound?
• We saw some interesting birds. ✗Don't say:   We were seeing some interesting birds.
• Mm! Something smells good! ✗Don't say:   Mm! Something’s smelling good!

• with some other verbs, e.g. agree, appear, be, concern, contain, depend, disagree, include, look
(= seem), involve, matter, mean, owe, seem.
• I totally agree with you. ✗Don't say:   I am totally agreeing with you.
• She promised to write every week. ✗Don't say:   She was promising to write every week.
• The final decision will depend on a number of factors. ✗Don't say:   The final decision will be
depending on a number of factors.

You can use some of the verbs above in the continuous form, when they describe actions, not
states.
I admire her for her bravery. (= like and respect)
I’m just admiring the view. (= looking at)
He acts as though I don’t exist. (= be alive)
They’re existing on just a few pounds a week. (= staying alive, surviving)
The soup tastes delicious. (= have a particular taste)
Should I spit when I’m tasting wine? (= try something to see how it tastes)

Some verbs that are not used in the continuous can still be used as present participles.
Hardly knowing why, she started to cry.
He published a book consisting of four short stories.
She even earned her respect of her doubting colleagues.

4.7 Using the passive

How to form the passive

You usually form the passive with the correct form of be + a past participle.
This soup is made from potatoes. (present simple passive)
A new hospital is being built in the town. (present continuous passive)
Her new book has just been published. (present perfect passive)
We were told we had to take a test. (past simple passive)
The suspects were being interviewed. (past continuous passive)
The room had been cleaned before we arrived. (past perfect passive)
Their first album will be released next month. (future simple passive)

When to use the passive

You use the passive when you want to focus on the action itself, not the doer of the action (the
agent). You also use it when the agent action is not known, not important or obvious.
The problem has been sorted out. (It is not important who did this.)
Their car has been stolen. (You do not know who stole it.)
The two men have been arrested. (Obviously, the police arrested them.)

Important points about the passive

You cannot use intransitive verbs in the passive.

• Her father died in 2001. ✗Don't say:   Her father was died in 2001.

Some verbs can be used in the passive in restricted ways.

• An idea was suggested to me. ✗Don't say:   I was suggested an idea.
• The rules were explained to them. ✗Don't say:   They were explained the rules.

Some verbs are often or usually used in the passive.

I was born in Germany.
The thieves have been arrested. (‘They have arrested the thieves’ is possible but less common.)

You often use some verbs in the structure it + passive + that clause. Some of these verbs are:
agree, believe, claim, discover, expect, fear, know, report, suggest, think.
It is believed that the men are dead.
It was expected that the whole school would attend.
It has been reported that there has been an explosion.

This structure is often used in academic writing.

It was discovered that the disease was carried in drinking water.
It is thought that birds learn the positions of the stars and use them to navigate.

You can also use some of the verbs above in the structure: subject + passive + to-infinitive.
The men are believed to be dead.
The whole school was expected to attend.

When you want to mention the agent in a passive sentence, you use by.
I was attacked by a dog.
The Statue of Liberty was designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi.

In everyday English, people often use get instead of be.

Kevin got arrested for dangerous driving. (= was arrested)

have/get something done

You can use have/get + object + past participle when you arrange for someone else to do
something for you.
She’s going to have her car cleaned.
We’re getting the house repainted.
I had my hair cut. (‘I cut my hair’ means that you cut it yourself. Don’t say ‘I cut my hair’ to mean
that someone else cut it for you.)

You can also use have + object + past participle to talk about something happening to someone
that they did not choose or want.
We had our tickets checked.
I had my bag stolen last night.

You can use get + object + past participle about something that you do yourself, when you want
to emphasize that you have to make an effort in order to complete it, or that there is a lot to be
done.

ⓘ For more information about individual verbs and their use in the passive, look up the
verb entries in the dictionary.

4.8 Using the subjunctive

What is the subjunctive?

The subjunctive is a verb form that you use to talk about unreal situations or things that are not
certain to happen. In the subjunctive, the verb form does not change according to person (I, he
she, it); for all verbs except were, the subjunctive is the same as the infinitive without to. In the
example below, the verbs be and contact are in the subjunctive.
The manager requests that you all be present at next week’s meeting.
It is important that she contact Mr Dawson as soon as possible.

Subjunctive in that clauses

Some verbs are often followed by a subjunctive in a that clause, especially in more formal
English. Some of these verbs are: advise, ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend,
request, suggest, wish.
We demand that they be punished!
I recommend that she get professional help.

In clauses like this, should is also often used.

We demand that they should be punished.
I recommend that she should get professional help.

Some adjectives can also be followed by a subjunctive, especially in more formal English. They
are used in the phrase It is ... that ... . Some of these adjectives are: best, crucial, desirable,
essential, imperative, important, necessary, recommended, urgent, vital.
It is essential that he pay attention.
It is important that everyone understand.

In everyday English, people often use the present simple instead of the subjunctive.
I recommend that she gets professional help.
It is important that everyone understands.

Subjunctive were

Were, the past subjunctive of be is often used when talking about something impossible or
unreal, with if and I wish.
If I were you, I’d leave.
If he were here now, he would be proud.
I wish he were here.
I wish I were taller.

In everyday English, people often use was.

If he was here now, he would be proud.
I wish he was here.

4.9 Conditionals

You usually form conditional sentences with two clauses: an if clause and a main clause. The if
clause states the condition and the main clause states the result. The if clause can come at the
beginning or end of the sentence. When it is at the beginning, you use a comma after it.

Zero conditional

You use the zero conditional to talk about something that is always or generally true. You use the
present simple in both clauses.
If plants don’t get enough water, they die.

You can use when instead of if in zero conditional sentences.

When plants don’t get enough water, they die.

First conditional
You use the first conditional to talk about something that is possible in the future. You use the
present simple in the if clause and a future tense in the main clause.
If the government doesn’t change course, things will get worse.

You can also use a modal verb or the imperative in the main clause.
If I see her, I can give her your message.
If you have any problems, give me a call.

You can use unless instead of if not in the if clause.

You can’t park here if you don’t have a permit.
You can’t park here unless you have a permit.

Second conditional

You use the second conditional to talk about something that is impossible in the present or
something that is possible but unlikely in the future. You use the past simple in the if clause and
would in the main clause.
If you had a sister, would you feel differently?
If we won the lottery, we would never work again.

Third conditional

You use the third conditional to talk about something that was possible in the past but didn’t
happen. You use the past perfect in the if clause and would have + past participle in the main
clause.
If I had known about the party, I would have come.

Mixed conditionals

You can use the second and third conditionals in the same sentence, to talk about a past event
that has an effect on the present. The if clause refers to the past (third conditional) and the main
clause refers to the present (second conditional).
If you had remember to phone her, she would be here now.
If he had got on that plane, he’d be dead now!

4.10 Talking about the future

Future forms

You can use the forms below to talk about the future.

Form Use Example

for decisions you make at Oh, you’re going out? Wait, I’ll come
the time of speaking with you.
for general predictions
about the future (often with I’m sure you’ll have a great time at the
Future simple (will)
I think, I hope, I expect, I’m party.
sure, etc.)
for offers, promises, I’ll carry that bag for you.
requests and threats I won’t tell anyone, don’t worry.
Shall I drive you to the station?
shall for offers and suggestions
Shall we go out?
I’m going to visit my grandparents
for intentions
this weekend.
be going to for predictions, when they
Look at those clouds – it’s going to
are based on something you
rain.
see in the present
Present continuous for arrangements We’re travelling by train.
His flight gets in at 10.00.
for events that are part of a
Present simple My German exchange partner arrives
timetable or schedule
tomorrow.
for actions that will be in
progress at a particular time I’ll be working at noon.
Future continuous (will + - in the future
ing) for events that are expected
 to happen or will happen if We’ll be arriving around lunch time.
things go as planned
for events that will be
Future perfect simple (will They game will have finished by the
completed before a
have + past participle) time we get back.
particular time in the future
to emphasize the duration of
Future perfect continuous a state or action that you We will have been living here for ten
(will have been + - ing) expect will continue after the years this summer.
time mentioned

Future time clauses

You often use these time words and phrases to talk about the future: after, as soon as, before, by
the time, once, when, whenever, while, until. You use the present simple after these time
expressions, not will.
He plans to travel after he finishes college. ✗Don't say:  after he will finish college
It will be dark by the time we get there. ✗Don't say:   by the time we will get there
Come and see us whenever you feel like it.
Will you do a lot of walking while you are in Scotland?
I’ll call you when the plane lands.

Conditional clauses

You also use the following expressions to talk about possible future events as the result of an
action: as long as, if, in case, on condition that, provided/providing (that), unless, whether. You
use the present simple, after these expressions, not will.
We’ll be in time for the flight as long as we leave by eight. ✗Don't say:   as long as we will leave
If you see Tom, give him my regards. ✗Don't say:  If you will see
I won’t do it unless I get some help.

Future in the past

When you talk about the past, sometimes you need to refer to things that were in the future at
that time. To do this, you use the same forms that you use to refer to the future, but you make
the verbs past.
I was going to phone her last night but I forgot. (am/is/are going to → was/were going to)
I was meeting a friend in five minutes, so I had to hurry. (present continuous → past continuous)
We all thought she would win, but she didn’t. (will → would)

Other ways to talk about the future

You can also use the following structures to talk about the future:

• be + to-infinitive, to talk about official plans and arrangements or an obligation to do something

at a later time than now.
The President is to arrive at 10.30 on Monday morning.
You are to be here by 10.30.
You are not to enter this room.

• be due + to-infinitive, to talk about something you expect will happen at a particular time in the
future.
The team is due to fly to Italy next month.
His new book is due to be published next year.

• be about + to-infinitive, to talk about something you expect will happen very soon. You often
use just with this structure.
She is about to leave.
We’re just about to have lunch.

4.11 Reported speech

Tense changes in reported speech

When reporting what someone said without quoting them directly, tenses usually change as
follows:
• present simple → past simple
‘I want to go home.’ → He said that he wanted to go home.

• present continuous → past continuous

‘You’re going too fast.’ → She warned me that I was going too fast.

• past simple → past perfect

‘They won.’ → He announced that they had won.

• present perfect → past perfect

‘I’ve just seen him.’ → She said that she had just seen him.

• will → would
‘I will be there at eight.’ → Maria promised that she would be there at eight.

• can → could
‘We can help you.’ → I said that we could help them.

• must → had to
‘I must go.’ → She said that she had to go.

• The tense does not change when the reporting verb is in a present tense.
‘I like them all.’ → She says that she likes them all.

• Past perfect tenses do not change.

‘I had already seen it.’ → He said that he had already seen it.
‘I’d been waiting for hours.’ → She claimed that she’d been waiting for hours.

• Could, would, might, should and ought to do not change.

‘They could come too.’ → He pointed out that they could come too.

Reported questions

When reporting a question, you use the same word order as for a statement.
‘Does she like jazz?’ → He asked if she liked jazz.
‘Do you have a pen?’ → She asked if I had a pen.
‘Is he married?’ → I asked whether he was married.
‘How are you feeling?’ → She asked how I was feeling.

When the question begins with a question word, you use the question word in the reported
question.
‘Where are you going?’ → She asked where I was going.
‘What do you think?’ → They asked what we thought.

When the question can be answered by ‘yes’ or ‘no’, you use if or whether in the reported
question.
‘Can I go home?’ → She asked if/whether she could go home.
‘Do you want any more?’ → I asked if/whether they wanted any more.

Reported requests, commands and advice

When reporting what someone has told another person to do, you often use the pattern
reporting verb + object + to-infinitive.
‘You should see a doctor.’ → She told me to see a doctor./She advised me to see a doctor.
‘Get out!’ → She told me to get out./She ordered me to get out.

With many reporting verbs, you can also use a that clause, often with should.
She told me that I should see a doctor. → She advised that I should see a doctor.

Some reporting verbs are usually or always used with a that clause rather than an infinitive.
• She suggested that I should see a doctor.✗Don't say:   She suggested me to see a doctor.

Reporting verbs

There are many reporting verbs that you can use instead of say or tell. Here are some examples:
advise, announce, claim, complain, explain, invite, point out, promise, suggest, warn.
He advised me to talk to my boss.
She explained that she had missed her bus.
 He promised to phone me after the meeting.
I warned them not to go near the dog.

ⓘ For more information on particular reporting verbs and their patterns, look up the
verb entries in the dictionary.

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