Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Review

Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction

ceramics. Review of Russian experience for the years 2000–2015
N.V. Boltakova a, G.R. Faseeva a, R.R. Kabirov b, R.M. Nafikov a, Yu.A. Zakharov a,⇑
a
Institute of Physics, Kazan Federal University, 18, Kremlevskya Str., Kazan 420008, Russia
b
JSC ‘‘Alekseevskya keramika”, 10, Kirpichnjzavodskya Str., v. Alekseevskoe, Tatarstan 422900, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper analyzes the significant scientific publications worldwide for the last 15 years concerning
Received 15 February 2016 construction ceramics (predominantly brick) made with various inorganic industrial wastes added to
Revised 15 October 2016 the ceramic raw material for the improvement of properties and for eco-friendly disposal. The
Accepted 4 November 2016
information gap resulting from the lack of mentions of the Russian publications on this subject in
Available online xxxx
English-language reviews is filled. The paper includes brief summaries of 34 dissertations and 29
patents issued in Russia since 2000. The waste additives described in these summaries are grouped
Keywords:
by origin type (mining industry waste, ore enrichment waste, metallurgical waste, sludge, ashes, cullet,
Industrial wastes
Construction ceramics
large-capacity building wastes and waste from various chemical production processes) with the cera-
Ceramic brick mic mixture compositions, molding and firing conditions, final strength, water absorption and other
Ceramic raw material parameters of the final ceramic samples reported. Russian scientists have expanded the nomenclature
Clay of each group of wastes significantly upon addition to the list described in English-language reviews for
2000–2015. References to the recent Russian developments in the field of ecological management in
ceramic industry are provided.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Characterization of ceramic samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Data from Russian articles and dissertations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1. Wastes from mining and processing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2. Ash and slag wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3. Metallurgical wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4. Glass waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.5. Other types of inorganic waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Russian patents on ceramics with inorganic waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1. Crushed stone screening dust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2. Waste from zircon-ilmenite ore beneficiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.3. Flotation waste from coal beneficiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.4. Cullet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.5. Ground quartz glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.6. Glass fiber waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.7. Ash and slag. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.8. Fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.9. Ashes from burning of active sludge sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.10. Aluminum alloy etching waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Yuri.zakharov@kpfu.ru (Y.A. Zakharov).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
0956-053X/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
2 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
1. Introduction
The utilization of various industrial and agricultural wastes in
the industry of construction ceramics is a hot topic. It is interesting
to both the enterprises producing waste and the producers of cera-
mic brick, stone, tile, and so on. On the one hand, the high-
temperature 900–1100 °C firing of ceramics makes it possible to
neutralize and reliably store in a body of ceramics many types of
waste, and on the other hand, such additives to clay raw materials
make it possible to increase the product quality. For example, agri-
cultural waste in the form of a peel of seeds is used as the burning-
out additive to form porosity in a ceramic brick, thereby improving
the heat-insulating properties of the brick. Industrial wastes may
contain mineral substances that increase the strength of ceramics,
provide an interesting color, optimize water absorption and frost
resistance, or reduce energy consumption on firing. Skillful man-
agement in this sphere can solve a number of important problems:
(1) utilizing waste without damaging the environment, (2) improv-
ing the quality and extension of ceramic products through the use
of local waste, and (3) establishing new ceramic enterprises con-
sidering the properties of local raw sources of clay and waste.
However, establishing such cooperation among enterprises is
an uncommon task for management, due to the high sensitivity
of ceramic technologies to structure of ceramic mixtures. There-
fore, the use of different additives in clay, as a rule, requires prelim-
inary scientific and technological study, for example, as presented
in publications (Menezes et al., 2005; El-Mahllawy, 2008; Chen
et al., 2011; Lingling et al., 2005; Dondi et al., 2002, 2009; Shih
et al., 2004; Machado et al., 2011; Caroline et al., 2009;
Loryuenyong et al., 2009). The results of similar studies conducted
more recently are discussed in review articles (Mymrin et al., 2014;
Muñoz Velasco et al., 2014; Bories et al., 2014; Zhang, 2013; Raut
et al., 2011; Vieira and Monteiro, 2009).
Information on the types of waste that have already been suc-
cessfully introduced into ceramic production, how they affect the
consumer properties of construction ceramics, what types of clays
were modified by the waste in what quantities and in what state
the waste was introduced into a ceramic mixture is valuable for
managers in this sphere. Unfortunately, the English-language
review articles cited almost completely lack the data on this sub-
ject from Russian-language publications. However, in the last
15 years, special attention has been paid in Russia to the manage-
ment of waste in the ceramic industry, as confirmed by tens of
PhDs and doctoral dissertations and a large number of patents
for inventions. The general state of affairs in the Russian ceramic
industry, which is under active development, is now described in
Information and reference book on the best available
technologies (2015).
The purpose of this review is to fill the information gap regard-
ing the use of inorganic industrial wastes in the production of con-
struction ceramic materials, particularly brick. Close attention is
paid to references to the relevant dissertations defended in Russia
since 2000. These dissertations are readily available on the Internet
and contain complete lists of the articles published by the authors.
The claims of the patents on this subject issued during this period
in the Russian Federation are also presented. Thus, the world
development of ceramics technology using industrial inorganic
wastes during the last 15 years is reviewed, and the contribution
of Russian investigators is noted.
Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
2. Characterization of ceramic samples
In the Russian Federation, brick quality is estimated based on
the criteria provided by the state standard (Russian Standard
530-2012). In many respects, it coincides with the standards of
other states and regulates the requirements for the geometrical
parameters of a product and its physical properties. Regarding
the characteristics of the ceramic material itself, it makes sense
to consider first its strength and water absorption. Density, heat
conductivity, the initial speed of water absorption by a basic sur-
face and acid resistance are also important characteristics, but they
are of secondary importance. Therefore, many published labora-
tory studies of new ceramic materials contain only tests of strength
and water absorption. According to (Russian Standard 530-2012),
each of such tests requires a ceramic sample of a specific shape
and size. For example, the compression test requires a cubic sam-
ple of not less than 40  40  40 mm. The compression strength of
products is calculated by the formula Rcompr = P/S, where P – max-
imum loading reached during the test; S – cross-section area of a
sample (without deduction of the void area), which is calculated
as the arithmetic mean of the upper and lower surface areas.
To measure the flexural strength Rflex, a solid brick is required.
Rflex = 3Pl/2bh2, where P – maximum loading reached during the
test; l – distance between axes of supports; b – sample width; h
– sample height in the middle of a flight without the leveling layer.
However, in a number of publications, the samples described are
tiny compared to a real brick. Certainly, the data obtained for them
can characterize the ceramic material properties, but they cannot
be used directly for the evaluation of a full-scale brick made of
the material.
It is also important to note that the influence of the waste addi-
tive on the final ceramic material depends strongly on the proper-
ties of the clay. We will provide results from recent Russian
doctoral dissertations (Yatsenko, 2015; Stolboushkin, 2015) to
illustrate this effect. Table 1 and Fig. 1 show the influence of min-
eralizing additives, which are components of industrial wastes, on
the color of a brick.
As a rule, laboratories use firing in electric furnaces in an air
atmosphere, while plants use gas furnaces with an atmosphere of
the products of natural gas combustion. The chemical composition
of the atmosphere influences the ceramic sintering process and the
properties of the final product. According to (Yatsenko, 2015), the
regulation of the oxidation-reduction properties of the gas envi-
ronment in the furnace makes it possible to obtain bright and dark
tones in a ceramic brick from the clay raw materials modified by
industrial wastes (see Table 2).
Therefore, the data given below regarding the use of waste
should be considered only as a reference point for developing sim-
ilar industrial technology based on local clay raw materials and
energy sources.
The external properties of ceramics and their hidden physical/
mechanical properties are defined by the internal microscopic
structure. Images characterizing the interaction of crystallites in
the ceramics modified by waste are shown in Fig. 2. The chemical
and mineral compositions of such crystallites at different stages of
firing are determined by X-ray spectral analysis, dilatometry, dif-
ferential thermal analysis and other methods. All of them are avail-
able in the arsenal of Russian scientists and are applied when
developing production technologies for ceramic products with
 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3

Table 1
The influence of mineralizing additives in clay on the color of a brick (Yatsenko, 2015).

Mineralizing additive, wt.% Color of a brick

Chalk NaCl Li2CO3 R2CO3 Visually Photo

10 0,5 Red-orange

10 1.0 Red-orange

10 1.0 Light-orange

15 1.0 Light-orange

20 2.0 Light-beige

20 2.0 Yellow-pink

20 2.0 Pink

Fig. 1. Ceramic samples based on waste sludge from iron ore (Stolboushkin, 2015): 1 – without additive; with 5 wt.% additive in the painting component: 2 – MgO; 3 – Fe2O3;
4 – V2O5; 5 – NiCO3; 6 – CaCO3; 7 – CuCO3; 8 – CoCl2
6H2O.

the addition of industrial wastes. Therefore, the processes of
obtaining products from the ceramic masses given below have
physical and chemical interpretations in the corresponding
references.
3. Data from Russian articles and dissertations
3.1. Wastes from mining and processing industry
Various compositions of ceramic mixtures for the production
of brick based on ferriferous sludge are investigated in works
(Stolboushkin, 2015; Zoria, 2015). For example, the optimum
was the following mix (wt.%): sludge waste from iron ore enrich-
ment 65–70; loam 20–30; cullet 5–10. Rcompr of the ceramic
sample reached 41.3 MPa at an average density of 1.92 g/cm3
and frost resistance of 50 cycles. The same authors also developed
the following composition of the granulated ceramic mass (wt.%):
waste from coal beneficiation 70–82; loam 15–28; metal
processing waste 2–3. Their other composition is as follows
(wt.%): waste from enrichment of carbonaceous soapstones
63–70; loam 20–25; cullet 10–12. The characteristics of strength
and water absorption of the laboratory and industrial samples
of bricks obtained in work (Stolboushkin, 2015) are presented
in Table 3, No. 1–6.

Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
4 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Table 2
The influence of various oxidation-reduction conditions of firing on the color of a ceramic brick (Yatsenko, 2015).

Sample Color of a ceramic brick

Oxidation conditions Reduction conditions
Visually Photo Visually Photo
1 Red brown Gray-black

2 Dark red brown Black with a green shade

3 Red brown Black

Fig. 2. Photos of a transitional layer between the dispersive environment and a disperse phase of a ceramic crock consisting iron ore waste. Scanning electron microscope,
250 (a); 1800 (b); 2600 (c, d); 5000 (e, f): 1 – dispersive environment; 2 – disperse phase; 3 – transitional layer; 4 – pores; 5 – layered mineralogeneses (vollastonit); 6 –
clusters from grains of minerals with the expressed facet; 7 – microporphyritic structure of the hardened fusion; 8 –melted-off augite particles in a border layer.

The authors of Kara-sal (2007) added to the ceramic raw mate-
rial lithotripsy waste consisting of (wt.%) SiO2 64 and Al2O3 16.
Brick was fired under conditions of both normal and lowered
atmospheric pressure. Clays were low disperse, moderately plastic,
with high sensitivity to drying and a short sintering range. The
parameters of the resulting hollow bricks fired at normal
(1.3  105 Pa) and low (130–700 Pa) pressures are given in Table 3,
No. 7. The lowered pressure in the furnace resulted in higher
strength and lower water absorption of the ceramic samples.
According to (Guryeva and Prokofieva, 2014; Guryeva, 2011),
additives of magnesia-silicate waste from mining and processing
plants in low-grade clays improved a complex of physical and
mechanical properties of the ceramic (fire resistance, thermal coef-
ficient of linear expansion, resistance to temperature differential).
Adding 10–15 wt.% waste from beneficiation of ferriferous
quartzite to clay raw materials significantly increased Rcompr to
29 MPa, Rflex to 5 MPa and frost resistance to 40 cycles for the
resulting ceramics (Sokolova, 2009). In addition, the sensitivity of
molded samples to drying and crack formation was decreased.
Flotation waste from coal beneficiation was used in Togidnii
(2011) as an additive at 0–100 wt.% to clay. It consisted of (wt.%)
residual carbon 56–57, SiO2 30, organic impurities and water. The
clay components were quartz, hydromica and montmorillonite.
The samples were molded by moist pressing. Increasing the addi-
tive improves the strength, density and water absorption of the
ceramic samples. The optimal molding pressure was found to be
25 MPa and the final Tf - 950 °C. The characteristics of ceramic
samples with waste additions of 50, 60 and 80 wt.% are presented
in Table 3 (No. 8). Samples with 60 wt.% waste appeared to be the
most adequate. Their Rcompr reached 15.5 MPa, Rflex – 5.8 MPa, and
water absorption – 14.8%.
In the work (Karpacheva, 2009), three types of waste are used:
(1) coal beneficiation waste; (2) metal processing waste contain-
ing Fe2O3; and (3) iron ore beneficiation waste containing 40–
50 wt.% chlorites. The following ceramic raw material composition
was developed (wt.%): coal beneficiation waste 65–70, avlevrolit
with dusty loam 25–30, ferriferous waste (in Fe2O3 equivalent)
3–5. The loam contained (wt.%) SiO2 53–55, Al2O316-18, CaO4.

Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 5

Table 3
Properties of ceramic samples manufactured with inorganic waste additives.

№ Waste: other raw components of ceramic mixture (Ref.) Additives Temperature (°C), atmospheric Properties of ceramic samples
(wt.%) pressure (bar), time (h) of firing,
Compressive Flexural Water
size of brick
strength strength absorption
(MPa) (MPa) (%)
1 Waste from enrichment of carbonaceous soapstone: loam: 65:25:10 900/950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, 18.7/21.6/ 16.3/15.8/
cullet (Stolboushkin, 2015) small size 27.2/26.6 15.1/14.5
2 Waste from coal beneficiation: loam (Stolboushkin, 2015) 85:15 1050–1070 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 10.6 3/3 35
3 Waste from coal beneficiation: waste from iron ores 90:10 1050–1070 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 8.1 1.9 15
enrichment (Stolboushkin, 2015)
4 Waste from coal beneficiation: waste from hardware 95:5 1050–1070 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 10.6 2.8 25
production (Stolboushkin, 2015)
5 Waste from coal beneficiation: loam: waste from hardware 80:15:5 1050–1070 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 14.7 3.5 50
production (Stolboushkin, 2015)
6 Waste from iron ores enrichment: loam: cullet 70:20:10/ 1050–1070 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 24.9/19.2 3.1/2.35 50/50
(Stolboushkin, 2015) 60:30:10
7 Lithotripsy waste (Kara-sal, 2007) 20 800/900/1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 9.1/12.8/15.4 18.7/14.4/
size 11.6
20 800/900/1000 °C,<1 bar, - h, small 12.6/15.8/ 15.7/12.3/
size 20.1 10.1
8 Flotation waste from coal beneficiation (Togidnii, 2011) 50 950 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 16.5 5.9 14.6
60 950 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 15.5 5.8 14.8
80 950 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 14.7 5.3 20.1
9 Coal beneficiation waste: ferriferous waste (Karpacheva, 65–70:3–5 950 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 30–32 16–18
2009)
10 Ferriferous waste (Efimov, 2000) 15 (plant 1) 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 17–21 4.2–6.0 14.7–14.0
15 (plant 2) 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 12.2–15.2 2.7–5.1 12.9–12.6
11 Cindery dust from thermal power plants (Melnikova, 2004) 7.5 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 18–23 9–13
10 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 20–26 8–11
12 Fly ash from thermal power plants (Vakalova, 2006) 10 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 27.3/28.8/ 12.4/13.5/
size 33.5 14.0
20 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 26.4/24.8/ 12.8/14.0/
size 31.6 15.4
40 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 19.9/21.4/ 17.6/18.9/
size 26.5 16.7
13 Cindery microspheres (Vakalova, 2006) 10 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 17.4/20.9/ 16.0/15.9/
size 18.4 17.7
15 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 13.6/15.5/ 18.5/19.9/
size 14.1 20.3
20 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 12.8/13.9/ 20.7/21.0/
size 14.0 22.8
30 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 36.2/36.6/ 20.3/23.1/
size 35.5 19.7
40 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 40.4/38.8/ 25.1/27.5/
size 38.1 22.2
60 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 44.4/42.7/ 30.0/33.2/
size 37.1 22.5
14 Antechamber ash from thermal power plants (Shiltsina, 5/30/50 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 43.1/28.2/ 13.8/17.8/
2004) 20.1 17.6
15 Antechamber ash from thermal power plants: ash from 3rd 25:10 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 24.8 17.7
field bunkers of electric precipitators (Shiltsina, 2004)
16 Ash and slag mix: cullet: bentonite clay (Shiltsina, 2004) 50:25:25 1070/1100 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 190/242 15/16 4.8/2.6
17 Ash and slag mix: montmorillonite -kaolinite clay (Shiltsina, 30:70 980 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 19.7 3.5 16.9
2004)
18 Commodity ash: bentonite clay (Shiltsina, 2004) 30:70 980 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 17.9 2.8 12.6
19 Ash from thermal power plants (Kosterin, 2005) 10 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 18 17
20 Waste from shale burning (Togidnii, 2011) 10/20/30 950 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 23.2/22.1/ 8.8/12.1/ 12.1/12.2/
20.0 12.9 12.4
21 Beydellit clay: phosphoric slag: ash and slag mix (Kovkov, 60:25:15 1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 21.8 3.59 16–18
2009)
22 Ashes from sewage sludge burning (Levite, 2003) 10 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 118–162 22–27 6.5–7.2
23 Steel-smelting and aluminum slags (Dovzhenko, 2012) 20 970 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 36.3–42.8 1.2–1.6 612.5
24 Metallurgical dust: galvanic glass microspheres: acid 50:15:15:0:20 950/1000/1020 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 7/14/12 8/7/5
inertization salt: waste foundry sand: clay-sand mix size
(Mymrin et al., 2014) 1010 °C (1 h)/1010 °C (3 h), 1 bar, 10/11 8/7
small size
30:25:15:0:30 950/980/1000/1020 °C, 1 bar, 6 h, 9/8/10/3 8/8/7/6
small size
1010 °C (1 h)/1010 °C (6 h), 1 bar, 9/13 8/7
small size
35:20:15:15:15 1010 °C (3 h)/1010 °C (6 h), 1 bar, 11/14 7/7
small size
35:15:15:20:15 950/980/1010 °C, 1 bar, 6 h, small 9/9/14 9/8/8
size

(continued on next page)

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6 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Table 3 (continued)

№ Waste: other raw components of ceramic mixture (Ref.) Additives Temperature (°C), atmospheric Properties of ceramic samples
(wt.%) pressure (bar), time (h) of firing,
Compressive Flexural Water
size of brick
strength strength absorption
(MPa) (MPa) (%)
30:25:15:5:25 1000/1020 °C, 1 bar, 6 h, small size 9/12 7/7
1010 °C (1 h)/1010 °C (6 h), 1 bar, 10/13 8/6
small size
25 Clay loam: steel ships: cullet (Sharavin, 2012) 76–86:2.5– 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 11.0–30.3 1.6–6.5 18.0–12.4
15:3–6
26 Copper slag (Mahmoud, 2004) 5 980 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 10.4–12.1 2.6–4.4 6.7
7 980 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 9.9–11.2 2.9–3.2 7.1
20 980 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 16.9 7.6 11.3
27 Foam concrete: granulated domain slag (Slavina, 2012) 20:20 980 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 13.2–15.3 3.9–4.2 22.0
28 Sheet windowpane cullet (Yastrebova, 2008) 2.5/5/7/10 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 27/32/34/38 14 (for all)
29 Industrial glass products cullet/green tare glass cullet 10/10 + 0.5 1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 23.3/27.4 8.2/9.2
+ sodium oleate (Pikalov, 2011)
30 Tare cullet (Melnikova, 2004) 15 1000 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 13–15 7–12
31 Waste from fiber glass production with the high potassium 2 1030/1080 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size /72.5 13.5/7.8
content for Hlystovsky quarry clay (Salakhov et al., 2014) 4 1030/1080 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size /94.2 13.2/4.5
6 1030/1080 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size /103.8 9.2/1.8
8 1030/1080 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size /116.2 7.3/1.8
16 1030/1080 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 2.4/
32 Waste from fiber glass production with the high potassium 5/6/7/8 1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 20.4/44.2/ 15.5/14.0/
content for Sakharov quarry clay (Salakhov et al., 2014) 46.0/72.5 9.8/9.2
33 Waste from fiber glass production with the low alkaline 3 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 20.2/25.5/ 12.4/12.2/
oxides content for Hlystovsky quarry clay (Salakhov et al., size 83.8 7.5
2014) 5 950/1000/1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small 22.99/38.3/ 12.3/10.7/
size 94.7 5.3
34 Waste from fiber glass production with the low alkaline 2/3/5 1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 49.4/55.0/ 11.9/9.5/
oxides content for Sakharov quarry clay (Salakhov et al., 58.7 7.0
2014)
35 Waste from the production of mineral fertilizers (Naymov 5 1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 35.7 8.5 13.7
et al., 2014; Naumov, 2012)
36 Mineral wool production waste (fibers and regulus) 30/35/40 1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, small size 22.7/23.8/
(Vdovina, 2011) 24.8
40 1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 18.8 3.2 8
37 Sediments after cleaning of flue gases of mineral wool 40 1050 °C, 1 bar, - h, full-size 16.8 2.8 10
production (Vdovina, 2011)

The coal beneficiation waste contained 6–15 wt.% free carbon
(depending on fraction). The carbon was not completely burned
out during the firing of the ceramic samples and was coked inside,
which led to poor strength of the ceramic product. To eliminate
this negative effect, the waste was preliminarily treated for
20 min at 400 600 °C to decrease the carbon concentration by
up to 1–4 wt.%. The properties of the samples are given in Table 3,
No. 9, 10. As a result of this development, industrial ceramic brick
of the M150 brand with a density of 1.7 g/cm3 and frost resistance
of F35 was obtained. The brick had a homogeneous cream color.
Waste from mineral raw material (tails) processing at mining
plants traditionally accumulates in dumps or waste heaps and, as
a rule, negatively impacts the environment. For example, Mn-Fe
tailings from plants for the electrolytic production of manganese
oxide are used for brick, tile and floor tile manufacturing. The addi-
tion of 5–7.5 wt.% of this waste to clay and firing at 950–1100 °C
can reduce water absorption and increase the Rflex of ceramics.
However, this process slightly increases the firing shrinkage. By
varying the additive content, it is possible to obtain light and dark
brown ceramics (Solopov, 2010).
Wastes from the beneficiation of molybdenum ores, used in
molding mixes with a high content of free silicon dioxide (up to
90 wt.%) and nepheline slime with a calcium oxide content of up
to 55 wt.%, makes it possible to create ceramic material with water
absorption of 4–7%, Rflex of 18–27 MPa, and frost resistance not less
than 75 cycles, which is suitable for wall and socle tile manufactur-
ing (Eromasov, 2014).
Wastes from beneficiation of ferruginous quartzites and mag-
netite ore were used in ceramic raw material composition (Efimov,
2000). The FeO and Fe2O3 percentages in the waste fluctuated
within 7–8 wt.% and 9–10 wt.%, respectively. Samples were made
by plastic molding. It was established that samples made of loams
with waste addition of (wt.%) ferruginous quartzites 10–15 or mag-
netite ore 15–20 had higher crack resistance, with drying time
reduced by 10–15% and air shrinkage decreased by 2–3%. The
Rcompr and frost resistance of ceramic samples with ferruginous
quartzite beneficiation waste increased from 20 to 21 MPa to 25–
28 MPa and from 15 to 17 to 35–50 cycles, respectively. Similar
tendencies were observed for samples with an additive of mag-
netite ore. Rcompr rose from 26 MPa to 31 MPa and frost resistance
from 15 to 50 cycles. The developed compositions were tested at
several plants. The characteristics of the brick manufactured by
two of them are shown in Table 3, No. 10.
3.2. Ash and slag wastes
The ashes used in ceramic technology are mainly the waste of
coal burning in thermal power plants. The ash composition
depends on the origin of the burned-down fuel and its storage con-
ditions. It can contain up to 20 wt.% of organics. The ash particles
serve as mineralization nuclei at firing (Vakalova, 2006; Kovkov,
2009). For example, adding ash and slag to ceramic raw material
containing more than 15 wt.% of organic particles that are not
burned down promotes the heterogeneous crystallization of mul-
lite short prismatic crystals (Kovkov, 2009). Fly ash consists mainly
of glass phase (45–65 wt.%), silicon dioxide, alumina, carbon resi-
due and various microelements (Kovkov, 2009). It also contains
mullite, quartz, cristobalite and hematite. Fly ash and its fractions

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 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
in the form of cindery microspheres have a wide dispersion range
depending on the burned fuel and production site. Such waste can
work as inert, burned-out or texturing additive, soldering flux and
a filler for ceramic raw material. In work (Salakhov, 2002), the opti-
mal range of additives is found to be 10–15 wt.% of ash from ther-
mal power plants to increase the strength and density of the brick
and correspondingly decrease its water absorption.
Cindery dust can contain alkaline metal oxides in the range of
4.5–24.8 wt.% (Melnikova, 2004). Adding 5–10 wt.% of cindery dust
to the clay raw material improves the sintering process and the
characteristics of the final ceramic samples (see Table 3, No. 11).
Industrial-scale experiments showed that the addition of 12 wt.
% fly ash to ceramic raw material reduces the brick firing waste by
2% (Bystrov, 2003). However, this type of ash has a wide variability
in chemical composition, which naturally affects the properties of
the final ceramic product (Vieira and Monteiro, 2009; Vakalova,
2006; Kraichyk, 2003).
Fly ash particles after coal burning in a thermal power plant
generally consist of glass microspheres with relatively low density.
Using such an additive in ceramic raw material enables the manu-
facturing of wall ceramics with lower density and, correspond-
ingly, heat conductivity for both plastic and moist molding
(Vakalova, 2006). For plastic molding, the addition of 40 wt.% ash
to the raw material reduces the sensitivity factor to drying by 2.5
times, and the addition of 20 wt.% cindery microspheres reduces
it by 5.5 times. These additives form a ceramic mixture of equal
plasticity. Upon increasing the specified limits of both additives,
the firing shrinkage, density, and strength of the samples decrease,
and water absorption increases. For moist molding, it is possible to
raise the cindery microspheres content in the ceramic raw material
to 60 wt.%. The firing shrinkage, water absorption and strength of
the ceramics grow with increasing additive content, while density
and open porosity drop. The parameters of some such samples are
given in Table 3 (No. 12, 13).
The use of coal ashes with high calcium content as an additive
for ceramic raw material is described in Shiltsina (2004), Selivanov
(2005), Maximova (2002). It was shown (Selivanov, 2005) that cal-
cium is used in the formation of wollastonite upon firing, which is
an important mineral for the properties of ceramics. The author
(Shiltsina, 2004) studied different types of ashes and their various
combinations. The ceramic raw material consisted of
montmorillonite-kaolinite clay and 5–80 wt.% ashes. Moist mold-
ing of the samples at 12 MPa and firing at 1000 °C were performed.
It was established that upon increasing the ash additive, the water
absorption of the ceramics increases, and the strength decreases.
The highest possible additive content for manufacturing samples
with the acceptable operational characteristics is 30–50 wt.%. The
best wall ceramics results are obtained with additives of
antechamber ash in the composition with ash from the 3rd field
bunkers of electric precipitators (see Table 3, No. 14, 15).
To improve the effect of a complex additive to the ceramic raw
material in the form of an ash and slag mix made of components
from different zones of the waste storage (slag; ash and slag mix;
commodity ash) a cullet was also added. Samples were molded
by moist pressing at 25 MPa and fired at 950–1150 °C.
Montmorillonite-kaolinite clay and bentonite clay were used. The
characteristics of the most successful of such ceramic samples
are given in Table 3, No. 16–18.
Waste from ash dumps of a coal-burning thermal power plant
were added to modify sour clays (Kosterin, 2005). The following
ceramic raw compositions were proposed: for light brick: 27 vol.
% of clay from the top horizon of a bedding, 63 vol.% of clay from
the lower horizon of a bedding, and 10 vol.% of waste from ash
dumps of 0.125–2.5 mm dispersion; for a heat-insulating brick
with improved front surface: the same clay components in a mix-
ing ratio of 18:72 and 10 wt.% of ash with particles less than
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experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
7
0.125 mm. The parameters of the products obtained are specified
in Table 3, No. 19.
The modification of fusible clays by fly ash and waste from ash
dump additives for the manufacturing of large construction prod-
ucts was conducted in Bak (2007). The optimum was a ceramic
raw material consisting of 30 wt.% ash or 20 wt.% waste from ash
dumps. Ceramic samples fired at Tf = 950 °C had a strength Rcompr
of 8.0–8.5 MPa and Rflex of 3.1–3.22 MPa.
Adding to the ceramic raw material 30–50 wt.% of waste from
combustible shale burning containing a calcium carbonate made
it possible to obtain ceramic samples with water absorption of
12.4–12.8 (Togidnii, 2011). Rcompr for such products is high enough,
reaching 15–20 MPa and Rflex 8–13 MPa. However, they have a
slightly smaller frost resistance. The characteristics of a range of
such samples are shown in Table 3 (No. 20).
The optimum composition containing beidellite clay, phospho-
ric slag and ash and slag mix in a mixing ratio of 60:25:15 was
selected for a ceramic brick (Kovkov, 2009). Beidellite clay alone
is not suitable for brick production, but in combination with this
waste, it becomes a suitable raw material. The characteristics of
a brick of such ceramic raw material are given in Table 3 (No. 21).
Ashes from sewage sludge burning were used as modifiers for
hollow brick (Levite, 2003). The heavy metals in the waste act as
crystallization nuclei in ceramics during and after firing. These tox-
icants are reliably kept in a ceramic body. This waste increases
brick strength by one-two grades and reduces the density by
0.1 g/cm3 and the heat conductivity coefficient to 0.25 W/m deg.
The fuel savings for brick firing is 5–6%. Fusible semi-sour
polymineral clays were used as the main raw materials. The ashes
from sewage sludge burning contained approximately 3 wt.%
organics, whereas the main crystal component was quartz. The
optimal ceramic raw material contained 10 wt.% ashes. The results
of sample testing are given in Table 3 (No. 22).
3.3. Metallurgical wastes
The wastes of the metallurgical industry are widely varied –
slags, metallurgical dust, waste foundry sand, and more. Due to
their specific chemical, mineralogical and granular features, they
can significantly modify the properties of ceramics. For example,
the chlorides and fluorides of alkaline metals in slag have a cat-
alytic effect on the sintering of a ceramic matrix (Dovzhenko,
2012). The concentrations of additives that increase the strength
and density of the brick and produce a corresponding decrease in
its water absorption are revealed in work (Salakhov, 2002) (wt.
%): dust waste from foundry production 2–3, iron slag 3–5, phos-
phoric slag 3–7, Al-Na galvanic waste 1–2.5.
The action of several types of waste on the properties of ceram-
ics is studied in Maslennikova (2000). The addition of polycationic
domain slags to ceramic raw material improves frost resistance
and strength. Additionally, chamotte waste containing aluminosil-
icates and Fe3+-, Mn2+- and Cr3+-phases adds heat resistance. Along
with their physical and mechanical characteristics, the decorative
properties of ceramics can be regulated by additives of martin dust
and dross containing Fe2+- and Fe3+-phases and neutralized gal-
vanic slag consisting of d-metals (Maslennikova, 2000).
Slag flux is a mix of fine-grained steel-smelting and aluminum
slags containing up to 37 wt.% CaO. Using 20 wt.% slag flux as a clay
additive made it possible to obtain homogeneous light-toned col-
ors (Dovzhenko, 2012). For this purpose a combination of fusible
and refractory clays with Fe2O3 content of 5.6–6.5 wt.% was used.
Some combinations of slag flux with proportions of steel-
smelting fine-grained and aluminum slags at 9:1, 8:2, 7:3, 6:4 were
tested. The parameters of the ceramic samples are specified in
Table 3, No. 23. The strongest brick of an even yellow color is
obtained at a slag ratio of 8:2.
8 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Article (Mymrin et al., 2014) reports on the use of a complex
additive to ceramic raw material of the following composition:
metallurgical dust, waste foundry sand, galvanic glass micro-
spheres and acid inertization salt. Laboratory samples were pre-
pared on base of a clay-sand mix. It contained 70–85 wt.% waste,
including 30–50 wt.% metallurgical dust. They were molded at
10% humidity by pressing at 10 MPa in 60  20  10 mm rectangu-
lar molds, dried at 100 °C to constant weight, fired at Tf (950, 980,
1000, 1020 °C) for firing time (1, 3 or 6 h) (see Table, No. 24). The
Rflex of the samples ranged from 3 to 14 MPa and the water absorp-
tion from 7 to 8%. Note that the samples prepared without waste
addition had approximately the same strength but considerably
worse water absorption.
Metal processing waste in the form of steel sawdust 1 mm
thick and up to 2.5 mm long was used as an additive for ceramic
strengthening (Sharavin, 2012). A tare cullet was added with this
waste into a dusty loam ceramic raw material. The optimum com-
position of the ceramic raw material and the characteristics of the
ceramic brick obtained from it are given in Table 3, No. 25. Moist
pressing of the raw material is recommended. The addition of saw-
dust also improved the brick properties.
The action of nonferrous metallurgy waste as a component of
the ceramic raw material for brick is investigated in
Abdrakhmanov (2002). It is established that the optimum for
ceramics sintering was the waste with the highest proportion of
Fe2O3/(CaO + MgO) and the lowest proportion of (SiO2 + Al2O3)/
Fe2O3). Tails from pegmatite ore beneficiation promote the forma-
tion of homogeneous pores in ceramics that positively influence
the product quality. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the raw mate-
rials to drying improves, and the drying time is reduced. It is also
shown that the ceramic raw material can be made of the clay part
of tailings of zircon - ilmenite ore gravitation and the light frac-
tion of ash.
Using copper slag and Cherepovets slag in ceramic raw material
is described in Mahmoud (2004). The first type of slag is waste
from a copper-smelting plant. It contains (wt.%) SiO2 29 and
Fe2O3 56. The second type of slag contains SiO2 42 and CaO 45.
The ceramic raw material for the experimental samples contained
of (wt.%) Cambrian clay 70 and waste 30. Ceramic samples were
made manually in metal forms and fired at 980 °C. Sand, as a tra-
ditional additive to the clay, provided only Rflex = 4.5 MPa. The
Cherepovets and copper slag gave 4.8 MPa and 7.8 MPa, respec-
tively. According to the author, the strength increase is a result
of the donor-acceptor mechanism at the contact between two dif-
ferent ceramic phases. Processing of the studied materials by the
accelerated electrons was performed to check this hypothesis.
The specified processing allowed an increase in Rflex up to 6.3,
6.5, and 9.8 MPa, respectively. The copper slag was used in indus-
trial brick production. The characteristics of the new brick were
better (see Table 3, No. 26). The parameters of 160  40  40 mm
laboratory samples are also given.
In work (Slavina, 2012), a technology for ceramic brick manu-
facturing from granulated domain slag, thin ground foam con-
crete and Cambrian clay with ratio of the specified components
in ceramic raw material (wt.%) of 17–22, 17–24 and 68–54, respec-
tively, is developed. The characteristics of laboratory made sam-
ples of 160  40  40 mm and cubes with an edge of 50 mm are
given in Table 3, No. 27.
Dumps of soldering flux waste create a serious risk of environ-
mental pollution, primarily for ground waters. The main compo-
nents of soldering flux are oxides of silicon, manganese, iron,
calcium, magnesium, aluminum, fluoric calcium, sulfur, phospho-
rus, and also occasionally potassium, sodium, titanium, zirconium
and carbon (Russian standard 9087-81, 2002). The authors of
works (Chen et al., 2011; Dovzhenko, 2012) showed the possibility
of disposing of this waste by 5–10 wt.% addition to kaolinite clay
Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
for ceramic brick production. For tests, they made 115  254 mm
cylindrical samples by pressing at 24 MPa, then dried them for
one day at 110 °C and fired them at 950 °C for 2 h. The addition
of this waste to clay was found to decrease the water absorption
and porosity of a ceramic sample and also increase its density
and Rflex.
Soldering flux waste from the bonding of aluminum alloys was
successfully applied in Golovanova et al. (2004). It consists of chlo-
rides of sodium, potassium, and lithium, which can serve as flux
and mineralizers in the firing of ceramics. Thus, the addition of
only 0.2 wt.% chloride lithium to the red clay ceramic raw material
resulted in white ceramics with a yellowish shade instead of a typ-
ical brown-pink or brown-red color.
3.4. Glass waste
The sources of glass wastes cover a variety of goods (e.g., con-
tainers, lamps, window and screen panels, mirrors, fiberglass).
Glass plants actively process their own cullet, but large amounts
of glass waste are accumulated in household dumps. The bulk of
it is non-toxic, except for the waste of some special grades of glass.
Nevertheless, the problem of their utilization is severe.
The melting temperature of the most widespread cullet of soda
lime glass is 650–750 °C. Its chemical composition is favorable for
ceramic raw material. Glass additives can play the role of flux, low-
ering the temperature at firing. They reduce porosity and thereby
improve the water absorption and strength of ceramics
(Melnikova, 2004; Leshina and Pivnev, 2002). The results of many
works (Lingling et al., 2005; Vieira and Monteiro, 2009; Shiltsina,
2004) show that the addition of 2.5–33 wt.% of this waste to cera-
mic raw material reduces brick shrinkage.
Ceramic material with characteristics suitable for road paving is
obtained in Voronin et al. (2014) by the addition to ceramic raw
material of 30 wt.% cullet with quartz processing waste and firing
at 1000 °C. With a density of 2.4 g/cm3, Rcompr of 88 MPa, and frost
resistance of more than 300 cycles, it outperforms brick and con-
crete analogs.
The addition of sheet windowpane cullet to the composition of
sour clay ceramic raw material with an aluminum content of
<15 wt.% was positively tested in Yastrebova (2008). Additives in
the range of 0–10 wt.% increased Rcompr from 20 to 40 MPa, while
the density and water absorption of the products changed only
slightly (see Table 3, No. 28).
The density of a ceramic brick was increased up to 1.8 g/cm3 by
the addition of 10–13 wt.% of industrial glass cullet to the ceramic
raw material (Pikalov, 2011). The greatest effect was achieved at
10 wt.% of green tare glass cullet and 0.5 wt.% of sodium oleate
as a surface-active substance. Thus, Rcompr increases to 24 MPa,
and water absorption decreases to 10%. The optimum firing tem-
perature was 1050 °C. The characteristics of these ceramic samples
are given in Table 3, No. 29.
There was an experiment in ceramic brick production with the
addition to clay of 2–5 wt.% cullet from discarded personal com-
puters and TV (tubes and screens) Muñoz Velasco et al., 2014.
However, it was established that they significantly worsen the
ceramic raw material plasticity and sensitivity to drying (Dondi
et al., 2009). Addition of more than 5 wt.% increases the negative
effect.
The author of Melnikova (2004) developed two compositions of
ceramic raw material with an additive of tare cullet. The first com-
position, for a front brick of light tones and volume coloring, was as
follows (wt.%): dusty loam 75–85, cullet 5, marshalite 10–20. The
second composition, for an ordinary and front ceramic brick, was
dusty loam 85–90, cullet 5–15, high-calcic (25–26 wt.% CaO) ashes
of thermal power plant burning brown coal 5–15. The cullet con-
tained 14 wt.% of alkaline metal oxides and acted as flux in ceramic
 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
raw material based on dusty loams containing (wt.%) SiO2 61–63,
Al2O3 13–14 and Fe2O3 4. Addition of cullet increases the crock
durability (see Table 3, No. 30). The full-size brick from the second
recipe for ceramic raw material had a strength grade of 100–150,
water absorption of 12–16%, and frost resistance of 25 cycles.
A composition of ceramic raw material based on fusible clay
raw materials with additives of 20–25 wt.% cullet and 15–45 wt.%
high-calcic ashes 3P3 (Selivanov, 2005) was developed for the pro-
duction of high-porosity heat-insulating ceramics.
In study (Salakhov et al., 2014), fusible clays were modified by
waste from fiber glass production. Cylindrical ceramic samples
with a diameter and height of 50 mm were made by dry compres-
sion at 40 MPa. Ceramic raw material was prepared from fusible
clays of two types and three different additives: powder with high
potassium content (X); powder with low alkaline oxide content
(S); and short scraps of fiber glass (V). The same additives in com-
bination with different clays give different results. The modifier X
in general promotes increased density and durability of ceramics
and reduces water absorption but thus increases fire shrinkage.
The modifier S, even in small amounts contributes to obtaining
high-strength ceramics at relatively low firing temperatures. Mod-
ifier V increases the strength of the products. The results for clays
from Hlystovsky quarry and Sakharov quarry in the Republic of
Tatarstan (Russia) are given in Table 3, No. 31–34.
3.5. Other types of inorganic waste
Spent catalyst. The addition of isopropylene production waste
containing aluminum oxide to the ceramic raw material reduces
the firing shrinkage of ceramics made of fusible clays and increases
their durability (Ashmarin and Mustafin, 2006; Mustafin, 2006).
Calcium-containing waste from the production of mineral fer-
tilizers can be used as a component of ceramic raw material to
increase ceramic brick strength and frost resistance. It has been
experimentally established that the optimum additive proportion
is 5 wt.% (Naymov et al., 2014; Naumov, 2012). Ceramic samples
with frost resistance of 100–200 cycles were obtained after moist
pressing at 23–25 MPa and firing at Tf 1020–1050 °C. This additive
increases the durability of samples by 30%. The color and water
absorption of such ceramics allow its use as front brick (see Table 3,
No. 35).
Phosphite is a large-tonnage waste from phosphoric fertilizer
production. The addition of up to 30 wt.% of this waste to ceramic
raw material made it possible to obtain hollow (24%) brick with
heat conductivity of 0.27 W/m K and density of 1.47 g/cm3
(Maslennikova, 2000).
Mineral wool production waste in the form of non-extended
fibers (regulus) and the products of the purification of exhaust
gas from a cupola during the melting of mineral wool can be used
as diluents and intensifiers in sintering ceramic raw material. In
work (Vdovina, 2011), ceramic samples based on beidellite clay
with an additive of mineral wool production waste were investi-
gated. Bricks were formed by a plastic method and fired at
1050 °C. Their characteristics are given in Table 3, No. 36, 37.
Pyritic candle ends and iron slime from an aniline dye plant
were used for the production of a high-branded brick (Efimov,
2000). The FeO and Fe2O3 content in the waste ranged within (wt.
%) 10–58 and 12–78, respectively. The addition of 5–10 wt.% of this
waste to loam-based ceramic raw material reduces the molding-
moisture content by 2–3% and air linear shrinkage from 7% to 5%,
as well as increasing the crack resistance of the product.
A similar application for pyritic candle ends was proposed in
work (Kuzmin, 2004) as 10–15 wt.% (optimum 15 wt.%) additives
to brick and tile clay raw materials with limy inclusions. CaO con-
tained in clay raw materials forms solid solutions with iron oxide
Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
9
from the additive, leading to a positive effect of ‘‘capsulation and
neutralization” of lime grains.
It was shown in Lipatova (2008) that waste from the production
of catalysts for ammonia and waste from the cleaning of steel sur-
faces by shot blaster can be used as corrective additions to ceramic
mass.
4. Russian patents on ceramics with inorganic waste
The Russian patents issued since 2000 are presented below and
grouped by the type of waste added to the ceramic mixture.
4.1. Crushed stone screening dust
The technical result of the invention in Shepochkina (2013a) is
an increase in the product’s frost resistance up to 100 cycles. The
ceramic mixture for this brick contains the following (wt.%): clay
80.9–82.9; crushed coal (crushed to pass through mesh No. 014)
0.3–0.8; crushed brick waste after drying (crushed to pass through
mesh No. 014) 0.3–0.8; stone screening dust (crushed to pass
through mesh No. 014) 9.0–13.0; and kaolin 5.0–7.0.
4.2. Waste from zircon-ilmenite ore beneficiation
The technical result of the inventions in Shepochkina (2013b,c)
is an increase in the brick’s frost resistance. The ceramic mixture
proposed in Shepochkina (2013b) contains (wt.%) high-melting
clay 78.0–80.0; quartzite 7.0–9.0; talc 2.0–3.0; phosphorite 2.0–
3.0; and clay waste from zircon-ilmenite ore beneficiation 7.0–9.0.
The ceramic mixture proposed in Shepochkina (2013c) contains
(wt.%) high-melting clay 80.0–83.0; quartzite 7.0–9.0; bentonite
2.0–3.0; and clay waste from zircon-ilmenite ore beneficiation
7.0–9.0.
4.3. Flotation waste from coal beneficiation
The ceramic mixture proposed in Kotlyar et al. (2013) includes
fusible clay and carbonate-silicon zeolite-containing rock of a
mixed mineral composition and flotation waste of coal beneficia-
tion – coal slurries. Carbonate-silicon zeolite-containing rock is
used with a grinding degree less than 1 mm with the following
component ratio (wt.%): fusible clay 60–75; carbonate-silicon
zeolite-containing rock 20–25; flotation waste from coal benefici-
ation 5–15.
The invention in Kotlyar et al. (2012) can be used in the produc-
tion of ceramic bricks and stones. Its technological result is a
reduction in the average density and heat conductivity of the prod-
ucts. The ceramic mixture contains opal-cristobalite rock – gaize,
water, and flotation waste from coal beneficiation, wherein the
gaize and flotation waste used have a particle size less than
1 mm, with the following ratio of components (wt.%): gaize 45–
60; flotation waste from coal beneficiation 5–30; water – the rest.
4.4. Cullet
The aim of the work in Lesovik et al. (2007) is the development
of a technical means for the production of high-strength, low-
shrinkage or non-shrinking wall ceramics. The method involves
mixing 60–97 wt.% ground clay with filler, the remaining being
hydrophobized granules with a size of 0.1–2.0 mm. The filler con-
sists of a core, which includes the cullet ground with porophore
(calcium and/or magnesium carbonate), and a water-repellent
shell. The water-repellent quantity is 1–10 wt.% of the filler weight.
Natural high-silica sedimentary rocks are mixed with cullet and
porophore milling with the cullet constituting 5.0–80 wt.% of the
10 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
sedimentary rocks in the mixture. Alkali metal hydroxide in an
amount of 1.5–4.0 wt.% is also added. The porophore quantity is
1–6 wt.% of the cullet mixture. After that, the raw products are
moistened, molded using the soft-mud or semi-dry pressing
method, dried, and fired at 890–925 °C.
The technology of ceramic wall products (Strokova et al., 2007)
involves mixing ground clay at 60–97 wt.% and a filler in the form
of granules-hydrophobizators with dimensions of 0.1–2.0 mm,
made of cullet ground together with natural zeolite containing
effusive-sedimentary zeolite-ash deposits, clinoptilolite, or a mix-
ture of the minerals in quantities of 5.0–80 relative to the mass
of granules and porephore, with calcium carbonate and silicon car-
bide in quantities of 1–6% mass of the granules. In that case, the
quantity of the hydrophobizator is 1–10% of the mass of the filler.
The mass is then moistened, molded by plastic forming or semi-dry
pressing, dried and fired at 950–1075 °C. The technical result of
this invention is an extension of the range of methods for manufac-
turing high-strength, low-shrinking and non-shrinking ceramic
products using environmentally safe substances as raw materials
and natural clay with good shrink-resistant properties.
The technological result of the invention in Gridchin et al.
(2007) is also an extension of the range of methods for the produc-
tion of high-strength, low-shrinkage or non-shrinking wall ceramic
products. The method includes the mixing of ground clay at 60–
97 wt.% with filler. The remainder is waterproofed granules of cul-
let 0.1–2.0 mm in size, silicone and aluminum oxide powder at a
ratio of 1:(2.2–3.4) in the amount of 5.0–20.0% of the cullet weight
ground together with a porephore – calcium and/or magnesium
carbonate in the amount of 1–6% of the cullet weight. The raw
products are then moistened, molded by plastic forming or by
semi-dry pressing, dried and fired at 900–945 °C.
The invention in Syslov et al. (2004) can be applied in the pro-
duction of face ceramic bricks and stones as well as tiles and other
products of a light cream to dark cream color based on light-fired
clays. The ceramic mixture consists of (wt.%) clay 76–81, sodium
methylsiliconate 0.1–0.2, cullet 14.8–19.9, and chalk 2–4. It pro-
vides increased strength and frost resistance and consequently
improves the quality of the final products.
The invention in Lesovik et al. (2007) can be applied for the pro-
duction of thermal insulation products such as bricks, blocks, and
wall panels. The proposed technology for manufacturing ceramic
wall products involves the mixing of ground clay in quantities of
60–97 wt.% and filler-hydrophobizator in the form of 0.1–2.0 mm
granules obtained from cullet ground together with magmatic
acidic effusive vitreous rocks, obsidian, vitrophyre, or a mixture
of minerals in quantities between 5% and 80% relative to the
weight of the granules, and porophore – calcium carbonate and sil-
icon carbide in quantities of 1–6% of the weight of the granules. In
that case, the hydrophobizator quantity is 1–10% of the filler
weight. The mass is then moistened, molded by plastic forming
or semi-dry pressing, dried and fired at 950–1075 °C. The techno-
logical result of the invention is extension of the raw material base
through the use of environmentally safe substances as raw materi-
als, including natural clay with high shrink properties, to obtain
strong low-shrinking and non-shrinking ceramic wall products.
The invention in Syslov et al. (2012a) relates to the production
of construction materials, in particular, to granite-ceramic prod-
ucts, and can be applied to the manufacturing of face ceramic
bricks, decorative elements, floor tiles, roofing materials, and so
on. The technical results include increased Rflex, frost resistance
and wear resistance of the products. The ceramic raw material
for the manufacture of granite-ceramic products consists of
kaolinite-montmorollonire clay, siftings of crushed granite,
boron-containing ampoule glass cullet and sodium polycarboxy-
late with the following component ratio (wt.%): kaolinite-
montmorollonire clay 15–25; crushed stone screening dust
Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
35–40; boron-containing ampoule glass cullet 35–50; sodium
polycarboxylate (over 100 wt.%) 0.05–0.1 (by dry substance).
4.5. Ground quartz glass
The invention in Shepochkina (2013a) relates to the composi-
tions of ceramic mixtures for brick production. The technical result
is an increase in the frost resistance of the bricks. The ceramic mix-
ture contains the following components (wt.%): clay 73.0–74.5;
ground quartz glass 17.0–23.0; kaolin 3.0–7.0; 3% solution of
hydrogen peroxide 1.0–1.5.
4.6. Glass fiber waste
The ceramic mixture for brick production in Shepochkina
(2013b) contains the following (wt.%): clay 77.8–83.8; rejected
bricks ground to a specific surface area of 2500–3000 cm2/g after
drying 0.1–1.0; glass fiber waste ground to a specific surface area
of 2500–3000 cm2/g 0.1–3.0; tuff ground to a specific surface area
of 2500–3000 cm2/g 15.0–21.0; glycerin 0.05–0.1. The technical
result is an increase in the frost resistance of the bricks to 100–
110 cycles. The bricks are fired at 1000 °C.
The invention in Shepochkina (2013c) relates to the composi-
tions of ceramic mixtures for brick production. The technical result
is a reduction in the firing temperature of the products. The cera-
mic mixture for brick production contains clay, coal, crushed brick
waste after drying, milled glass fiber waste and waste obtained
during wool burring at the following ratio of components (wt.%):
clay 87.5–90.0; coal crushed to pass through mesh No. 008 1.0–
1.5; crushed brick waste after drying 0.1–1.0; glass fiber waste
crushed to pass through mesh No. 014 6.0–8.0; waste obtained
during wool burring 2.0–2.5.
The technical result of the invention in Shepochkina (2013d) is
an increase in the frost resistance of the brick. The ceramic mixture
contains the following (wt.%): clay 68.0–72.9; crushed waste brick
after drying 0.1–1.0; glass fiber waste crushed and sieved through
mesh No. 2.5–7.0 11.0; flue ash 14.0–16.0; kaolin 4.0–6.0.
The technical result of the invention in Shepochkina (2012a) is a
reduction in the firing temperature of the brick. The ceramic mix-
ture contains clay, coal, ground dried scrap brick, ground fiber glass
waste and silica gel, with the following ratio of components (wt.%):
clay 77.0–80.5; ground dried brick waste 0.5–1.0; ground glass
fiber waste 14.0–19.0; silica gel 3.5–4.5.
The ceramic mixture for brick production in the (Shepochkina,
2012b) contains the following (wt.%): clay 80.5–83.7; coal 0.2–
0.3; crushed dry brick 0.2–0.3; crushed glass fiber waste 2.0–2.4;
phosphogypsum 2.0–2.4; crushed expanded pearlite 11.0–15.0.
The technical result is an increased water resistance of the brick.
4.7. Ash and slag
The invention in Abdrakhimova et al. (2012a) relates to the
industry of ceramic materials, primarily to the compositions of
masses for light bricks. The technical results are increased frost
resistance and decreased thermal conductivity of the products.
The ceramic composition for light brick manufacturing contains
ash-slag material and interslate clay, containing the following
(wt.%): SiO2 41.3; Al2O3 14.4; Fe2O3 6.8; CaO 9.2; MgO 2.5; R2O 4.1
(fire loss 20.2). Ratio of components in the ceramic raw material
is as follows (wt.%): interslate clay 50–70; ash-slag material 30–50.
The technical results of the invention in Abdrakhimova et al.
(2012b) are increased frost resistance and Rcompr of the products.
The ceramic mixture for brick production consists of medium plas-
tic fusible clay and calcium-containing slag of manganese ferroal-
loys with the following content (wt.%): SiO2 32.7; Al2O3 9.7; Fe2O3
2.2; CaO 38.28; MgO 2.32; R2O 2.28; MnO 11.5, with the following
 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 11

component ratio (wt.%): medium plastic fusible clay 50–80;
calcium-containing slag of manganese ferroalloys 20–50.
The technical result of the invention in Svatovskaya et al. (2012)
is an increased Rcompr of the products. The ceramic mixture for brick
production contains fusible clay and waste from copper smelting
production, i.e., copper slag. It consists of the following (wt.%):
SiO2 31.5; Al2O3 6.0; FeO 49.0; CaO 3.0; MgO 0.75; CuO 3.0, with
the following component ratio (wt.%): fusible clay 70–80; copper
slag 20–30.
The ceramic raw material in Novoselov et al. (2011) for ceramic
construction products contains clay material, aluminum-
containing components and a combustible additive. Its special

Table 4
Properties of patented ceramic samples manufactured with inorganic waste additives.

Waste in patented ceramic mixture, percentage Properties of ceramic samples

(wt.%), (Ref.)
Frost- Rcompressive (MPa) Density Coefficient of thermal Water Shrinkage Tf (°C)
resistance (g/sm3) conductivity (W/(m °C)) absorption (%)
(cycle) (%)
Dust from crushed stone screening, 9.0–13.0 100
(Shepochkina, 2013a)
Waste from zircon-ilmenite ore beneficiation, 200–220
7–9 (Shepochkina, 2013b,c)
Flotation waste from coal beneficiation
2–17 (Kotlyar et al., 2013) 38.1–19.3 1.6– 0.52–0.39
1.42
5–30 (Kotlyar et al., 2012) 37.6–28.4 1.36– 0.42–0.33
1.19
Cullet
3–40 (Lesovik et al., 2007) 21.8–32.3 0.41–0.51 0.9–5.4 890–
(total 950
volume)
3–40 (Strokova et al., 2007) 29.8–46.3 1.1–8.4 950–
(total 1075
volume)
3–40 (Gridchin et al., 2007) 21.8–57.4 0.9–5.1 900–
(total 950
volume)
15–20 (Syslov et al., 2004) 85–90 31.5–35.8 5–6 0.5–1.5
3–40 (Lesovik et al., 2007) 29.8–42.1 5–6 0.0–8.4 945–
(total 1070
volume)
35–50 (Syslov et al., 2012a) 100 20.3–25.5 (bending 4–6 950–
strength) 960
Ground quartz glass, 17.0–23.0 (Shepochkina, 120
2013a)
Glass fiber waste
0.1–1.0 (Shepochkina, 2013b) 100–110
6–8 (Shepochkina, 2013c) 930–
960
7–11 (Shepochkina, 2013d) 130 1000–
1100
14–19 (Shepochkina, 2012a) 930–
980
2.0–2.4 (Shepochkina, 2012b) 1000–
1100
Ash and slag
Ash-slag, 30–50 (Abdrakhimova et al., 2012a) 18.2–16.1 1.38– 0.17–0.13
1.21
Calcium-containing slag of manganese 97–107 26.4–29.7
ferroalloys, 20–50 (Abdrakhimova et al.,
2012b)
Copper slag, 20–30 (Svatovskaya et al., 2012) 25.1–27.8 1000
Ash-slag, 10–20 (Novoselov et al., 2011) 35–300 12.3–14.7 0.8–2.0 0,16–0.59 9–15 1000–
1150
Granulated blast-furnace slag, 20–25 0.24 980–
(Svatovskaya et al., 2009) 1000
Fly ash
17–19 (Shepochkina, 2013a), 14–16 100–110 1000–
(Shepochkina, 2013b) 1100
14–16 (Shepochkina, 2013c) 130 1000–
1100
10–15 (Kornilov et al., 2012) 35.6–47.1 1000–
1050
Ashes from active sludge sediment burning 30–50 24.5–31.4, 6.5–10.0 0.26 5–10 2 (drying) 850–
(Rasskazov et al., 2004) (bending strength) 1 (firing) 1100
Aluminum alloy etching waste
5–10 (Syslov et al., 2012b) 80–100 110–115 1 8–10 (total) 1100–
1180
10–30 (Abdrakhimova et al., 2012c) 114–130 22.5–28.8 1050

Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
12 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
feature is that the clay raw material contains a mixture of eluvial
and diluvial clays, and aluminum-containing component consists
of an ash-slag mixture from the waste of thermal power stations
with the following ratio of components (wt.%): clay material 60–
83; ash-slag mixture 10–20; combustible additive 7–20.
The invention in Svatovskaya et al. (2009) can be used for the
production of ceramic construction materials, e.g., facing bricks.
The technical result is a reduction of the thermal conductivity coef-
ficient. The mixture for making ceramic bricks contains clay, gran-
ulated blast-furnace slag and finely ground scrap foamed concrete
with not more than 1% sieve residue on sieve No. 008, with the fol-
lowing ratio of components (wt.%): finely ground scrap of foamed
concrete with not more than 1% sieve residue on sieve No. 008 15–
20; granulated blast-furnace slag 20–25; clay – the rest.
4.8. Fly ash
The technical result of the invention in Shepochkina (2013a–c)
is increased frost resistance. The ceramic raw material for bricks
(Shepochkina, 2013a) contains wt.%: clay 79.3–80.2; crushed brick
waste after drying 0.5–1.0; kaolin 1.0–1.5; fly ash 17.0–19.0; ferric
chloride 0.15–0.23; carboxymethyl cellulose 0.05–0.07.
The ceramic mixture for bricks in Shepochkina (2013b) contains
the following (wt.%): clay 82.8–85.8; crushed brick waste after dry-
ing 0.1–1.0; fly ash 14.0–16.0; sodium tripolyphosphate 0.1–0.2.
The component content in Shepochkina (2013c) is as follows
(wt.%): clay 67.0–71.9; crushed brick waste after drying 0.1–1.0;
fly ash 14.0–16.0; andesite powder 14.0–16.0.
Fig. 3. Quantity of PhD (black) and Doctoral (white) dissertations and patents
(gray) in Russia per year during 2000–2015.
Fig. 4. Comparative histogram of specific blowouts of the main pollutants accompanying the production of ceramic brick (years of construction/reconstruction of the
enterprises are specified in brackets) (Averochkin, 2004).
Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
The technical result of the invention in Kornilov et al. (2012) is
an increase in the Rcompr of the products. The ceramic mixture con-
tains low-melting clay and industrial waste with particle size
smaller than 0.315 mm. The waste consists of the following (wt.
%): fly ash of thermal power plant 80 and flue dust from alumina
calcination furnaces 20, where the ratio of SiO2:Al2O3 = 1:1. The
ratio of the components in the ceramic mixture is as follows (wt.
%): low-melting clay 85–90; industrial waste 10–15.
4.9. Ashes from burning of active sludge sediment
To obtain the raw mixture for ceramic building bricks in
Rasskazov et al. (2004), a clay with a moisture content of 18.0–
21.0%, active sludge sediment with total moisture of 65%, and
ashes from active sludge sediment burning (moisture content 0%)
are combined for a homogeneous mixture with moisture of 15.0–
21.0% for brick manufacturing. Various methods of ceramic brick
manufacturing are described. The technical results of the invention
include improved manufacturing technology, reduced power con-
sumption, reduced environmental pollution, and improved heat-
insulation properties of the brick.
4.10. Aluminum alloy etching waste
The invention in Syslov et al. (2012b) relates to the production
of construction materials and can be applied to the production of
ceramics for different purposes – clinker and acid-resistant bricks,
ceramic floor tiles, and so on. The technical results are increased
Rcompr and frost resistance of the products. The ceramic raw mate-
rial consists of the following (wt.%): hydromica-kaolinite clay 9.9–
19.8; kaolinite-montmorillonite clay 49.8–74.9; screenings of
crushed granite with particle size 0.315–0.63 mm 10–20; alu-
minum alloy etching waste 5–10; technical lignosulfonate 0.2–
0.4 (per dry substance).
The technical results of Abdrakhimova et al. (2012c) are
increased frost resistance, Rcompr and heat-resistance of the brick.
The ceramic mixture contains low-melting clay and aluminum-
containing sludge from caustic etching with the following oxide
contents (wt.%): SiO2 1.5–2; Al2O3 85–90; Fe2O3 2.5–3.0; CaO 2–
2.5; MgO 1–1.5; R2O 0.8–1.5. The ratio of the components is as fol-
lows (wt.%): low-melting clay 70–90; aluminum-containing sludge
from caustic etching 10–30.
The properties of patented ceramic samples manufactured with
inorganic waste additives are presented in Table 4.
 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 13

Table 5
The industrial wastes that were applied for the production of ceramic brick during 2000–2015 and are mentioned in the international reviews and in the Russian sources.

Wastes References
International Russian
1 Quarry residues, tailings, rock sawing
1.1 Granite sawing wastes Menezes et al. (2005), Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014), Syslov et al. (2012a)
Bories et al. (2014), Zhang (2013)
1.2 Tailings (boron, granite, perlite, Chen et al. (2011), Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014), Bories Syslov et al. (2012a,b)
hematite, copper mine, gold mill, kaolin et al. (2014), Zhang (2013), Vieira and Monteiro
and granite–basalt fine quarry residue) (2009)
1.3 Quarry residues El-Mahllawy (2008), Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014) Shepochkina (2013a)
1.4 Marble residues Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014), Bories et al. (2014),
Zhang (2013)
1.5 Boron waste Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014), Vieira and Monteiro Syslov et al. (2012a)
(2009)
1.6 Phosphogypsum Bories et al. (2014) Shepochkina (2012b)
1.7 Lithotripsy waste Kara-sal (2007)
1.8 Magnesia-silicate waste Guryeva and Prokofieva (2014), Guryeva (2011)
1.9 Tailings of zircon - ilmenite ores Abdrakhmanov (2002), Shepochkina (2013b,c)
gravitation
2 Waste from enrichment and beneficiation
2.1 Waste from enrichment of Stolboushkin (2015)
carbonaceous soapstone
2.2 Waste from coal beneficiation Stolboushkin (2015), Zoria (2015), Togidnii (2011),
Karpacheva (2009), Kotlyar et al. (2013, 2012)
2.3 Waste from iron ores enrichment Stolboushkin (2015), Karpacheva (2009)
2.4 Waste from ferriferous quartzite Sokolova (2009), Karpacheva (2009)
beneficiation
2.5 Waste from molybdenum ores Eromasov (2014)
beneficiation
2.6 Waste from ferruginous quartzite and Efimov (2000)
the magnetite ore beneficiation
2.7 Tails of the pegmatite ores beneficiation Abdrakhmanov (2002)
3 Metallurgical
3.1 Exhaust metallurgical dust Machado et al. (2011), Mymrin et al. (2014), Bories
et al. (2014)
3.2 Waste steel slag El-Mahllawy (2008), Shih et al. (2004), Muñoz Velasco Shiltsina (2004), Dovzhenko (2012)
et al. (2014), Bories et al. (2014)
3.3 Steel-refining sludge and slag Bories et al. (2014), Vieira and Monteiro (2009) Stolboushkin (2015), Zoria (2015)
3.4 Blast-furnace slag Bories et al. (2014), Zhang (2013), Raut et al. (2011), Svatovskaya et al. (2009)
Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
3.5 Foundry by-products Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014), Zhang (2013) Salakh (2002), Dovzhenko (2012)
3.6 Waelz slag and waste foundry sand Mymrin et al. (2014), Bories et al. (2014), Zhang Mymrin et al. (2014)
(2013), Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
3.7 Waste ferrochromium slag and zeolite Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014)
3.8 Welding flux slag Caroline et al. (2009), Raut et al. (2011) Dovzhenko (2012), Russian standard 9087-81 (2002),
Golovanova et al. (2004)
3.9 Ferriferous waste Karpacheva (2009), Efimov (2000)
3.10 Phosphoric slag Kovkov (2009), Salakh (2002)
3.11 Metal processing waste Stolboushkin (2015), Zoria (2015), Karpacheva (2009),
Sharavin (2012)
3.12 Domain slag Maslennikova (2000), Slavina (2012), Abdrakhimova et al.
(2012a)
3.13 Galvanic slag Maslennikova (2000)
3.14 Nonferrous metallurgy waste Abdrakhmanov (2002)
3.15 Copper slag and Cherepovets slag Mahmoud (2004), Svatovskaya et al. (2012)
3.16 Calcium-containing slag manganese Abdrakhimova et al. (2012b)
ferroalloys
3.17 Flue dust from alumina calcination Kornilov et al. (2012)
furnaces
4 Sludge
4.1 Arsenic-iron sludge wastes Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014)
4.2 Dried sludge collected from an Raut et al. (2011), Vieira and Monteiro (2009) Levite (2003), Rasskazov et al. (2004)
industrial wastewater treatment plant
4.3 Sludge from galvanic process Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
4.4 Sludge wastes from ornamental rocks Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
4.5 Tannery sludge Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
5 Ash
5.1 Fly ash Lingling et al. (2005), Dondi et al. (2002), Muñoz Vakalova (2006), Kovkov (2009), Melnikova (2004), Kraichyk
Velasco et al. (2014), Bories et al. (2014), Zhang (2003), Shiltsina (2004), Kosterin (2005), Abdrakhmanov
(2013), Raut et al. (2011), Vieira and Monteiro (2009) (2002), Shepochkina (2013a–d), Kornilov et al. (2012)
5.2 Sugarcane bagasse ash Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014), Zhang (2013)
5.3 Ash from biomass Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014), Bories et al. (2014), Levite (2003)
Vieira and Monteiro (2009)

(continued on next page)

Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
14 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Table 5 (continued)

Wastes References
International Russian
5.4 Rice husk ash Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014), Bories et al. (2014), Raut
et al. (2011)
5.5 Coal ash Shiltsina (2004), Selivanov (2005), Maximova (2002),
Kosterin (2005)
5.6 Waste from the combustible shale Togidnii (2011)
burning
5.7 Ash-slag mixture from thermal power Abdrakhimova et al. (2012a), Novoselov et al. (2011)
stations
5.8 Ash from active sludge sediment Rasskazov et al. (2004)
burning
6 Glass
6.1 PC and TV waste glass Dondi et al. (2009), Zhang (2013)
6.2 Glass substitution Loryuenyong et al. (2009), Bories et al. (2014), Vieira Stolboushkin (2015), Zoria (2015)
and Monteiro (2009)
6.3 Galvanic glass microspheres Mymrin et al. (2014) Salakh (2002)
6.4 Cullet of soda lime glass Lingling et al. (2005), Vieira and Monteiro (2009) Melnikova (2004), Shiltsina (2004), Leshina and Pivnev
(2002)
6.5 Cullet with waste from quartz Voronin et al. (2014), Lesovik et al. (2007), Strokova et al.
processing (2007), Gridchin et al. (2007), Syslov et al. (2004, 2012a),
Lesovik et al. (2007), Shepochkina (2013a)
6.6 Sheet windowpane cullet Yastrebova (2008)
6.7 Green tare glass cullet Melnikova (2004), Selivanov (2005), Pikalov (2011)
6.8 Waste from fiber glass production Salakhov et al. (2014), Shepochkina (2013b–d, 2012a,b)
7 Other
7.1 Mn-Fe tailings Solopov (2010)
7.2 Acid inertization salt Mymrin et al. (2014)
7.3 Waste bricks Muñoz Velasco et al. (2014) Shepochkina, (2013a–d, 2012a,b), 2013b,c)
7.4 Grog Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
7.5 Construction and demolition leftover Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
7.6 Polystyrene foam Raut et al. (2011)
7.7 Plastic fiber, straw, polystyrene fabric Raut et al. (2011)
7.8 Crumb rubber waste Raut et al. (2011)
7.9 Waste paper pulp Raut et al. (2011)
7.10 Spent catalyst reject Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
7.11 Slurry from textile industry Vieira and Monteiro (2009)
7.12 Waste from isopropylene production Ashmarin and Mustafin (2006), Mustafin (2006)
7.13 Calcium containing waste from mineral Naymov et al. (2014), Naumov (2012)
fertilizers production
7.14 Phosphite waste from phosphoric Maslennikova (2000)
fertilizers production
7.15 Waste from mineral wool production Vdovina (2011)
7.16 Pyritic candle ends and iron slime of Efimov (2000), Kuzmin (2004)
aniline due plant
7.17 Waste from the production of catalyst Lipatova (2008)
for ammonia
7.18 Waste from cleaning of the steel surface Lipatova (2008)
by shot blaster
7.19 Scrap of foamed concrete Svatovskaya et al. (2009)
7.20 Waste from aluminum alloy etching Syslov et al. (2012b), Abdrakhimova et al. (2012c)

5. Discussion Novosibirsk, Orel, Rostov na Dony, Samara, St. Petersburg, Tomsk,

Fig. 3 shows the dynamics of dissertations and inventions in
Russia on the application of industrial wastes in the ceramic indus-
try in the period of 2000–2015. Approximately 4 PhD works (black
columns) were published annually. Doctoral works were published
at a rate of 1–2 per 3 years (white columns) and, as a rule, gener-
alize the results of the previous PhD theses.
Activity in the field of patenting of ceramic compositions with
industrial waste additives generally correlates with PhD theses
and results in 1–4 patents per year (gray columns in Fig. 3). The
exception was 2012–2013, when 20 patents were granted to one
author, Yu. Shepochkina. Inventive activity then returned to its
usual level.
The research has been conducted in scientific centers located in
the following cities: Abakan, Bratsk, Belgorod, Chelyabinsk, Iva-
novo, Kazan, Kraskovo, Krasnoyarsk, Moscow, Novocherkassk,
Tula, and Vladimir. It is clear that this field of research is pursued
evenly across all the territory of Russia. This widespread study is
due to the real need of many regions to expand the sources of
raw materials for ceramic production.
Close attention is paid to the ecological and energy saving
aspects of such technologies. Thus, in the PhD thesis (Averochkin,
2004), a comparative analysis of ecological effectiveness and
energy efficiency of Russian and foreign enterprises for production
of brick and tile is performed. It is shown that the modern Russian
enterprises (modernized after 2000) practically do not differ in
resource consumption and negative ecological impact from the
enterprises of the European Union. A comparison of the dynamics
of decreasing the emission of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur oxides is
shown in Fig. 4. The following state standards are put into opera-
tion: GOST R 55646-2013 Resource saving. Production of ceramic
bricks and stones. Guidance on implementing of best available
techniques for improving energy efficiency and environmental per-

Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
 N.V. Boltakova et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
formance; and GOST R 55645-2013 Resource saving. Production of
ceramic tiles. Guidance on implementing best available techniques
for improving energy efficiency and environmental performance.
The industrial wastes that were applied for the production of
ceramic brick during 2000–2015 and are mentioned in the interna-
tional reviews and in the Russian sources are summarized in
Table 5. It is clear that the Russian researchers with essentially
all types of waste in parallel with foreign scientists. At the same
time, Russia significantly expanded the categories of waste
accepted for brick production. This work is ongoing and evidenced
by the Russian publication in 2016 (Kara-Sal et al., 2016;
Kairakbaev et al., 2016; Scherbina and Kochetkova, 2016;
Kizinievič et al., 2016; Suleimenov et al., 2016; Sukharnikova
et al., 2016; Dorokhova et al., 2016; Guseva et al., 2016).
The addition of wastes to the ceramic mixture can improve the
quality of brick and reduce its manufacturing cost. These benefits
are especially important if the initial clay raw material lacks suit-
able quality, for example, because of exhaustion of the first-class
quarry. Thus, the modification of the ceramic raw material with
additives can increase the strength of the resulting ceramics and
improve their color. Some additives make it possible to fire prod-
ucts at a lower temperature, thus helping to save energy resources.
The amount of the waste additives in ceramic mixtures can reach
tens of percents. Taking into account the great volume of ceramic
production, this possibility opens a capacious channel for the dis-
posal of waste that could otherwise be environmentally harmful.
As a result of sintering, the toxic heavy metals are safely bound
within the ceramic mass and cause no harmful effects in the future.
All of these factors are important for the development of the cera-
mic industry and call for additional research and study.
6. Conclusions
1. The review and analysis of the results of the research and devel-
opment performed in Russia and abroad during the period
2000–2015 in the production of ceramic brick with the use of
industrial inorganic wastes revealed steady interest in this sub-
ject. However, references to the works of Russian scientists are
practically absent in the international English-language
reviews. Nevertheless, 34 dissertations have been defended
and 29 patents granted during this period in Russia. The scien-
tific and technological centers engaged in these developments
are located in 18 large cities distributed rather evenly through-
out the country.
2. The inorganic industrial wastes applied in the production of
ceramic brick during this period worldwide can be classified
into 7 groups: (1) waste from the mining industry, (2) waste
from ore enrichment, (3) metallurgical waste, (4) sludge, (5)
ash, (6) cullet, and (7) large-capacity building wastes and waste
from the production of various chemicals. Russian scientists
have significantly expanded the options in each group of
wastes.
3. The results of the Russian developments are presented in the
form of tables describing the ceramic mix composition, condi-
tions of molding, firing and main characteristics of the resulting
brick, such as strength, and water absorption.
4. References to the Russian developments in the field of ecologi-
cal management in the ceramic industry are given. It is shown
that the main atmospheric blowouts of modern brick plants in
Russia correspond to the European standards.
5. This review satisfies the information lack in the field of manage-
ment of inorganic waste used in the ceramic industry. The accu-
mulated Russian experience will be useful to waste
management experts of different countries.
Please cite this article in press as: Boltakova, N.V., et al. Utilization of inorganic industrial wastes in producing construction ceramics. Review of Russian
experience for the years 2000–2015. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.11.008
15
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Ministry of Education and Science
of the Russian Federation (Contract No. 02.G25.31.0121, 2014).
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