Proceedings of the 3rd Pacific International Conference on Application of Lasers and Optics 2008

DIRECT DIODE LASER DEPOSITION OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED TI-6AL-4V AND

INCONEL 718 COMPONENTS
Paper 504

Kamran Shah1, Andrew Pinkerton1, Richard Moat2, Lin Li1, Michael Preuss2
1
Laser Processing Research Centre, School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The
University of Manchester, PO Box 88, Manchester M60 1QD, United Kingdom
2
Manchester Materials Science Centre, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Grosvenor
Street, Manchester M1 7HS, United Kingdom

Abstract

Laser direct metal deposition (LDMD) has developed

from a prototyping to a single metal manufacturing
tool. Its potential for creating multi-material and
functionally graded structures is now beginning to be
explored. In this work, three dimensional functionally
graded structures of Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 718 are
fabricated by laser direct metal deposition (LDMD)
on Inconel 718 substrate. The multi-track parts are
built at a range of powder mass flow rates using a
side nozzle and 1.5 kW Diode laser operating in both
continuous and pulsed beam modes. Microstructure
characterization and phase identification are
performed by optical microscopy and X-ray
diffraction. Only two samples are free of macro-scale
cracks, one prepared with a continuous laser beam
and one prepared with the beam in pulsed mode.
XRD results show the presence of the brittle Ti2Ni
phase in all samples.
Key words: Laser, direct metal deposition, pulsed
wave, continuous wave, Ti-6Al-4V, Inconel 718
Introduction
Laser direct metal deposition (LDMD) is a complex
process that is used to create metal parts by fusing
metal powders or wires to a substrate. In LDMD, a
laser generates a melt pool on a substrate material
while a second material is delivered from either a
coaxial or side nozzle into the melt pool in the form
of powder and/or wire which melts and forms a
metallurgical bond with the substrate. Multiple tracks
are deposited to make vertical walls, surfaces or
combinations of the two Complex component shapes
can be realized directly from CAD files without using
any specialized tooling. Figure 1 illustrates the basic
components of the process.
Figure 1 Schematic of laser direct metal deposition
Laser direct metal deposition has traditionally been
used to build small prototypes and has also found
various applications like component repair [1], and
short-run component fabrication [2]. The use of laser
direct metal deposition in the aerospace industry is
ever increasing; LDMD of titanium and nickel based
alloys is extensively applied to the manufacture of
small components and to add details to large parts
[3].
The concept of functionally graded materials (FGMs)
was proposed in 1984 in Japan as a means of
preparing thermal barrier materials [4,5]. Since then
the FGM concept has been extended to a variety of
materials in various applications [5]. In a FGM,
composition and properties are customised to suit
specific engineering applications [6]. The
development of functionally graded materials by
laser direct metal deposition has received much
attention in recent years [7, 8]. The freedom to
selectively deposit different elemental powders at
discrete locations using multiple powder feeders
makes LDMD well suited to the fabrication of FGMs.
There have been a limited number of studies on the
development of graded structures by LDMD of
titanium and nickel alloys. In a detailed study of a
graded structure by deposition, Lin et al [9] W/mm2, to the pilot beam (20 mW) of the diode laser
investigated the solidification behaviour and phase and found to be 2.5 mm (slow axis) × 3.5 mm (fast
evolution of Ti-6Al-4V and Rene 88 DT. Although axis). During deposition the laser moved parallel to
crack free samples were obtained, all proportions of the fast axis. A side feed powder nozzle was
constituent alloys were not investigated and the positioned at a 45° angle to the vertical and in line
compositional gradient tested ranged from 100 pct with the direction of motion. Front feeding was
Ti-6Al-4V to Ti-6Al-4V with 38 pct Rene 88 DT. maintained throughout for all the samples.
Domack and Baughman [10] demonstrated
functionally graded deposition of Ti-6Al-4V and
Inconel 718 samples using a LENS system. The laser
was in continuous wave mode and powder was fed as
pre-mixed powder blends, with the composition
adjusted in steps of 10 percent by volume from 100
percent Ti-6Al-4V to 100 percent Inconel 718.
Macroscopic cracks formed before the full transition
from Ti-6Al-4V to Inconel 718 was achieved but the
cause of these was not investigated in detail in this
work.

In the present study, two different modes of laser

beam, continuous and pulsed, were used to
investigate the effects on the development of
cracking. Constant mean power was used in all of the Figure 2 Wave definition
experiments to remove this variable from the study
and highlight the effects of duty cycle and powder The build materials were Ti-6Al-4V (5.5-6.75% Al,
mass flow rate. 3.5-4.5% V, 0.4 % Fe, 0.2% O, and balance Ti) and
Inconel718 (50-55% Ni, 17.2-21.0% Cr, 18.5% Fe,
Experimental Procedure 3% Mo, 5.1% Nb and 0.20-0.80%Al). The powders
were both gas atomised, giving particles with
A matrix of experiments was performed to
approximately spherical morphology, and had a
investigate properties of a transition from Inconel 718
powder size distribution of 53 – 150 µm. A disc-type
to Ti-6Al-4V introduced during the building of thin
powder feeder was used to deliver them to the nozzle.
walls by LDMD. Walls of approximately 20 mm
The deposition area was also shrouded by an Argon
height were built at various parameter combinations,
gas flow from a side nozzle directed at the melt pool.
with Inconel 718 used for the lower half and Ti-6Al-
The gas pressure for all experiments was set to 5
4V for the upper half in each case.
bars.
The starting point for deposition was Inconel 718
A range of samples were deposited. Two parameters
plates of approximately of dimensions 50 ×50 × 2
were varied: powder flow rate and the duty cycle, A
mm. These were first sand blasted in a Guyson sand
mean power of 600 W had been determined from
blaster and then degreased using ethanol. The
previous experiments as giving a specific energy
absorptivity of diode laser wavelengths (808 and
appropriate for the deposition of both Inconel 718
940nm), measured using a SD2000 fiber optic
and Ti-6Al-4V at the chosen traverse speed and beam
spectrometer was 65 ~ 67 %. The substrate was
area and was kept constant throughout. The
tightly secured on a clamp, which was then mounted
experimental parameters used are shown in Table 1.
onto a 3 axis position and motion control system. A
velocity of 8.75 mm/s was maintained during the
deposition of all the samples.

A 1.5 kW Laserline LDL 160-1500 diode laser,

operated in both continuous and pulsed mode during
the experiment was used to carry out the laser
deposition. In pulsed mode the output was
approximately square wave and defined by the period
and pulse length as illustrated in Figure 2. The beam
size was experimentally measured by exposing an
infrared detector card with a sensitivity of 1.75 × 10-9
 Table 1: Experimental Parameter used during the was mainly in a horizontal direction (as viewed in
experiment transverse cross-section) and, as shown in figure 4,
tended to be located above the most obvious

Powder mass flow

Peak Power (W) A
transition from Inconel 718 to Ti-6Al-4V

Pulse length (ms)

B
Sample No.

Period (ms)

Duty Cycle

rate (g/s)
1 600 - - 1 0.358
2 1500 20 50 0.4 0.358
3 857 35 50 0.7 0.358
4 600 - - 1 0.516
5 1500 20 50 0.4 0.516
6 857 35 50 0.7 0.516
7 600 - - 1 0.674
8 1500 20 50 0.4 0.674
9 857 35 50 0.7 0.674 Figure 3 Micrograph of crack free sample 2.
A
Mean power = 600 W in all cases
B
Duty cycle = pulse length / period

After the experiment, deposited walls were

transversely sectioned and mounted in Struers epoxy
resin. All samples were polished to Ra 1µm using
standard metallographic techniques. The sample was
firstly etched using HF solution to reveal Ti-6Al-4V
microstructure. Microstructures were evaluated using
optical microscopy. Samples were then repolished
and areas containing Inconel 718 electrolytically
etched in 10% oxalic acid solution using 6V DC and
re-evaluate using microscopy. Figure 4 Micrograph of cracked sample 9
X-ray diffraction phase analyses were carried out
using a Philips X'Pert MPD X-ray diffractometer. Both the Inconel 718 and Ti-6Al-4V side of the
with a Cu anode to provide radiation of 1.5405 Å deposited walls showed a dendritic structure, as
wavelength. The samples were scanned between shown in Figure 5.
°2Th angles of 6 and 95 degrees with a 30 second
scan step time.

Results

Microstructure and Visible Cracking

Examination of the final Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 718

structures showed that only two out of nine samples
were found crack-free. Sample 1 (continuous wave,
low powder mass flow rate) and sample 5 (0.4 duty
cycle, medium powder mass flow rate) showed no
signs of cracking under optical microscopy. Figure 3
shows the crack free interface between Inconel 718
and Ti-6Al-4V of sample 2.

Other samples developed severe macroscopic cracks Figure 5 Dendritic structures in the Inconel 718 and
during the deposition process. In these the cracking Ti-6Al-4V sides of the wall in Sample 9
Dendrites were generally elongated in the vertically
direction and normal to any clear Ni-Ti alloy
interface. Porosity was observed in all of the samples.
The pores were approximately circular and their size
varied between 10-30 µm. Generally more porosity
was observed in the Ti-6Al-4V than in the Inconel
718.

Incompletely melted Ti-6Al-4V powder particles

were observed near the sides of the walls as shown in
Figure 6.

Figure 6 Residual Ti-6Al-4V particles found in

Sample 6 near the side of the wall approximately
3mm above the interface

Phase Analysis using X-ray Diffraction

Despite the small size of the samples, clear spectra

with well defined diffraction peaks were obtained.
Figure 7 shows X-ray diffraction spectra from a crack
free sample (sample 2, a) and a cracked sample
(samples 6, b).
The two initially appear very different but reveal the
presence of the same phases: Titanium Chromium,
Ti0.8Cr0.2; Titanium Aluminum, Ti0.85Al0.15;
Titanium Nickel, Ti2Ni and Ti0.14Ni0.86 and γ`-
Ti0.14 Ni0.86 in both of the samples. Sample 2 had
strong peaks at approximately 40o indicating a
significant presence of Titanium Chromium,
Ti0.8Cr0.2 and also Titanium Aluminum,
Ti0.85Al0.15. These were not so strong in sample 6,
which showed a strong presence of γ`-Ti0.14 Ni0.86.
Quantification of the proportions of the phases
present was not possible.
Discussion
The majority of Ti-6Al-4V - Inconel 718 walls
developed cracks that are similar to the solidification
cracks reported by several researchers during laser
and gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding [11-13].
Solidification cracking is a complex phenomenon and
Figure 7 Reference XRD diffraction angles and
measured spectra showing the presence of various
phases in deposited samples (a) crack free sample 2
(b) cracked sample 6.
several theories have been presented, identifying
numerous factors for crack initiation. These factors
can be divided into the metallurgical and the
mechanical. Metallurgical factors mainly concern
phase relationships, while mechanical factors focus
on stress and strain behaviour.
Considering metallurgical factors; XRD results show
the presence of Ti2Ni in both cracked and un-cracked
samples. Ti2Ni is recognised as one of the brittle
phases responsible for cracking in welding and
appropriate selection of laser parameters may not be
sufficient to avoid the production of such
intermetallics. Chatterjee et al [14] reported that
during laser welding of nickel and titanium it grows
toward the Ti base metal, along the direction of heat
removal. These authors’ results demonstrated the
importance of the interaction of phase diagram
considerations with the transport phenomena in the
weld pool. Transport phenomena in a deposition or
weld pool are changed significantly by the laser pulse
parameters and to a lesser extent by powder mass
injection rate [15]. In this case these may have
affected phase composition sufficiently to affect
susceptibility to cracking and this in re-enforced by
the slightly different proportion of phases that can be
inferred from the XRD results. All samples indicated
good intermixing within the melt pool, but this was
particularly true of samples at low duty cycle.
Considering mechanical factors; stresses can be
generated by constrained elastic expansion or
contraction due to transient temperature gradients,
constrained elastic expansion or contraction due to
thermal expansion coefficient mismatch and by
changes in specific density due to solid phase
transformations. In this case, cooling rates are fast so
the first factor will be significant and there is a large
difference in the thermal expansion coefficients of
Ti-6Al-4V (8 × 10-6 K-1) and Inconel 718 (1.3 × 10-5
K-1) so the second will also contribute. Henderson et
al [16] reported that solidification cracks are initiated
if the thermo-mechanical strains caused by the time-
dependent temperature distribution during welding
and the material-specific shrinkage during liquid/
solid phase transition cannot be compensated by the
ductility of the metal or by reflow of melt. It was
probably the combination of the different stresses
from these sources and the brittle phases generated
that led to the cracks seen.
As reported by Moat et al [17], in this parameter
range there is no significant difference in the levels of
residual stresses generated during deposition of
nickel alloys by pulsed or continuous beam.
Although that study was with a single material, it
infers that any effect the pulse parameters had on the
stresses generated in this case was not an important
factor. Finite element modeling or neutron stress
analysis of uncracked samples would help to confirm
this inference.
Conclusion
The effect of pulsed and continuous wave deposition
of functionally graded Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 718
wall has been investigated. Formations of cracks
were observed in most of the walls. Only two
samples were crack free, one prepared with a
continuous wave beam and low powder mass flow
rate and the other with a pulsed beam with 0.4 duty
cycle and moderate powder mass flow rate. XRD
results showed the presence of brittle intermetallics in
both cracked and un-cracked walls. Thermal
expansion coefficient differences during cooling are
one probably cause of the stresses that are causing the
cracks.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Ms Judith
Shackleton of Manchester Materials Science Centre
for help with obtaining and interpreting the XRD
results.
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Meet the Authors
Mr Kamran Shah obtained an MSc in advanced
Manufacturing technology and Systems Management
from The University of Manchester in 2005. He is
currently a research student, investigating direct
manufacture of functionally graded materials and
combined wire-powder laser deposition.
Dr Andrew Pinkerton is a University of Manchester
Research Fellow who has studied laser materials
processing for six years. He specializes in laser direct
metal deposition and analytical modelling methods.
Mr. Richard Moat graduated in 2004 and completed
a MSc in lightweight materials at the Manchester
Materials Science Centre in 2005. He is currently a
research student, investigating superalloy metallurgy
in the DLD process.
Professor Lin Li is Director of the Laser Processing
Research Centre at the University of Manchester with
over 400 publications in laser materials processing
Dr Michael Preuss is a lecturer at The University of
Manchester. His work focuses on metallurgical and
residual stress aspects in high temperature materials
for aero engines and nuclear application and
advanced welding techniques.

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Mathematical modeling of heat transfer, fluid flow,
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Heobel, M. & Marchant, G. (2004) Nickel based
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applications, Science and Technology of Welding &
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[17] Moat R, Pinkerton A, Hughes D, Li L, Preuss M

et al (29 October 2007 ) Stress Distributions in
Multilayer Laser Deposited Waspaloy Parts
Measured using Neutron Diffraction, in 26th
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Electro-optics (ICALEO), USA.