Too / enough

Too / Enough

Too: Is used with adjectives and goes before the adjective.

TOO + ADJECTIVE

He is too tall.
She is too young.

“Too” can go with “much” and “many” to speak about uncountables or countables.

There is too much water.

There are too many children.

Enough: Can be used with adjectives or nouns, but then it changes its position:

ENOUGH + NOUN

He has enough money to buy a car.

You have enough experience for the job.

When it goes with an adjective the order is inverted:

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH

He is tall enough to play basketball.

She is old enough to enter a bar.

Uses of quantifiers
Quantifiers

Quantifiers are used to express quantity. Have a look at them, their meaning and their
use one by one.

Most: Goes before a noun, with or without an adjective. It is used for both countable
and uncountable nouns.

Most people came to the party.

Most chairs in this office are uncomfortable.

Nearly all (of): “Almost all”. Goes with plurals, countable nouns and uncountable
nouns.

Nearly all of the state is covered with snow.

Nearly all of them took umbrellas after hearing the weather forecast.

The guests ate nearly all of the chocolate cake.

Plenty (of): Is usually used in affirmative sentences with “a lot of” or “lots of”, while
“much” and “many” are used in negative and interrogative sentences. It is used for both
countable and uncountable nouns.

How much money do you have?

I have plenty.
How many girls were there at the party?
There were plenty of girls.

A great deal of: Is used with uncountable nouns, while “a large number of” is used with
plural, countable nouns. They usually appear in affirmative sentences.

He spent a great deal of money at Christmas.

He made a great number of mistakes.

Quite a lot (of): Is used with uncountable nouns and plural, countable nouns. It usually
appears in affirmative sentences. When used as a short answer we only say: “Quite a
lot.”

There were quite a lot of people.

I used quite a lot of sugar in the cake, it’s too sweet.

How many runners competed in the race?

Quite a lot. I don’t know exactly.

Hardly any: Is used with uncountable and plural nouns.

There is hardly any milk.

There are hardly any eggs. We will need more to make an omelette.

A few / a little: “A few” is used with plural, countable nouns, while “a little” is used
with uncountable nouns. We use these expressions to express that although the quantity
is small, there is sufficient. In contrast, if we say “few” or “little” we feel that there isn’t
enough.

There are a few chairs.

There is a little milk.

So many / so much: “So many” is used with plural, countable nouns. “So much” is
used with uncountable nouns.

They said so many stupid things.

They gave me so much homework.
Modal verbs: uses of 'may/might', 'could/can', may/might/could/must/can't'
and 'would'
Modal verbs

In this unit we are going to see other uses of modal verbs and learn some new ones.

MAY & MIGHT: We will start by looking at the common meaning of these verbs.

Possibility in the future: These two verbs are used to express possibility in the future,
but there is a difference of meaning between them:

May: Refers to a possibility in the future.

She may come.

Might: Refers to a more remote possibility in the future.

He might find it.

COULD & CAN

Possibility in the present: These two verbs are used to express possibility in the
present. But there is also a difference of meaning between them:

Can: Refers to the present.

He can come.

Could: Also refers to the present. But in this case the probability is less than when we
use “can”.

He could come.

MAY, MIGHT, COULD, MUST & CAN’T

Deduction in the present: These verbs are used to express deduction at the moment of
speaking. There is a scale of possibilities between them. For a better understanding of the
differences we use the same example in different situations:

Must: If we are sure that what we are saying is certain.

He must be working. (We know that at this time he is working and that he cannot
be somewhere else.)

Could: In this case, there is a factor of possibility.

He could be working. (The fact that he is working is a possibility.)

May: There may be the possibility that something happened.

He may be working. (Maybe he is, maybe he is not.)

Might: In this case the possibility is more remote.

He might be working. (I don’t know where he is, but I think that he’s working.)

Can’t: In this case, we express impossibility.

He can’t be working. (We know that he cannot be working, because he is ill, in the
hospital, unemployed, etc...)

WOULD: This auxiliary is used to express a result in a conditional sentence. Regarding

its form remember the rules for the verbs we have seen before.

He would write.
She wouldn’t work.

Confusing verbs: 'Expect', 'hope' and 'wait'

Expect - Hope – Wait - Think

To expect: Expresses what we think will happen, in other words, it expresses a

prediction.

We use ‘expect’ in the following patterns:

 expect + object

I’m expecting a letter from him.

 expect + to-infinitive

I expect to receive a letter from him.

 expect + that-clause (‘that’ can be omitted in some cases)

I was expecting that he would send me a letter.

 expect + object + to-infinitive

I expect him to send me a letter.

To hope: Expresses what we want to happen.

 hope + to-infinitive

I hope to see you soon.

 hope + that clause (‘that’ can be omitted in some cases)

I hope (that) he is not hurt.

  hope + for

Since we have two boys, we are hoping for a girl.

To wait: While “to expect” and “to hope” reflect a state of mind, “to wait” refers to the
physical action of waiting. We use it when we refer to letting time pass.

 wait + for

We are waiting for the bus.

 wait (in the imperative form)

Just wait here until the bus arrives.

 wait + to-infinitive

I was waiting to see you.

 wait + for + object + to-infinitive

I was waiting for him to react in a positive way.

To think: Expresses a belief that something is true, or the expectation that something
will happen, although you are not sure.

I think I have seen you somewhere before.

Talking about the weather

The weather (El tiempo)

En inglés se puede preguntar por el tiempo en varias maneras. Las más comunes son:

What is the weather like?

O How is the weather?

La forma más común es la contraída:

What’s the weather like?

O How’s the weather?

Para responder utilizamos el pronombre impersonal “it” siempre con el verbo en tercera
persona del singular, seguido del adjetivo que describe el tiempo o bien de la forma continua
de un verbo que describa el tiempo.

It is sunny. Está soleado.

It is windy. Hace viento.
 It is raining. Está lloviendo.
It is snowing. Está nevando.
It is foggy. Hay niebla.
It is cloudy. Está nublado.
It is hot. Hace calor.
It is cold. Hace frío.

First conditional
First conditional

Las oraciones condicionales en inglés tienen la misma estructura que en español.

Estas oraciones constan de una oración principal y una subordinada introducida por “if”
(si), siendo el orden de éstas intercambiable.

En la oración subordinada el verbo está en presente y en la oración principal en futuro.

Este tipo de oraciones implica que la acción llevada a cabo en la oración subordinada es
bastante probable que ocurra.

P. ej.: If you study, you will pass your exam.

Si estudias aprobarás el examen.

La estructura a seguir es:

Sin embargo, podemos encontrar variaciones en cuanto a la forma.

1. Variaciones en la oración principal:

a) Podemos usar un modal (can, might, may, could, should,...)

if + presente / modal

If you like it, you can buy it.

Si te gusta puedes comprarlo.
If you want to pass your exam, you must study.
Si quieres aprobar el examen debes estudiar.

b) Podemos usar otro presente (con verdades universales)

if + presente / presente

If you boil water, it turns into gas.

Si hierves agua se convierte en vapor.

2. Variaciones en la oración subordinada:

a) Utilizando un presente continuo

 if + presente continuo / futuro

If you are looking for Anna, you will find her in the garden.
Si estás buscando a Anna, la encontrarás en el jardín.

b) Utilizando un presente perfecto

if + presente perfecto / futuro

If you have eaten, we will go to the beach.

Si has comido iremos a la playa.

Correlative conjunctions: either... or / neither... nor

Either ... or / Neither ... nor

Either ... or ...

We use this construction when we have a choice between two options.

His name is either Richard or Robert. I can’t remember.
Either you come today or I’ll never invite you again.

Neither ... nor ...

This construction is used to express that both options are not true.
She neither phoned nor sent the fax.
I’ve got neither time nor money to go on holiday. *

* Remember that “neither” is a negative conjunction, and as always in English, when

we use a negative particle, the verb must be affirmative.

Singular and plural

If both elements are singular, then the verb must also be singular. The same applies
if both elements are plural.
Either her brother or her sister has to take care of her.
Neither her brothers nor her sisters have to take care of her.
If one of the elements is plural and the other singular, we use the plural form of the
verb.
Neither her brother nor her sisters have to take care of her.

Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns

Use: Reflexive pronouns are used to refer back to the subject of a sentence, or clause,
when the subject and object are the same and the action of the subject has an impact
on the object.
 Sarah cut herself.
George bought himself a new shirt.
I blame myself for the accident.

Compare:

Jim saw him in the shopping center.

Jim saw himself in the mirror.

Form: Reflexive pronouns for the first and second person are formed by adding the
suffix
“-self” in singular, or “-selves” in plural, to possessive adjective. In the third person they
are formed by adding the suffix “-self” or
“-selves” to the object pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

SUBJECT OBJECT
I ME
YOU YOU
HE HIM
SHE HER
IT IT
WE US
YOU YOU
THEY THEM
REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE
PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES
MYSELF MY
YOURSELF YOUR
HIMSELF HIS
HERSELF HER
ITSELF ITS
OURSELVES OUR
YOURSELVES YOUR
THEMSELVES THEIR

Reflexive verbs: There are some verbs that are called “reflexive verbs” because they
require the use of a reflexive pronoun, at least in some of their meanings:

To enjoy oneself:
Did you enjoy yourself?
To behave oneself:
Be good and behave yourself.

Nevertheless, some of the verbs that are reflexive in your language are not reflexive in
English, so we need to be careful when we translate:

Concentrate:
I can’t concentrate. You’re making too much noise.

Feel:
Do you feel comfortable on the sofa?

Relax:
Why don’t you lie down for a while and relax?

Meet:
Where can we meet?

Shave:
He shaves every morning.

Often a reflexive pronoun of another language is translated into English by using a

structure with the verb “get”.

to get up
to get dressed
to get red, nervous, aggressive, etc.

By + Reflexive pronoun: Somebody did something on his own.

She learned to read Italian by herself.

They can also be used as the object of a preposition when it is the same as the
subject:

She bought a birthday cake for herself.

First and second conditionals

Conditional sentences

Conditional sentences contain two parts:

a) The subordinate clause which expresses a condition, usually introduced by “if”.

b) The main clause which expresses the result of the condition.

There are three types of conditional sentences, each of them with different tenses. In
this unit we are going to see the first and the second conditional.

First conditional:
Use: The subordinate clause is introduced by “if” or “unless” and expresses a condition
which is possible to become reality. The main clause predicts the consequences of the
fulfilment of the condition. The most frequently used tenses in this kind of sentences are:

Form:

Subordinate clause:
If / Unless + Present Simple
Main clause:

“will” future

IF / UNLESS + PRESENT SIMPLE  FUTURE

If you study, you’ll pass your exam.

Sub. clause Main clause

Unless you study hard, you won’t pass the exam.

Sub. clause Main clause

Variations: In some cases, the verb of the subordinate clause doesn’t have the future
tense. This is because we want to express a different meaning. You can see that in the
following examples:

To express facts in general or certain probabilities

IF / WHEN + PRESENT  PRESENT

If you mix red and white, you get pink.

When you mix red and white, you get pink.

This type of conditional is often referred to as the ZERO CONDITIONAL.

To express advice or suggestions

IF / UNLESS + PRESENT
 MODAL (May, Must, Should)

If you have time, you must visit him in hospital.

If you have a cold, you should go to the doctor.
Unless you are tired, we may go out.

To express orders or instructions

IF + PRESENT  IMPERATIVE

If you want to know his name, ask him.

The two clauses can change their order. When the if-clause goes first, a comma is used:
 If you study, you’ll pass your exam.
= You’ll pass your exam if you study.

Second conditional:

Use: The second conditional is used to speak about imaginary or unreal situations and
their probable results.

Form:

Subordinate clause:
If + Past Simple
Main clause:
Conditional Simple

IF + PAST  CONDITIONAL

If I lived in China, I would learn Chinese.

We need to remember two things regarding this type of conditional:

The modal verbs “could” or “might” can substitute “would” when we want to say that the
result is even less likely to happen.

If I knew her telephone number, I could phone her. (But I don’t know it, so it’s
practically impossible to call her.)

The verb “To be” has two forms in the past tense: “was” and “were”. In the past, it was
only correct to use “were” (for all the persons) for the Second conditional. Nowadays, it is
acceptable to use: “If I was you…”

If I were you, I would take the job. / If I was you, I would take the job.

Joining sounds
Joining sounds

When we speak in English, we tend to join or link words to each other so that they are
easy to say and flow together smoothly. That is why the words in a sentence do not
always sound the same as when they are used individually.

Joining sounds in English is very important to both understand people and make other
people understand you.

These are the most common sounds that are joined in English:

- consonant > vowel

We join words that end with a consonant sound to words that begin with a vowel sound.

E.g.: I need it.

- vowel > vowel

We link words that end with a vowel sound to words that begin with a vowel sound.

E.g.: Take it; I don’t need it any more.

In addition, we can also join words that end in a consonant sound to words that begin
in the same consonant sound. We don’t pronounce twice the same sound.

E.g.: That was a big grape I just ate.

Present perfect continuous
Present perfect simple vs. Present perfect continuous

a) Form:

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

Subj. + HAVE/HAS +
Participle + Compl.
Affirmative
form I have traveled a lot.
She has read many books.

Subj. + HAVE / HAS + not /

never + Participle + Compl.
Negative They haven’t seenthat movie
form yet.
He has never beento Italy.
HAVE/HAS + Subj. +
Participle + Compl.?
Interrogative Have you talked to him today?
form
Has she spent all her money
yet?

PRESENT PERFECT
CONTINUOUS
Subj. + HAVE/HAS + BEEN
+
Affirmative V-ing + Compl.
form
You have been taking a lot of
trouble to help her.

Subj. + HAVE/HAS + not

BEEN + V-ing + Compl.
Negative
form She hasn’t been smoking too
much lately.
 HAVE/HAS + Subj.
+ BEEN + V-ing + Compl. ?
Interrogative
form How long have you been
writing that letter?

b) Use:

Both the Present Perfect Simple and Continuous are used to talk about actions or
events with a connection between the past and the present.
I have written two books.
I started writing books at some point in my life and so far, I have written two. I may
write more books in the future.
However, depending on the tense you use, you will show a different perspective of the
situation.
 PRESENT PERFECT
PRESENT PREFECT SIMPLE
CONTINUOUS
Focuses The result of an action. The duration of an action.
on…
“You have written ten emails today.” “I have been writing emails all
morning.”
The emphasis is on the emails you have
written today. In other words, it focuses The speaker wants to
on the result of your action. emphasize the fact that he/she
has been doing the same
activity for a long period of
time.

Notice that we often use time

expressions to say how long
the activity has been in
progress.
The completion of an action. The duration of an action.

“I have written a book.” “I have been writing a book.”

The book is finished now. That is how the speaker has

The action or event is permanent.
“I have worked here for three years.”
The speaker focuses on the fact that
he/she started working for the company
three years ago and on the fact that
he/she views this situation as something
permanent.
spent his/her time. It doesn’t
matter whether the book is
finished or not.
The action or event
is temporary.
“I have been working in this
office for two months but I
usually work from home.”
The speaker focuses on the fact
that this is temporary, meaning
that this can change in the
future.

The result of an action. A side effect of an action.

“I have cooked dinner.” A: “Why is the kitchen dirty?”

B: “I have been
cooking dinner.”
The emphasis is on the fact that the
speaker has cooked dinner. The emphasis is on the fact
that the kitchen is dirty. It
doesn’t matter whether
 Speaker B has cooked dinner or
not.

Note: we do not use the Present Perfect Continuous with stative verbs, those that
describe unchanging states such as: belong, (dis)like or know.

Expressing duration of an action or activity

Expressing duration

HOW LONG...?

This form is used with the perfect tenses to express or ask about the duration of an action
or activity.

How long have you been studying English?

How long has he been saving to buy a car?
How long have you known her?
How long have we had this house?

“FOR” AND “SINCE”

Sentences with “for” and “since” are used to answer questions like “How long?”.

How long have you been reading?

I’ve been reading this book since four o’clock.
I’ve been reading this book for two hours.
How long has she worked in this office?
She has worked in this office since she left school.
She has worked in this office for ten years.

As you can see in the previous examples, although “for” and “since” are both used to express
periods of time, their meanings are different:

FOR: refers to the duration of an action.

SINCE: refers to a particular moment in which the action initiates.

Time expressions
Time expressions
Time expressions are used to sequence events or stories.

TIME EXPRESSION + VERB (ending with -ing)

AFTER:
After getting up, I had a shower.

BEFORE:
Before starting work, I bought a newspaper.

WHILE:
While reading the paper, I had a coffee.

TIME EXPRESSION + NOUN

UNTIL:
Everyone went home to rest until the ceremony.

BEFORE:
Before the ceremony, the bride was very nervous.

DURING:
During the ceremony, her mother cried.

AFTER:
After the ceremony, everyone drove to the reception.

TIME EXPRESSION + PAST TENSE

BEFORE:
Before he came in, we were talking about his present.

AFTER:
After he went out, we continued talking about it.

WHEN:
When I was a little child, I used to play soccer with my father.

UNTIL:
Until the phone rang, I was studying.

AS SOON AS:
As soon as I could, I went to acting school.

WHILE:
While I was studying there, I learned to drive.

THEN:
Then, I started to act in plays.

AS:
As I was talking to him, he went away.
Depending on the tense we use, it is also possible to express present or future actions:

After getting up, I always go for a run.

He usually has a good breakfast before he goes to work.

I’ll wait until he comes.

I’ll phone you when I get home.

Present perfect
Present perfect

Forma: El presente perfecto se forma con el presente simple del verbo “to have”,
utilizado como auxiliar, seguido del participio pasado del verbo principal.

La estructura para la forma afirmativa del presente perfecto sería:

SUJ + TO HAVE + PARTICIPIO PASADO

El participio pasado en los verbos regulares tiene exactamente la misma forma que el
pasado simple, y en los verbos irregulares varía.

El verbo “to have” significa, en este caso, “haber” y se conjuga como siempre (la tercera
persona del singular “has” y el resto de personas “have”).

El participio del verbo principal no varía en ninguna persona.

I have called yo he llamado

you have called tú has llamado, Ud. ha llamado, Uds. han llamado, vosotros habéis
llamado
he has called él ha llamado
she has called ella ha llamado
it has called ello (cosa / animal) ha llamado
we have called nosotros hemos llamado
they have called ellos / ellas han llamado

En la forma negativa utilizamos la partícula “not”; como siempre, ésta va colocada después
del verbo “to have”, ya que es el verbo que se conjuga. Puede aparecer en la forma larga
o contraída.

La estructura para la forma negativa del presente perfecto sería:

SUJ + TO HAVE +
NOT + PARTICIPIO

I have not called yo no he llamado

you have not called tú no has llamado, Ud. no ha llamado, Uds. no han llamado,
vosotros no habéis llamado
he has not called él no ha llamado
she has not called ella no ha llamado
it has not called ello (cosa / animal) no ha llamado
we have not called nosotros no hemos llamado
they have not called ellos / ellas no han llamado

En la forma contraída:

I haven’t called yo no he llamado

you haven’t called tú no has llamado, Ud. no ha llamado, Uds. no han llamado,
vosotros no habéis llamado
he hasn’t called él no ha llamado
she hasn’t called ella no ha llamado
it hasn’t called ello (cosa / animal) no ha llamado
we haven’t called nosotros no hemos llamado
they haven’t called ellos / ellas no han llamado

Para la forma interrogativa basta con invertir el orden de “suj. + to have” a “to have +
suj”.

La estructura para la forma interrogativa del presente perfecto sería:

TO HAVE + SUJ. + PARTICIPIO?

Have I called? ¿he llamado yo?

Have you called? ¿has llamado tú, ha llamado Ud., han llamado Uds., habéis llamado
vosotros?
Has he called? ¿ha llamado él?
Has she called? ¿ha llamado ella?
Has it called? ¿ha llamado ello?
(cosa / animal)
Have we called? ¿hemos llamado nosotros?
Have they called? ¿han llamado ellos / ellas?

Para hacer las respuestas cortas sólo utilizamos el sujeto en cuestión seguido del verbo
“to have” en afirmativa o negativa, según convenga.

P. ej.: Have you written the letter?

Yes, I have.
No, I haven’t.
Uso: Este tiempo verbal es una mezcla de presente y pasado. Siempre implica una
conexión con el presente; de hecho, si formamos una frase en presente perfecto
podríamos normalmente hacer una misma frase en presente simple para una misma
situación.

P.ej.: Someone has put the cat in.

The cat is in.

Este tiempo se usa mucho en conversaciones, periódicos, televisión y radio, etc.

El presente perfecto se usa en dos casos:

a) Acciones y situaciones pasadas sin indicación temporal.

P.ej.: I’ve lived in Spain.

He vivido en España.

b) Con el adverbio “just”, indicando que la acción está recién terminada. Con hechos y
acciones no acabadas o con consecuencias aún en el presente.

P.ej.: I’ve just had breakfast.

Acabo de desayunar.

Emphasising a point, feeling, issue: so / such (a)

So vs. Such (a)

“So” and “such” are emphatic particles that are used to emphasize a meaning.

SO: “so” goes before an adjective or adverb without a noun:

The result was so shocking.

SUCH: “such” goes with a noun or with an adjective followed by a noun:

The result was such a shock.

It was such a shocking result.

With countable nouns in singular is used “such a”:

She is such a kind girl that everybody loves her.

It was such an exciting movie that I saw it five times.

But with uncountable nouns or plurals only “such” is used:

They are such nice people that we enjoy staying with them.
They play such good music that the pub is always crowded.
Adjectives ending in '-ed' or '-ing'
Adjectives ending in “-ed” or “-ing”

In English we can form adjectives by adding a suffix to a verb. Two of the most common
suffixes are “-ing” and “-ed”:

Adjectives ending in “-ed”: indicate that the object or person referring to receives or
feels certain feeling (passive agent).

To interest → interested: “feel” interest.

I’m very interested in computers.

Adjectives ending in “-ing”: indicate that the object or person referred to causes or
provokes certain feelings (active agent).

To interest → interesting: causes or provokes interest.

Computers are very interesting.

Other adjective pairs that are formed in a similar way are:

 Tired / Tiring
Tired: feeling that you want to rest or sleep.
Example: He is tired because he works very hard.
Tiring: making you feel tired.
Example: His job is very tiring.

 Bored / Boring
Bored: feeling tired or unhappy because something is not interesting enough or
because you are not doing anything.
Example: He is bored with the book.
Boring: not interesting or exciting.
Example: The book is boring.

 Amazed / Amazing
Amazed: very surprised
Example: He had an amazed expression on his face.
Amazing: extremely good.
Example: It was an amazing solution.

 Disappointed / Disappointing
Disappointed: feeling sad because something is not as good as expected, or
because something didn’t happen at all.
Example: She is disappointed because her exam results were bad.
Disappointing: making you feel disappointed.
Example: Her exam results are disappointing.
 Surprised / Surprising
Surprised: feeling surprise because something that you did not expect
happened.
Example: I was surprised by her reaction.
Surprising: making someone feel surprised.
Example: Her reaction was surprising.

 Annoyed / Annoying
Annoyed: feeling a bit angry.
Example: Her answer made me feel annoyed.
Annoying: making you feel a bit angry.
Example: Stop that noise! It’s very annoying.

 Worried / Worrying
Worried: feeling anxious because you are thinking the bad things that may
happen.
Example: I’m worried about the situation.
Worrying: making you feel anxious.
Example: The situation is worrying.

Embarrassed / Embarrassing
Embarrassed: feeling ashamed or shy.
Example: She was embarrassed by her boyfriend.
Embarrassing: making you feel ashamed or shy.
Example: His behavior was embarrassing.

 Depressed / Depressing
Depressed: feeling sad.
Example: I feel depressed after watching the news.
Depressing: making you feel sad.
Example: The news is always depressing.

 Irritated / Irritating
Irritated: feeling annoyed.
Example: She is irritated by the fly.
Irritating: making you feel annoyed.
Example: Flies are very irritating.

 Thrilled / Thrilling
Thrilled: feeling very excited and pleased.
Example: I was thrilled to hear you were coming.
Thrilling: very exciting.
Example: That was a really thrilling film!

 Amused / Amusing
 Amused: feeling that something is funny and, consequently, smiling or
laughing.
Example: I was amused by the article.
Amusing: funny and entertaining.
Example: This TV program is very amusing.

 Excited / Exciting

Excited: feeling happy, interested, or hopeful because something good has

happened or will happen.
Example: He is very excited about the safari.

Exciting: making you feel excited.

Example: Going on safari is very exciting.
Past perfect simple vs. Past perfect continuous
Past perfect simple vs. Past perfect continuous

a) Forms:

PAST PERFECT

Subj. + HAD
+ Participle + Compl.
Affirmative
form He had already accepted the
conditions when the lawyer
arrived.

Subj. + HAD + not / never

+ Participle + Compl.
Negative
form He had never been to Italy
before we went together last
year.

HAD + Subj.
Interrogative + Participle + Compl.?
form Had the concert started when
you arrived?

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Subj. + HAD + BEEN

Affirmative + V-ing + Compl.
form They had been discussing for
two hours when we arrived.
 Subj. + HAD + not BEEN
+ V-ing + Compl.
Negative
form She had not been studying for
half an hour when her friend
called.

HAD + Subj. + BEEN

+ V-ing + Compl.?
Interrogative
form How long had they been
going out when they got
married?

b) Use:

PAST PERFECT
Expresses an action in the past that is previous
to another which also takes place in the past:
The car was stolen because he had forgotten
to lock it.
When we use temporal adverbs like “before” or
“after”, there is no need to use the “Past
Perfect” to indicate that one action takes place
before the other. For both actions we can use
the “Past Simple”:
After I had bought a new house she came to
live with me. =
After I bought a new house she came to live
with me.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Expresses an action that has been in progress
during some time previous to the action in the
past:
His eyes were red because he had been crying.
In some cases we use this tense to highlight the
duration of the activity in progress. Often, there
is a time expression introduced by “for”:
I had been waiting for twenty minutes when
he came.

Past simple vs. Past continuous

Past simple vs. Past continuous

a) Forms:
 PAST SIMPLE

Subj. + V -ed
(regular verbs) + Compl.

Affirmative I talked to him yesterday.

form She asked him about his age.
* (See list of irregular verbs at
the end of this manual)

Subj. + DID + not

+ V + Compl.
Negative
form I didn’t believe him then.
She didn’t answer my question.

DID + Subj.
+ V + Compl.?
Interrogative
form Did you enjoy the party?
Did you take the train yesterday?

PAST CONTINUOUS

Subj. + was/were + V-ing

+ Compl.
Affirmative
form They were reading a magazine.
A girl was asking for you, Tom.

Subj. + was/were + not

+ V-ing + Compl.
Negative They weren’t watching that
form movie.
She wasn’t studying for her
test.

Was/were + Subj.
+ V-ing + Compl.?
Interrogative
Oh, sorry. Were you sleeping?
form
Was Jerry talking to Jenny in
the lounge?

b) Use: These tenses are used to express...

 PAST SIMPLE

Actions and situations that started and

finished at a particular moment in the
past.
I bought a new house last year.

PAST CONTINUOUS
Actions that were in progress at a
specific moment in the past, although
they started before and finished
afterwards.
At ten o’clock last night, I was watching
a movie.

When two past tenses appear in one sentence:

Past simple + Past simple: We talk about two consecutive actions, one happened
(usually introduced by “when”) and then the other happened.

When it started to rain I ran to my house.

Past continuous + Past simple: We talk about one action that was taking place when
the second one happened.

While I was taking a bath the phone rang.

I was taking a bath when the phone rang.

We use the Past simple to denote a short action and refer to a specific point in time. In
contrast, the Past continuous stands for a long action that lasted a certain amount of
time.

In the example shown, the phone will have rung for no more than a minute, whereas a
bath may take an hour or more. So the bath started before and ended after the phone
rang and, thus, is a longer action than the ringing of the phone.

Past continuous + Past continuous: We talk about two simultaneous actions in the
past. Both actions are happening at the same moment.

While I was trying to study, he was making a terrible noise.

Infinitive and gerund forms: uses

The Infinitive, the -ing form and their uses

The infinitive: uses

The infinitive is used to express a purpose.

 I’m going to the store to buy some cakes.
She came to my house to watch TV.
She bought a watch to know the time.

In English there are some verbs that are followed by an infinitive and others that are
followed by the gerund form. In this paragraph we are going to study the former ones:

VERB EXAMPLE
agree I agreed to leave.
choose They chose to ignore my warning.
decide We decided to leave early.
forget He forgot to leave the car.
hope She hopes to go to college.
need You didn’t need to tell her.
offer She offered to come with me.
plan They are planning to go on vacation.
pretend She pretended to be sick.
promise He promised to come.
refuse He refused to go.
tend The temperature tends to increase.
want I want to study law.

There are other verbs that go with an object before the infinitive. These verbs have the
following structure:

Verb + Object + Infinitive with “to”

Here is a list of verbs and examples of the most prevalent ones:

VERB EXAMPLE
advise He advised me to leave that place.
allow They allowed me to use the car.
invite She invited us to go to her party.
order He ordered them to do it.
permit They permitted her to go swimming.

The gerund: uses.

The gerund can act as a subject in a sentence if we consider an action in general.

Telling lies is wrong.

Reading English is difficult.
If we use a verb after a preposition, the verb is a gerund, although it can be translated
as an infinitive in some languages.

I’m good at playing cards.

I’m tired of writing.
She came without calling.
I don’t feel like going out.
He is interested in reading.

As we have seen, there are verbs that are followed by the infinitive with “to”. There are
also verbs that go with the gerund, although they can be translated as an infinitive in
some languages.

The verbs with gerund we already know are:

VERB EXAMPLE
enjoy We enjoy riding.
finish Have you finished reading it?
mind I don’t mind getting up early.
stop Stop making that noise!
She suggested going to the movie
suggest
theater.

Verbs that imply likes / tastes

(when speaking in general)

VERB EXAMPLE
like
I like swimming. (generally)
(= enjoy)
hate She hates dancing. (generally)
prefer I prefer walking to driving.(generally)
love I love walking. (generally)

Apart from these verbs, there are other expressions that are always followed by a gerund:

EXPRESSION EXAMPLE
can’t stand I can’t stand watching TV.
can’t help I can’t help speaking aloud.
to get used to I’m getting used to reading.
to be used to I’m used to reading in bed.
it’s no use It’s no use waiting for him.
to be worth It’s not worth listening to her.
to look I’m looking forward to seeing
forward to you.
Reported speech: characteristics
Reported Speech

In English, like in other languages, there are two forms of telling something that was
said before:

a) Repeating exactly the same, putting them between quotation marks, that is direct
speech.

b) Saying what was said before in other words, that is indirect/ reported speech.

We have to distinguish between “statements” (affirmative or negative formulated

sentences), “questions” (interrogative sentences) and “commands” (imperative
sentences).

Statements in reported speech

Let’s start with the changes that are necessary when we put an affirmative or negative
sentence into reported speech.

Those changes are the following ones:

- They don’t go between quotation marks.

- Sentences in indirect style usually are introduced by verbs like “say”, “tell”,
“explain”, etc.

- Regarding the tenses, we make one step back. We will see that better in the
paragraph about the verbal tenses.

- We also have to change deictic expressions, i.e. temporal expressions, pronouns,

etc.

Let’s have a look at the changes in the following example. We are going to study them
step by step.

“I saw your mother yesterday”, Susan said to Joan. (direct)

Susan said to Joan (that) she had seen her mother the day before. (indirect)

Now see the changes of every word:

I  she (subject)
saw  had seen (verb)
your mother  her mother (object)
yesterday  the day before (adverb)

As you can see, there are three sorts of changes:

a) Change of person:

All the pronouns and adjectives in direct speech refer to the first person, in the reported
speech they have to refer to the third person:

I  he
my  her

We have to adjust the uses of the pronouns and adjectives to the new context:

“You look tired.”  She said I looked tired.

b) Change of tense:

In the following table, we see the changes of the tenses:

DIRECT INDIRECT
Present simple Past simple
He studies math ...he studied math

Past continuous
Present continuous
...he was studying
He is studying math
math

Present perfect Past perfect

He has studied math ...he had studied math

Past simple Past perfect

He studied math ...he had studied math

Past perfect continuous

Past continuous
...he had been studying
He was studying math
math

Past perfect Doesn’t change

He had studied math ...he had studied math
Conditional
Future
... he would study
He will study math
math

As you can see, it is like moving one step back in time, except regarding the Future
Simple, which becomes Conditional.

c) Local and temporal change:

Regarding the changes of local and temporal expressions, see the list below:
 DIRECT INDIRECT
Temporal expressions
now then
today that day
yesterday the day before
the following day, the
tomorrow
day after
next week / month / the following week /
year month / year
last week / month / the week / month /
year year before
a week / month / year the week / month /
ago year before
Other changes
this that
these those
here there

Let’s see some more examples:

“I am buying a present for you now”, Anne said to Paul.

Anne said to Paul (that) she was buying a present for him then.

“I have seen Peter this morning”, Jim said to Jean.

Jim said to Jean (that) he had seen Peter that morning.

“I left my history book here yesterday”, Susan said to Ed.

Susan said to Ed (that) she had left her history book there the day before.

Note: We can choose whether we want to use the particle “that” in reported speech or
not.

Reported questions

In English, there are two types of questions. The ones that can be answered by “Yes” or
“No”, known as “Yes / No questions”, and the ones that are introduced by an
interrogative pronoun, known as “Wh-questions”.

“Do you like swimming?”

(expect “Yes” or “No”)
“What did you buy?”

Yes / No questions
Putting a question with these characteristics into reported speech requires the following
changes:

a) As we have already seen, the tenses change, moving back one step into the past.

b) The clause we are changing is introduced by “if” or “whether”.

c) We have to change deictic expressions, e.g. pronouns, expressions of time and place.

d) Although the interrogative clause has the structure of subject and verb inverted, in its
indirect form the structure is that of an affirmative clause.

e) These indirect clauses are introduced by the verbs “ask”, “want to know”, etc.

f) The questions in reported speech don’t go with speech marks anymore, not even
question marks.

“Do you like swimming?” I asked him.

I asked him if he liked swimming.

In this example, we changed the subject “you” to “he”, the present tense “do you like”
to the past tense “liked”, the structure is subject + verb, the modified clause in reported
speech is introduced by “if”.

“Did you park your car here yesterday?” Susan asked Peter.
Susan asked Peter if he had parked his car there the day before.

“Will you come to my party?” She asked Anne.

She asked her / wanted to know if Anne would go to her party.

Wh-questions

When the question in direct speech is introduced by an interrogative pronoun, this one also
introduces the clause in reported speech. The changes are the same.

“Where did you buy this shirt?” Anne asked Peter.

Anne asked Peter / wanted to know where he had bought that shirt.

“Who came with you yesterday?” I asked Anne.

I asked Anne / wanted to know who had come with her the day before.

“What have you eaten?” I asked her.

I asked her / wanted to know what she had eaten.

Commands in reported speech

Commands usually stand in the imperative form. The necessary changes are:

a) The verb in imperative becomes infinitive with “to”.

b) The verb that introduces the direct command is “tell” and not “say”, because the
verb “say” doesn’t mean “command”, but the verb “tell” does.

c) “Tell” is followed by the person who receives the command. We can also use the verb
“order”.

d) If the structure is negative, the infinitive must be negative. (not + to + infinitive)

“Open the door!” Anne said to / told me.

Anne told me to open the door.

“Be quiet!” She said to / told him.

She told him to be quiet.

“Don’t do that!” I said to / told Susan.

I told Susan not to do that.

“Don’t play with that!” She said to / told me.

She told me not to play with that.

Other verbs in reported speech

Until now, the verbs we have seen for the reported speech have been: “say” for statements,
“ask” for questions, and “tell” for commands.

Nevertheless, there are other verbs that, although not that frequent, can substitute these
verbs, and apart from that, they give more specific information about the mode and
circumstances in which the action took place.

See some of these verbs below:

INVITE + person who is invited + infinitive with “to”.

“Do you want to meet my friend?” he said to Cathy.

He invited Cathy to meet his friend.

OFFER + infinitive with “to”

“I’ll do that for you”, Anne said to Peter.

Anne offered to do it / that.

PROMISE + infinitive with “to”

“I’ll write you every day”, Anne said to Peter.

Anne promised to write to him every day.

REFUSE + infinitive with “to”

“I won’t do it”, Anne said to Peter.

 Anne refused to do it.

SUGGEST + verb in the gerund form (with -ing) + sentence in reported speech
introduced by “that”

“Why don’t we give her a present for her birthday?” Anne said to Peter.
Anne suggested giving her a present for her birthday.

ACCEPT + infinitive with “to”

“I’ll go with you if you dress up”, she answered him.

She accepted to go with him if he dressed up.

DENY + gerund

“I haven’t thrown the ball”, he said.

He denied having thrown the ball that had broken the window.

ADMIT + verb in the gerund form (with -ing) + sentence in reported speech
introduced by “that”

“I told you a lie. I’m sorry.” Anne said.

She admitted having lied.

AGREE + infinitive with “to”

“OK. I’ll talk to the troublemakers”, Peter said.

He agreed to speak to the troublemakers.

THREATEN + infinitive with “to”

“If you don’t behave yourself, I’ll punish you”, her teacher said.
Her teacher threatened to punish her if she didn’t behave herself.

INSIST + on + gerund

“I repeat that we should take her to the doctor”, he said again.

He insisted on taking her to the doctor.

CLAIM + infinitive with “to”

“I’m the person who invented this new system”, he said.

He claimed to be the inventor of this new system.

ORDER + person + infinitive with “to”

“Don’t eat in class!” the teacher shouted at Jim.

The teacher ordered Jim not to eat in class.
TELL + person + phrase with “that”

“You are wrong”, he told me.

He told me (that) I was wrong.

When “tell” is used in this context, it is equivalent to the verb “say”, but it also has other
meanings, depending on the sentence.

Regarding the form, the verb “tell” is followed by an indirect object, while the verb “say”
doesn’t require an indirect object, and if it goes with one, it is introduced by “to”.

She told me that she was tired.

She said that she was tired.
She said hello to me.

Take into consideration that “tell” also means “to order”. It also has the same structure
as “to order”, as we have already seen in the paragraph “Commands in reported speech”:

Tell + object (person) + infinitive with “to”

“Tidy your bedroom now!” he ordered his son.
He told his son to tidy his bedroom immediately.

In some cases, the use of alternative verbs (sometimes followed by modal adverbs) is not
only an option, but a necessity: some expressions in conversations cannot be changed into
reported speech in another way:

Shall we go out?
Yes, that would be great!
He invited her out and she accepted enthusiastically.

Modal verbs in reported speech

We can also find modal verbs in the clauses of reported speech. Let’s see which of them
change and how.

As we saw in the previous table, we have to move back one step in time. But some
modals and semi-modals don’t have past forms or are always used in the past tense,
like “used to”.

The modal verbs that don’t change from direct speech to reported speech are:
 VERB DIRECT / INDIRECT
“Would you mind opening the door?”
would He asked me if I would mind opening
the door.
“You should / ought to buy a new
should / house.”
ought to She said (that) I should / ought to
buy a new house.
“Could you come to my house?”
could She asked me if I could come to her
house.
“It might rain.”
might
She said (that) it might rain.
“You needn’t wash the dishes.”
needn’t She told me (that) I needn’t wash
the dishes.
“I used to go swimming as a child.”
used to He said (that) he used to go
swimming as a child.
“We had better call the police.”
had
She said (that) they had better call
better
the police.

Nevertheless, there are other modals that change when put into reported speech:

DIRECT INDIRECT
may might
“I may go to the She said (that) she might
theatre.” go to the theater.
must had to
“You must wear a She said (that) I had to
uniform.” wear a uniform.
can could
“I can’t hear very She said (that) she
well.” couldn’t hear very well.
shall should
“Shall I ring your She asked if she should
sister?” ring my sister.