Engineering Properties of Nickel and Nickel Alloys

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF
NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF
NICKEL AND NICKEL AllOYS
by
John l. Everhart,P. E.
Metallurgical Engineer
Westfield, New Jersey
9? PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK - LONDON • 1971

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 74-141242
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1886-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1884-2

001: 10.1007/978-1-4684-1884-2
© 1971 Plenum Press, New York

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1971
A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011
United Kingdom edition published by Plenum Press, London

A Division of Plenum Publishing Company, Ltd.
Davis House (4th Floor), 8 Scrubs Lane, Harlesden, NW10 6SE, England
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form

without written permission from the publisher
Preface
Nickel is probably the most versatile of the metallic elements. Among alloys
containing nickel are some having high corrosion resistance and others that
retain excellent strength and ductility from temperatures approaching ab-
solute zero to those near 2000 F. Some nickel alloys are strongly magnetic,
others are virtually nonmagnetic; some have low rates of thermal expansion,
others have high rates; some have high electrical resistivities; some have
practically constant moduli of elasticity; one has an "elastic" memory. In
addition, nickel is magnetostrictive.
With this wide range of characteristics, it is not surprising that there
are several thousand alloys containing nickel. It is impossible to consider
all of these compositions in this publication and, therefore, several alloys in
each of a number of categories have been selected to indicate the properties
to be expected of the group. Low-alloy and constructional nickel-containing
steels have been excluded on two grounds. To do them justice would require
excessive space and, in addition, their applications differ generally from these
of the materials under discussion. On the other hand, nickel-containing
stainkss steels have been included because many of their applications fall
into the same areas as those of a number of the high-nickel alloys.
Many of the compositions discussed are proprietary alloys and they are
protected by trademarks. A list of the trademarks and their owners is in-
cluded in the appendix.
Data are presented in the form of tables and graphs. All of the graphs
.have been drawn especially for this publication, in a number of instances to
permit combining data from several sources to point out some characteristic
of the group under discussion. To simplify the graphs, some symbols have
been used on the curves and, although the meaning is usually self-evident, a
list of these symbols is included in the appendix.
v
vi Preface
The international System of Units (the SI System) is being advocated

both here and abroad, but it seems premature to use these units in place of
those which are conventional. However, Kelvin temperatures are given on the
graphs in addition to Fahrenheit temperatures, and a brief discussion of the
SI System is included in the appendix, which also contains conversion factors
for the more common units used in this publication.
Sources of the data are acknowledged in the text, and it is a pleasure to
take this opportunity to thank the members of the staff of the Engineering
Societies Library (New York) for their courteous and efficient assistance in
my search of the literature.
Finally, this book could not have been completed without the assistance
of my wife, Helen, who prepared all of the graphs and assisted in proof-
reading.
Contents
Chapter 1. The Nickel Situation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Occurrence .................................................... 1
Sulfide Ores .................................................. 2
Nickel Silicates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
Lateritic Ores ................................................ 2
Reserves ...................................................... 3
Expansion of Production Facilities ................................ 4
Future Developments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Recovery of Nickel.. .. .............................. ............ 5
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Chapter 2. Nickel.............................................. 8
Effect of Impurities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
Physical Properties .............................................. 9
Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
Electrical Properties .......................................... 11
Magnetic Properties .......................................... 11
Elastic Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Miscellaneous Physical Properties ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Mechanical Properties .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Room-Temperature Properties .................................. 13
Tensile Properties .......................................... 13
Hardness .................................................. 16
Fatigue Properties .......................................... 18
Impact Properties 18
vii
viii Contents
Neutron Irradiation ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19

Elevated-Temperature Properties ................................ 19
Low-Temperature Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
Cast Nickel .................................................... 24
Physical Properties ............................................ 25
Mechanical Properties ........................................ 25
Nickel Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
Carbonyl Nickel .............................................. 26
Chemically Reduced Nickel Powder ............................ 28
Mechanical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
Chapter 3. Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I .. .... 32

Nickel-Copper Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
Room-Temperature Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
Tensile Properties ........................................ 35
Hardness ................................................ 37
Fatigue Properties ........................................ 38
Impact Properties ........................................ 38
Elevated-Temperature Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40
Low-Temperature Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
Cast Nickel-Copper Alloys ...................................... 44
Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys ...................................... 46
Low-Temperature Properties .................................. 51
Cast Nickel-Molybdenum and Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys.. 53
Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
Nickel-Silicon Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Contents ix
Chapter 4. Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant AIloys-ll .... 58
Nickel-Chromium Alloys ........................................ 58

Room-Temperature Properties ................................ 61
Hardness ................................................ 64
Cast Nickel-Chromium Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
Room-Temperature Properties ......... '" .................... 75
Hardness ................................................ 76
Elevated-Temperature Properties .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Chapter 5. Nickel-Base SuperaIIoys .............................. 82
Wrought Alloys ................................................ 84

Elevated-Temperature Properties .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
Cast Alloys .................................................... 94
Elevated-Temperature Properties .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
x Contents
Chapter 6. Copper-Base Nickel Alloys ............................ 100

Copper-Nickel Alloys ............................................ 100
Hardness ................................................ 103
Elevated-Temperature Properties ............... " ............. 106
Cast Copper-Nickel Alloys ...................................... 111
Nickel Silvers (Copper-Nickel-Zinc Alloys) ........................ 114
Mechanical Properties .......................................... 117
Hardness ................................................ 117
Elevated-Temperature Properties .............................. 120
Cast Nickel Silvers .............................................. 122
Mechanical Properties .......................................... 123
Nickel Silver Powder ............................................ 125
Properties .................................................... 127
References ...................................................... 127
Chapter 7. Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels ...................... 129

Wrought Stainless Steels ............. '" .. " ...................... 129
Hardness ................................................ 135
Contents xi
Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steels .......................... 143

Hardness ................................................ 148
Impact Properties .......................................... 148
Low-Temperature Properties .................. , ............ " .150
Cast Stainless Steels ............................................ 151
Room-Temperature Properties .....................•.......... 153
Hardness ................................................ 153
Low-Temperature Properties .................. , ............... 155
Stainless Steel PjM Parts ........................................ 156
Properties .................................................... 157
References ...................................................... 158
Chapter 8. Electrical Resistance and Thermocouple Alloys ............ 159

Electrical Resistance Alloys ...................................... 159
Hardness ................................................ 165
Thermocouple Alloys ........................ , ................... 169
References ...................................................... 173
Chapter 9. Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys ...... 175

Low-Expansion Alloys .......................................... 175
xii Contents

Hardness ................................................ 180
Other Properties .......................................... 180
High-Expansion Alloys .......................................... 183
Constant-Modulus Alloys ........................................ 185
Hardness ................................................ 189
Other Properties .......................................... 190
References ...................................................... 191
Chapter 10. Magnetic Materials . ................................. 192

Soft Magnetic Materials .......................................... 193
Permanent Magnet Materials .................................... 196
References ...................................................... 202
Chapter 11. Other Nickel Alloys . ................................. 203

Age-Hardenable Nickel Alloys .................................... 203
Hardness .......... , ..................................... 206
Contents xiii

Cast Beryllium-Nickel Alloys .................................... 211
Nitinol ........................................................ 213
Tungsten-Nickel PjM Products .................................. 217
References ...................................................... 218
Appendix I. Trademarks ........................................ 221

Appendix II. Conversion Factors and Symbols ...................... 223
Index .......................................................... 225
Chapter 1
The Nickel Situation
The discussion of the properties of nickel alloys, which is the major subject
of this book, would be rather pointless if there were to be a continued
shortage of nickel. Therefore, it seems desirable to discuss the nickel situa-
tion briefly.
For several years, there has been an imbalance between the supply and
the demand for nickel, with the demand exceeding the supply by a sufficient
amount to cause a significant shortage. This has led in the United States to
allocation of available supplies by the Government and by industry, to a
price increase which in black market operations reached six to seven times
the nominal price, and to attempts to find substitutes for nickel. However,
it has also been instrumental in stimulating production. The major producers,
of whom there are very few, are expanding their facilities and opening new
ones, and a number of new organizations are entering the nickel mining and
recovery fields.
There is no shortage of nickel ore. The difficulty in maintaining an
adequate supply lies in the unexpected sharp increase in demand which has
overtaxed the facilities and in the problems of winning nickel from the ore
after it is mined.
Progress is being made in the expansion of mining and in the develop-
ment of more efficient recovery methods and it requires no clairvoyance to
predict that, within a few years, supply will equal demand even though the
demand continues to increase.
OCCURRENCE
According to Ware, 1 there are three major types of nickel deposits:
nickel-copper sulfides, nickel silicates, and nickel laterites and serpentines.
2 Chapter 1
They are found in different areas of the earth and vary considerably in the
ease of handling to win the nickel they contain.
Sulfide Ores
The commonest of the sulfide ores of nickel is pentlandite. It is a nickel-

iron sulfide, (NiFe)9Ss, brass or bronze in color, and is almost invariably
found in association with pyrrhotite, Fe 7 Ss, and chalcopyrite, CuFeS 2 •
The major known reserves of sulfide ore lie in the northern regions of
the earth. Most of the nickel produced at present comes from Canadian
sulfide deposits in the Sudbury district of Ontario and in Manitoba.
In the United States, nickel sulfide ores have been found in Alaska and
Minnesota and are being explored. Other sources of ores of this type are
Northwestern Siberia, an area near the Finnish border in the USSR, and
Finland. Nickel is being produced in the USSR and in Finland from these
deposits; the output in Finland is small, that in the USSR has not been
publicized.
Nickel Silicates
The largest known deposits of nickel silicate ores occur in New Cale-
donia, and two varieties are mined there. The richer is a green hydrous
nickel-magnesium silicate of variable composition, H 2 (NiMg)Si0 4 ·nH 2 0,
known as garnierite. The intensity of the green color of this mineral is
directly proportional to the nickel content. The second variety ranges from
greenish yellow to chocolate brown in color and has a higher iron and lower
magnesium content than garnierite.
From 1875 to 1905, New Caledonia was the world's largest producer
of nickel; since that time Canada has moved into the lead. In 1965, about
one-eighth of the world's supply of nickel came from New Caledonia.!
The only source of nickel in the United States is a garnierite deposit
in Oregon. Specimens of ore from that deposit range from 2.3 to 37 % nickel
and from yellowish to green in color. Commercially significant nickel silicate
deposits occur also in South American and Indonesia.
Lateritic Ores
According to Ware, nickeliferous lateritic mantles are formed by the
weathering of ultra basic rocks, notably serpentine. The content of mineral
decreases with depth down to unweathered rock and there is no line of de-
marcation between laterites and the serpentine. Therefore the deposits are
The Nickel Situation 3
referred to as laterite and serpentine. However, they are also called nickeli-
ferous iron ores, lateritic ores, or simply oxide ores. A typical composition
of the mantles is about 49 %iron, 1 %nickel, 2 %chromium oxide, and 0.05 %
cobalt.
Lateritic ores are abundant in a wide belt of tropical and semitropical
countries around the world. The reason for this distribution is that the type
of weathering that dissolves the metallic elements is most active in tropical
climates where there is plenty of rainfall and abundant decaying vegetation
to supply organic acids and carbon dioxide to the ground water.
Nickel-bearing lateritic ores occur in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican
Republic, Brazil, Venezuela, Greece, Pakistan, India, the Republic of the
Philippines, the Malagase Republic, the Republic of Indonesia, New Cale-
donia, and probably in other locations. The prospects of discovering addi-
tional deposits is excellent because many areas in the tropics have not been
explored.
RESERVES
The largest know potential reserve of nickel in the world is in the

nickel-bearing lateritic ores of Cuba. The Nicaro deposits were the first in
Cuba to be mined on a large scale. Later development was undertaken in the
Moa Bay area. It is estimated that there are at least 17,000,000 tons of nickel
content in the Cuban ores.
The second largest known reserve is in New Caledonia with an estimated
nickel content of 16,000,000 tons. Reserves of proven and indicated nickel
in sulfide ore deposits of the Sudbury district in Ontario and in Manitoba,
Canada, total about 6,000,000 tons of nickel content.
As of early 1964, reserves of proven and indicated nickel-bearing material
in the United States were placed at about 500,000 tons of nickel content. Of
this material, about 360,000 tons were in silicate and nickeliferous iron ores
and 140,000 tons in sulfide ores, about one-half of the latter in Alaska.
Lateritic deposits are also being exploited in the Ural region of the
USSR.
In addition to the reserves mentioned above, there are large nickel-
bearing lateritic ore deposits throughout the world in tropic regions. Puerto
Rico has nickeliferous iron deposits estimated at lOO,OOO,OOO tons of ore with
an average nickel content of less than 1 %. It is estimated that there is a
similar deposit in the Philippines of about 120,000,000 tons and a vast
tonnage of lower grade ore, estimated at more than a billion tons. Other
nickel resources with potential value for large-scale production are in Central
America, South America, Indonesia, and Africa.
4 Chapter 1
EXPANSION OF PRODUCTION FACILITIES
Most of the nickel produced in the free world is furnished by the fol-
lowing organizations: The International Nickel Company of Canada, Ltd.,
Falconbridge Nickel Mines Ltd., Societe Le Nickel, and Sherritt Gordon
Mines Ltd. In the United States nickel is mined and smelted only by the
Hanna Nickel Smelting Company. All of these organizations are engaged in
expanding their facilities or in planning such expansion.
In Canada, International Nickel is developing six new mines in Ontario
and three in Manitoba and a new refinery is being built in Copper Cliff,
Ontario. These new facilities and expansion of older ones will bring the
company's Canadian production capacity to 300,000 tons per year by the
end of 1971. 2
Also in Canada, Falconbridge started production in a new facility in
1968 and broke ground for a new iron ore concentrator that will handle
nickeliferous pyrrhotite to produce 300,000 tons per year of iron-nickel
pellets containing approximately 90 % iron and 1.5 % nickel. Delivery was
to start in 1969. 2
Societe Le Nickel is doubling its production capacity in New Caledonia
to produce 72,000 tons per year by 1972 and expects to expand further to
reach 200,000 tons per year by 1980. 2
In 1967, Australia joined the nickel-producing countries of the world.
By the end of that year, Western Mining Corporation was producing at the
rate of 100,000 tons of ore per year. Its reserves were reported to be about
14.3 million tons with a nickel content of 3.4 %. The company has taken a
license to use the Sherritt Gordon ammonia leach process in a refinery being
built in Western Australia which is expected to start operations in 1970 with
an annual capacity of 20,000 tons. 2
Also in Western Australia, Metals Exploration Ltd. began trucking ore
from its mine to a mill operated by Western Mining Corporation in late 1969
at the rate of 120 tons per day. 3
Falconbridge is developing a mining and metallurgical complex in the
Dominican Republic which will have an annual capacity of 31,000 tons of
nickel contained in ferronickeI. Operations are scheduled to begin in 1972. 3
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Extensive exploration in Australia has led to the discovery of new depo-

sits with two additional producers scheduled to begin operations in 1969-70.
In addition, at least half a dozen other organizations have been formed to
seek for and exploit nickel deposits in Australia. 2
In New Caledonia, Le Nickel plans to erect a new smelter for the treat-
ment of low grade silicate ores to be supplied by several New Caledonian
mining enterprises, with an annual capacity of 40,000 metric tons of nickel
contained in ferronickel. 4
In August 1969, a new organization entered the nickel industry in New
Caledonia. American Metal Climax, Inc. and a French associate signed an
agreement with the government for the development of nickel deposits with
production of 50,000 tons per year scheduled to begin in 1975. 5
Japanese interests have signed agreements with the Indonesian Govern-
ment for exploration and exploitation of lateritic deposits and similar con-
tracts were signed previously by International Nickel and a consortium of
United States, Dutch, and Canadian companies. 6, 7
Copper-nickel deposits in northeastern Botswana have been found
with proven reserves of about 12 million tons of ore containing from 0.6 to
1.5 % nickel and 1.2 to 1.5 % copper and probable reserves of about 14 mil-
lion tons of ore with lower nickel content. Plans are underway for exploi-
tation by a group consisting of Roan Selection Trust, American Metal
Climax, and the Botswana Government. 8
Marinduque Mining and Industrial Corporation is developing lateritic
nickel ores in the Philippines. Planned production is 75 million pounds
of nickel per year by mid-1973. Of this capacity, 70 million pounds will be
pure nickel powder and briquettes, the remainder along with about 3 million
pounds of cobalt will be in the form of concentrates. 8
In addition to these developments, active exploration is proceeding in
many other parts of the world. Thus, there should be an adequate supply of
ore within a few years.
RECOVERY OF NICKEL
There are a number of established processes for nickel recovery and

they will be mentioned briefly. Anyone interested in this aspect of the nickel
business should consult Boldt and Queneau. 9
According to Ware,l a typical Canadian sulfide ore from the Sudbury
district is crushed and a nickel concentrate is separated magnetically. The
sulfides of nickel and copper are separated by flotation. Then the concentrate
is roasted with a flux and melted into a matte containing three separate
phases, nearly pure nickel sulfide, copper sulfide, and a nickel-copper alloy.
This matte is ground and the alloy is removed magnetically and refined
electrolytically. The nickel and copper sulfides are separated by flotation. The
copper sulfide is blown in a converter to black copper and refined electroly-
tically. The nickel sulfide is cast directly into anodes for electrolytic refining.
6 Chapter 1
In New Caledonia, Le Nickel produces nickel matte and ferronickel

from its ores. The former is produced by blast furnace smelting, the latter
in electric furnaces.
In Oregon, Hanna melts the ore in an electric furnace and pours the
liquid matte into a reduction ladle where it is treated with ferrosilicon to
produce ferronickel.
Sherritt Gordon uses amonia leaching at elevated temperatures and
pressures to extract nickel from sulfide ores. The leach solution is boiled to
precipitate the copper as a sulfide and recover part of the ammonia. Nickel
and cobalt are recovered as pure powders by reduction with hydrogen under
pressure. This process can be used for silicate ores if the ore is first given a
sulfating roast.
Briefly, these are methods which have been used commercially for
years. According to Ware, problems arise more frequently with silicate and
lateritic ores than with sulfide ores. He notes that sulfide ores can usually be
separated magnetically or by flotation but that no economical method has
been developed to produce a physical separation of the other types of ores.
Ware points out that present processes do not make full use of the poten-
tial of the silicate and lateritic ores for the recovery of iron, cobalt, and other
metal content. As an example, he mentions that the ammonia leach process
used by the United States Government plant at Nicaro, Cuba, recovered only
80% of the nickel and less than 10% of the cobalt. The tailings were too high
in nickel, chromium, and cobalt to be suitable for use as iron ore.
He notes further that an acid leach process used at Freeport Sulphur's
plant at Moa Bay, Cuba, recovered over 95 %of the nickel and cobalt and the
50% iron content of the tailings was also recovered by a direct reduction
process. However, the process does not extract the metal values from the
serpentine portion of the lateritic ores which may make up a third of the total
weight of the ore and be richest in nickel.
Of course, these problems have been known for years and research is
in progress to develop methods of increasing the yields. The fact that there is
wide variation in the composition of the ores from various localities compli-
cates the problem.
The ammonia leach process of Sherritt Gordon seems to have shown the
most ·promise for application to a variety of ores, and the company has built
a pilot plant for the hydrometallurgical treatment of 25 tons per day of
lateritic ore samples from various parts of the world to devise methods for
the economical recovery of nickel. 2 Other producers and potential producers
are also actively engaged in developing procedures for the recovery of nickel
from lateritic ores.
REFERENCES
1. Glen C. Ware, "Nickel," Mineral Facts and Problems, Bull. 630, Bureau of Mines (1965),
p.607.
2. G. L. DeHuff, "Nickel," 1968 Minerals Yearbook Preprint, Bureau of Mines (1969).
3. "Nickel in January 1970," Mineral Industry Surveys, Bureau of Mines, March 31,1970.
4. "Nickel in October 1969," ibid., December 23, 1969.
5. "Nickel in August 1969," ibid., October 27, 1969.
6. "Nickel in July 1969," ibid., September 30, 1969.
7. "Nickel in February 1969," ibid., June 3, 1969.
8. "Nickel in December 1969," ibid., March 9, 1970.
9. J. R. Boldt, Jr. and Paul Queneau, The Winning of Nickel, Van Nostrand (1967).
Chapter 2
Nickel
The element nickel is a member of the transition group in the fourth series
of the periodic table, which includes iron, nickel, and cobalt. It has the atomic
number 28.
The atomic weight of nickel is 58.71 and it is a composite of five stable
isotopes, having atomic weights of 58,60,61,62, and 64 in the proportions
of 67.7, 26.2, 1.25,3.66, and 1.16 % respectively. Seven unstable radioactive
isotopes have also been identified. These have atomic weights of 54, 56, 57,
59,63,65, and 66 and have half-lives, respectively, of 0.16 second, about 6
days, 36 hours, about 100,000 years, approximately 85 years, 2.6 hours, and
56 hours.!
The normal crystal structure of nickel is face-centered cubic and it has
a lattice constant of 3.5238 A at 68 F.
Although nickel with a purity of 99.99 % has been made, the properties
reported for "high purity" nickel have generally been determined on material
having a nickel content of99.95 %. By contrast, commercial nickel in wrought
form generally contains about 99.5 %nickel + cobalt and specifications, such
as those of the ASTM for wrought material, set a minimum of 99 % nickel
+ cobalt. This is the material on which most properties of nickel have been
determined.
EFFECT OF IMPURITIES
As has been mentioned in Chapter I, nickel is produced in various areas

of the free world and the sources are expanding as new discoveries are made.
Although significant production originates in New Caledonia, the major
8
Nickel 9
source of nickel for the next few years at least will be Canada. The impurities
normally found in nickel from Canadian sources are carbon, cobalt, copper,
iron, silicon, and sulfur. They are introduced from the ore or during pro-
cessing.
Carbon is soluble in nickel to a limited extent at room temperature.
When it is in solid solution, carbon increases the ease of hot working, but in
the quantity usually present, causes work hardening which is detrimental to
cold working operations. To reduce the effect of work hardening, a low
carbon modification was developed. This material work hardens at a signif-
icantly lower rate which facilitates deep drawing and other severe cold
forming operations.
Cobalt is present in Canadian ores, and nickel produced from these
ores, except by the carbonyl process, normally contains about 0.5 % cobalt.
Although this cobalt content slightly increases the electrical resistivity and
raises the Curie temperature, it has little effect on other properties.! Con-
sequently, in commercial practice, a single determination is made for nickel
and cobalt and the result is reported as nickel plus cobalt. In recent years,
improved processing methods have been developed which permit reducing
the cobalt content to about 0.1 %.
Copper, iron, and silicon, in the amounts normally present in nickel,
have relatively minor effects on the properties, although some physical
properties are more sensitive to their presence than others. Sulfur, however,
does have a significant effect. Even in the amounts normally present, sulfur
reduces both the hot and cold workability of nickel.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Some of the physical properties, for example the electrical resistivity,

are influenced to a considerable degree by minor amounts of impurities. For
this reason, Table 2-1 includes a compilation from various sources of the
thermal, electrical, magnetic, elastic, and miscellaneous properties of both
"high purity" and commercially pure nickel,1,2,3
Thermal Properties
The melting (or freezing) point of nickel is 1453 C (2647.4 F) and has
been selected as a secondary fixed point on the International Temperature
Scale. Impurities not only lower the melting point but extend it into a range
as indicated in the values given for commercial nickel in the table. The boil-
ing point has not been determined directly but was extrapolated from vapor
10 Chapter 2
Table 2-1. Physical Properties of Nickep·2.3
"High purity" Commercial

nickel nickel
(99.97% min) (99.5% nom)
Melting point, F 2650 2615-2635

Boiling point, F 4950
Vapor pressure (at m.p.), mm Hg 9.4 x 10- 3
Specific heat (70 F), BtujlbtF 0.11 0.109
Thermal conductivity (200 F), Btujhrjft2tFjft 45.7 39
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1000 F), per of 9.2 x 10- 6 8.5 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity,
microhm-cm 7.16 9.5
ohmsjcir mil ft 43.17 57.2
Temperature coefficient of resistance (68-212 F),
microhm-cm tF 0.0038 0.0027
Curie temperature, F 667 680
Saturation magnetization, gauss 6170 6000
Maximum permeability (H = I), gauss 2000-3000 1500-2000
Initial permeability, gauss 200 200
Residual induction, gauss 3000 3100
Coercive force, Oe 3.0 3.0
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 30,000 29,600
Modulus of rigidity, ksi 12,000 11,700
Poisson's ratio 0.26
Density,lbjin. 3 0.322 0.321
pressure data. Morris et al. 4 give the following equation for the vapor pres-
sure of liquid nickel in the temperature range 2800 to 2950 F:
log P mm = -21,030jT + 9.689
where T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin.
As shown in the table, the specific heat is practically unaffected by the
difference in purity between "high purity" and commercial nickel but both
the thermal conductivity and the coefficient of thermal expansion show the
influence of increasing impurities.
The relationship between temperature and thermal conductivity of
"high purity" nickel is shown in Fig. 2-1 based on the work of Ro, Powell,
and Liley. S As shown in this figure, the thermal conductivity increases to a
maximum at very low temperatures. Based on data reported by Rosenberg, 1
commercial nickel shows little change in thermal conductivity at low tem-
peratures. The thermal conductivity has a minimum value near the Curie
point.
Nickel expands uniformly with temperature up to the Curie point, where
there is a sharp discontinuity; above this point uniform expansion again
Nickel 11
Temperature, K
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
::::
LL LLIO 50 E
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-200 o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature, F
Fig, 2-1. Effect of temperature on the thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and
electrical resistivity of "high purity" nickel. I. S
occurs. The relation between temperature and expansion for "high purity"
nickel is shown also in Fig. 2-1. I
Electrical Properties
The electrical resistivity of nickel increases with temperature and also
with impurity content, As shown in Table 2-1, the resistivity of "high purity"
nickel is considerably lower than that of commercial nickel. At temperatures
below -200 F, the resistivity of "high purity" nickel is very low but it in-
creases with rising temperatures as indicated in Fig. 2-1. I Unlike the curves
for thermal conductivity and thermal expansion in the same graph, which
show sharp discontinuities at the Curie temperature, the curve for resistivity
shows only a change in slope near this temperature. Rosenbergl points out,
however, that if the rate of change with temperature is plotted against the
temperature there is a sharp break at the Curie point.
Magnetic Properties
Ferromagnetic materials, which include nickel, iron, cobalt, the rare
earth gadolinium, and certain oxides, are capable of retaining magnetic
order at room temperature after being magnetized. As the temperature is
increased, however, they reach a point where ordering disappears and they
become paramagnetic (nonmagnetic). This change occurs at the Curie tem-
12 Chapter 2
perature and a reasonably high Curie point is essential if the material is to

be useful for magnetic applications. Bouwman 6 notes that although gado-
linium is ferromagnetic, it has a Curie point of only 59 F, which greatly limits
its usefulness. On the other hand, nickel, iron, and cobalt have Curie points
of 667 F, 1418 F, and 2012 F, respectively and all of them are potentially
useful as magnetic materials. It should be noted that although the Curie
point is the temperature at which ferromagnetism ceases, the decrease in
magnetism with increasing temperature is somewhat gradual and its effect is
spread over a considerable temperature range below the Curie point.
The temperature of the Curie point depends on such factors as the
mechanical or thermal treatment the material has received and the type and
amount of impurities. For example, most alloying elements lower the Curie
point of nickel but iron and cobalt raise it. As indicated in Table 2-1, the
Curie point of "high purity" nickel is somewhat lower than that of commer-
cial nickel.
Nickel becomes magnetically saturated at a flux of about 6500 gauss.
After removal from the magnetic field, the residual magnetism is approximately
3000 gauss. The coercive force, i.e., the strength offield required to neutralize
the residual field, is about 3 Oe (oersteds). As shown in Table 2-1, the magnetic
properties are not greatly influenced by the differences in impurity content
between "high purity" and commercial nickel. These properties indicate
that nickel is neither magnetically hard nor especially soft.
One of the unique properties of nickel is its strong response to magne-
tostrictive effects, i.e., the change in the dimensions of a ferromagnetic ma-
terial when it is placed in a magnetic field. For practical purposes, the most
important of these changes is the Joule effect, which deals with the fractional
change in length along the axis of the applied magnetic field when the field
is changed. This change can be either expansion or contraction. Although
iron, for example, expands in low fields and contracts slightly in high fields,
nickel contracts in all magnetic fields. Nickel shows one of the largest changes
in length of all materials which have been investigated, a change of 30 parts
per million in a magnetic field strong enough to saturate the nickel. 7
Elastic Properties
Studies on single crystals have shown strong anisotropy in the elastic
properties of nickel, but this effect is not apparent in the measurements made
on polycrystalline material. The average values of the modulus of elasticity
in tension (Young's modulus) are 30,000 ksi for "high purity" nickel and
29,600 ksi for commercial nickel. According to Rosenberg,l the modulus of
elasticity in compression is the same as that in tension.
Nickel 13
The modulus of rigidity is approximately 12,000 ksi for "high purity"

nickel and 11,700 ksi for commercial nickel.I· 2
Poisson's ratio, i.e., the ratio of transverse contraction to longitudinal
expansion under tensile stress, is 0.26. 2
Miscellaneous Physical Properties

The density of "high purity" nickel is reported to be slightly higher than
that of commercial nickel, 0.322Ibjin. 3 and 0.321Ibjin. 3, respectively. Rosen-
berg! notes that direct determinations of density are influenced by composi-
tion, physical condition, and prior treatment.
The reflectivity of polished nickel increases with increase in the wave-
length of the impinging light from about 10 % for a wavelength of approxi-
mately 1000 A to 90 % for wavelengths of the order of 40,000 A.
The total emissivity of nickel rises approximately linearly from 0.045
at 68 F to 0.19 at 1830 F.!
The velocity of sound in commercial nickel as measured on a wrought
bar is reported as 2.92 miles per second.!
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The mechanical properties of nickel are influenced by purity and the

prior history of the material. Commercial nickel has the nominal compo-
sition 99.5 % nickel + cobalt, 0.08 % carbon, 0.18 % silicon, 0.18 % man-
ganese, 0.2 % iron, 0.13 % copper, and 0.005 % sulfur. A number of modi-
fications are produced for special purposes. A low carbon nickel (0.02 % C
max), which work hardens at a lower rate than the usual variety, is used for
severe cold forming operations and is preferred for service at temperatures
above 600 F. Three other modifications, nominally 99.5 % nickel + cobalt,
are produced specifically for electronic applications as is a high purity
(nominally 99.98 % nickel) material containing less than 0.001 % cobalt.
Room-Temperature Properties
Nickel is a single-phase material with a face-centered cubic structure.

It can be hardened and strengthened only by cold work. In general, com-
mercial nickel is stronger and less ductile than "high purity" nickel.
Tensile Properties
Nominal tensile properties of wrought commercial nickel in a number
of mill forms are given in Table 2-28. In its softest condition, commercial
14 Chapter 2
Table 2-2. Nominal Tensile and Hardness Properties

of Commercial Nickels
Yield strength Tensile Elongation

(0.2% offset), strength, (2 in.), Rockwell
Form ksi ksi % hardness
Rod and bar

Hot finished 15-45 60-85 55-35 B45-80
Cold drawn 40-100 65-110 35-10 B75-98
Annealed 15-30 55-75 55-40 B45-70
Plate
Hot rolled 20-80 55-100 55-35 B55-80
Annealed 15-40 55-80 60-40 B45-75
Sheet
Hard 70-105 90-115 15-2 B90 min
Annealed 15-30 55-75 55-40 B70 max
Strip
Spring 70-115 90-130 15-2 B95 min
Annealed 15-30 55-75 55-40 B64max
Tubing
Stress-relieved 40-90 65-110 35-15 B75-98
Annealed 12-30 55-75 60-40 B70max
Wire
Spring 105-135 125-145 15-4
Annealed 15-50 55-85 50-30
nickel has a tensile strength of about 55 ksi, but the strength can be increased
to as much as 145 ksi by cold working. Of course, the increase in strength is
accompanied by loss of ductility, as measured by the elongation, from a
maximum of about 60 %to a minimum of about 2 %over a 2 inch gage length.
ASTM Specifications B161 for nickel rod and bar, Bl62 for seamless
pipe and tube, and B162 for plate, sheet, and strip, require a minimum tensile
strength of 55 ksi for annealed 99 %nickel (0.15 %C max) and 50 ksi for 99 %
nickel (0.02 % C max). These specifications also include minimum tensile
properties for nickel after various amounts of cold work. 9
The effect of cold drawing on the tensile properties of commercial nickel
is indicated in Fig. 2_2.10 The strength increases uniformly to a maximum of
about 140 ksi at a cold reduction of 80 %. At the same time, the ductility falls,
reaching a minimum elongation of about 8 % in 2 inches.
The effect of heating at a series of temperatures on the softening of
commercial nickel, cold worked to a tensile strength of 96 ksi, is indicated
in Fig. 2_3. 10 Strength increases slightly up to about 500 F with an accom-
panying reduction in ductility particularly as indicated by the data for reduc-
Nickel 15
160
140
"iii
..><:
..c
cr.
c
120 60 ~
...
Q)
C
iI5 N
~ 100 40 c
"iii "Q
c -0
~ 0-
80 20 §
w
o 20 40 60 80 100
Reduction by Drawing, %
Fig. 2-2. Effect of cold work on the tensile properties of com-
mercial nickel.! 0
Temperature, K
400 600 800 1000 1200
120 r---,----,----.-----,,---,..---,
IS.
100
80 80 ~
"iii 0
..><:
....
Q)
-
vi 60
en
~
( f)
60
-
<[
-0
Q)
0
40 40 0::
~
c
0
20 20 [jJ
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 2-3. Effect of annealing on the tensile properties of com-
mercial nickel cold drawn to a tensile strength of 96 ksi.! 0
16 Chapter 2
Temperature, K
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
80 80 ~
o
~
.iii
..:.::. 60 60 «
'+-
o
vl
(f)
Q) "D
'--
U5 40 40 &!
0>
C
o
20 20 W
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Temperature, F
Fig. 2-4. Effect of annealing on the tensile properties of commercial
nickel cold drawn with a reduction of 22 %.1
tion of area. Above this temperature, there is a gradual decrease in strength

accompanied by an increase in ductility. The increase in strength with ac-
companying decrease in ductility at about 400 F is quite apparent in commer-
cial nickel which had been cold drawn with a reduction of 22 % as shown in
Fig. 2-4. 1
Hardness
"High purity" nickel in the annealed condition has a hardness as low as
Rockwell B35 which is considerably lower than that of commercial nickel.
Nominal values for annealed commercial material, given in Table 2-2, show
Rockwell hardness values ranging from B45 to B70 depending on the form
of the material. ASTM Specification Bl62 for nickel plate, sheet, and strip
specifies Rockwell B64 minimum for annealed commercial material with
normal carbon content and B55 for annealed low carbon nickel. 9
Nickel is hardened by cold work, the rate of work hardening being
generally similar to that of mild steel. The effect of cold working on the
hardness of commercial nickel is shown in Fig. 2-5. 1
There is a definite relationship between the hardness and the tensile
properties which is advantageous in offering the engineer the opportunity of
estimating these properties if he knows the hardness of the material he is
handling. This relationship for sheet and strip is shown in Fig. 2-6. 8
Nickel 17
250~--~--~----~--~--~----~~
~ 200
E
::J
Z
~ 150
Q)
c
"2
:E 100
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Cold Work, %
Fig. 2-5. Effect of cold working on the hardness of commercial nickel.!
120
100
80
'Vi
.><:
(j')-
60 60 ~
-
(j')
Q)
~
~
(f)
.~
40 40~
c
0
'';::::
0
0'>
20 20 §
W
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Rockwell B Hardness
Fig. 2-6. Relationship between tensile properties and hardness of

commercial nickel sheet and strip. 8
18 Chapter 2
Fatigue Properties
The fatigue strength of commercial nickel at 10 8 cycles is reported to be
24 ksi for annealed, 30 ksi for hot rolled, and 42.5 ksi for cold drawn material. I
Tensile and fatigue strengths of annealed and cold worked sheet and rod are
given in Table 2-3. Based on the fatigue strength at 108 cycles, the fatigue
Table 2-3. Fatigue Strength of Commercial Nickel
Fatigue strength (ksi)

Tensile at indicated cycles
strength,
Material and condition ksi lOS 106 107 10 8 Ref.
Sheet, 0.2 in.
Annealed 72.0 45.5 35.0 27.0 22.9 11
Half hard, 37 % reduction 113.5 49.0 41.0 40.0
Hard, 60 % reduction 121.5 43.0 41.0
Rod, liz in.
Annealed 74-74 28-31 11
Hot rolled 66-72 23-25
Cold drawn 98-126 38-45
Cold drawn, stress-relieved at 525 F 88-94 34-38
Rod
Annealed 78 52 40 34 33 8
Cold drawn 132 84 63 52 50
ratios for both annealed and cold worked material lie in the range 0.31 to
0.42.
Fatigue curves for cold drawn and annealed commercial nickel are
given in Fig. 2-7. 8 The cold drawn material had a tensile strength of 132 ksi
and the annealed material, 78 ksi. The resulting endurance ratios were 0.37
and 0.42, respectively. Although the cold worked material had a higher
endurance limit in air than the annealed material, corrosion fatigue limits
in fresh and brackish water were practically the same for both. 8
Impact Properties
As measured by notched-bar tests, nickel is a very tough material.
Charpy values for commercial nickel have been given as 216 ft-Ib for annealed,
195 ft-Ib for hot rolled, and 185 ft-Ib for cold drawn materia}.!
Data from another source give Charpy V-notch values of 228 ft-Ib for
annealed, 200 ft-Ib for hot rolled, and 204 ft-Ib for cold drawn material
which had been reduced 24 %.8 Additional data on impact properties are
given under low-temperature properties.
Nickel 19
120
100
80
. iii
~
en
60
-
If)
....
Q)
( j)
40 Ann.
20
4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10
Cycles
Fig. 2-7 S-N curves for cold drawn and annealed commercial nickel. 8
Neutron Irradiation
Shober l2 reports that the effect of fast neutron irradiation on the
mechanical properties of metals is unusual because while some properties
are enhanced others are adversely affected. He notes that, in general, yield
strengths are significantly increased, hardness and tensile strengths are
increased moderately, and elongations are reduced. For example, the neutron
irradiation of annealed commercial nickel at 1 X 10 19 neutrons/cm 2 and
240 F resulted in an increase in the Brinell hardness from 64 to 137, an
increase in tensile strength from 65 to 69 ksi, and a reduction in elongation
from 45 to 34 % in? inches.
Makin 13 also investigated the effects of neutron irradiation on nickel.
After irradiation at 5 X 10 19 neutrons/cm 2 and 212 F, he found only a small
increase in the room-temperature tensile strength from about 58 to 63 ksi,
but there was a significant increase in yield strength from 34 to 59 ksi.
E Ie va ted- Temperature Properties

The short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of annealed
nickel are given in Fig. 2-8. 8 There is a slight increase in tensile strength
in the 400 to 500 F range accompanied by a minimum in the elongation.
20 Chapter 2
Temperature, K
400 600 800 1000 1200
60
50 240
"VI
.:s:. 40 200
(/)
(/)
~ ~
en 30 160 C
0
".,=
a
01
c:
20 120 0
W
10 80
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 2-8. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of
annealed commercial nickel. 8
Above this range, the strength falls quite uniformly and the ductility as
measured by the elongation increases rapidly.
The creep properties of "high purity" nickel were investigated by Jenkins,
Digges, and Johnson l4 and by Jenkins and Willard. ls Some of their data
are included in Table 2-4 as a basis for the comparison of the properties of
commercial nickel. Although only limited data were available by which "high
purity" nickel and commercial nickel could be compared, these data indicate
that the low carbon commercial nickel and the "high purity" nickel have
comparable creep properties.
In the commercial grades of nickel, the low carbon modifications have
superior creep and stress-rupture properties at temperatures above 600 F.8
Some indications of the effect of carbon content on the creep and stress-
rupture properties are given in Table 2_4. 8 • 16 These data indicate that low
carbon nickel (0.02 % C max) has higher resistance to creep at 1000 F than
commercial nickel (0.15% C max) has at 800 F. Although the differences
z
ii'
~
!!.
Table 2-4. Creep and Stress-Rupture Properties of Nickel
Test Stress (ksi) for creep rate of Stress (ksi)

temperature, for rupture
Material Condition F 0.00001 %/hr 0.0001 %/hr 0.001 %/hr 0,01 %/hr in 10 hr Ref.
99.85% Ni Annealed 700 20 26 14

900 9.8 15.5
1200 5
99.85% Ni Cold drawn, 40 % 700 41 45 15
900 25 31
1200 2.5 4.5
Commercial Ni Annealed 1200 5 7.5 16
(0.008% C) 1500 3.6
Commercial Ni Annealed 800 8 11 8
(0.02 % C max) 900 5.6 8
1000 3.5 5.6 8 20
1200 1.2 2 3.8 13
Commercial Ni Annealed 600 13 40 8
(0.15% C max) 700 3 9
800 2 6
Commercial Ni Annealed 750 37 17
930 24
1110 10.7
II.)
...
22 Chapter 2
in stress-rupture properties are less pronounced, they are significant. For

example, low carbon nickel has a 100-hour rupture strength of 13 ksi at 1200
F compared with a value of 10.7 ksi for commercial nickel at 1110 F.
Lozinskiy and Pertsivskiy l7 investigated the effects of "thermomechan-
ical" treatments on the creep and stress-rupture properties of nickel. This
treatment consists of rolling annealed commercial nickel at elevated tem-
peratures with reductions of 2 to 45 % and water quenching prior to cold
rolling. They concluded that the most effective conditions for strengthening
nickel were:
1. Cold rolling with 40 to 45 % reduction with no preliminary hot roll-
ing for service at 750 F.
2. Hot rolling at 930 F with reductions of 40 to 45 %, followed by cold
rolling for service at 930 F.
3. Hot rolling at 1650 F with reductions of about 30%, followed by
cold rolling for service at 1100 F.
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
280
-
240 Ann
HR
200 CD
--,
..0
160
U
0
Q
E
>,
120
Q
0
.c
U
80
Cast
40
~"....--------
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 2-9. Subzero-ter.1perature impact properties of commercial
nickel. I 8
Nickel 23
Low-Temperature Properties
Like other face-centered cubic metals, nickel shows no transition from

ductile to brittle behavior as the temperature falls into the cryogenic range.
The notched bar test is often used as a criterion of low-temperature toughness.
As shown in Fig. 2-9,!8 there is no loss of toughness in annealed or worked
nickel at temperatures down to -300 F, and cast nickel, also, is as resistant
at this low temperature as it is at to om temperature.
The tensile and yield strengths of both forged and annealed nickel
increase as the temperature is reduced below zero, as shown in Fig. 2_10 18 •
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
140 70
120 60
100 50 0
. if) 0-::
.:L
c:
c.tl .2
If)
80 40
-
0
~ a>
( f)
c:
0
W
60 30
40 20
20 -------------------___
----, 10
-300 -200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 2-10. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of commercial

nickel. 18 1. Tensile strength, forged; 2. yield strength, forged; 3.
elongation, annealed; 4. tensile strength, annealed; 5. elongation,
forged; 6. yield strength, annealed.
24 Chapter 2
160
-Unnotched
----Notched
~
120
.iii
~
u)
if) 80
~4
Q)
~
(f)
_______ ______I____ ~
40 _______ 2
---------====:-------------
3 --. ----------
---~---=======--_.-- 4
3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10
Cycles
Fig. 2-11. Subzero-temperature S-N curves in reverse bending for annealed com-
mercial nickel sheet. 19 Notch factor, K, = 3.0. Tested at (1) -423 F, (2) -320 F,
(3) -110 F, (4) 70 F.
The ductility as measured by the elongation also improves although the an-
nealed material passes through a minimum at about -200 F.
The effect of low temperature on the fatigue strength of commercial
nickel sheet, having a tensile strength of 61.6 ksi, is shown in Fig. 2-11Y In
line with the tensile strength, the fatigue strength also increases as the tem-
perature is reduced. Apparently, notches reduce the fatigue strength by
approximately the same degree at low temperatures as they do at room
temperature.
CAST NICKEL
The compositions of alloys used for castings usually differ from those
used for the corresponding wrought material because, for example, greater
fluidity is required in order to fill the mold properly. Although commercial
wrought nickel has the nominal composition 99 % nickel +
cobalt, com-
mercial cast nickel contains about 1.5 % silicon and has a higher carbon
content. The nominal composition is 97 % nickel + cobalt, 1.5 % silicon,
0.50% manganese, 0.50% carbon, 0.30% copper, 0.25% iron, and 0.015%
maximum sulfur.
Nickel can be melted for the production of castings in electric, oil-fired,
or gas-fired furnaces using practices which follow those used for steel cast-
ings. The melt can be made under a thin limestone slag with additions of
nickel oxide and carbon to cause a boil to eliminate gases. After the boil,
the metal is killed with silicon, the carbon content is adjusted, manganese
Nickel 25
is added, and the metal is allowed to lie quietly in the furnace for a period
sufficient to permit the trapped oxides to rise into the slag. After this period,
the metal is poured at temperatures ranging from 2725 to 2900 F, following
final deoxidation in the ladle. Although sand mixtures similar to those used
for steel can be used for nickel castings, gates and risers should be larger
than those used for steel. Pattern equipment should provided for a linear
shrinkage of 114 in. 1ft. 1
Grobecker 20 described a method of producing castings of nickel having
a higher purity than that used for commercial cast nickel, which is a modi-
fication of the commercial method. This procedure requires melting under
highly oxidizing conditions, a conventional boil, and deoxidation with car-
bon, manganese, aluminum, and magnesium. The metal had high shrinkage
during cooling in the liquid state, also during solidification, and in the solid
state. Because of this high shrinkage, it was necessary to increase the shrink-
age allowance to 5/16 in./ft. The composition of the product was 98.5-
99.0% nickel + cobalt, 0.5-0.7% carbon, 0.15-0.40% silicon, 0.15-0.25%
iron, 0.05-0.25 % manganese, and 0.004 % maximum sulfur. The castings
showed a slight tendency to be brittle, but lack of ductility was not severe
and castings of the desired shape could be produced in sand molds. The
procedures are fully described.
Physical Properties
Reflecting the greater impurity content, the physical properties of cast
nickel are somewhat different from those of commercial wrought nickel.
The melting range is reduced to 2450-2600 F from 2615-2635 F, a
reduction of the solidus temperature of 165 F. The electrical resistivity is
about double that of the wrought material which might be expected since
this property is very sensitive to impurity content. However, the thermal
conductivity and coefficient of expansion are less seriously affected. The
modulus of elasticity of cast nickel is also significantly lower than that of the
wrought material. Properties of the cast grade are given in Table 2_5. 21
Comparisons can be made with those of the commercial wrought type which
are given in Table 2-1.
Mechanical Properties
The "as cast" mechanical properties of cast nickel are also included in
Table 2-5. These are the properties which can be expected to be achieved in
commercial castings.
Both the yield and tensile strengths are comparable with those of an-
nealed wrought material although they are on the low side of the range. On
the other hand, the ductility, as measured by the elongation, is much lower
26 Chapter 2
Table 2-5. Physical and Mechanical Properties

of Commercial Cast Nickepo
Physical properties
Melting range, F 2450--2600
Specific heat (80--750 F), Btu/lb;oF 0.13
Thermal conductivity (212 F), Btu/hr/ftz/"F/ft 34.2
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70--1400 F), per of 8.9 x 10- 6
Electrical resistivity (32 F), ohms/cir mil ft 125
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 21,500
Mechanical properties
Yield strength, ksi 20-30
Tensile strength, ksi 45-60
Elongation (2 in.), % 30-15
Brinell hardness 80-125
Charpy impact, ft-lb 60
than that of the wrought material although still very good for a material in
cast form.
The Brinell hardness is about the same as that of the wrought type,
values ranging from 80 to 125 for cast nickel and 90 to 120 for annealed
wrought nickel in the form of bars or plates.
Cast nickel is a tough material as measured by the notched-bar test but
considerably less tough than its wrought counterpart. The resistance of cast
nickel as determined by the Charpy impact test is given as 60 ft-Ib but the
type of notch is not indicated. zl This compares with about 215 ft-Ib for
annealed and 185 ft-lb for cold drawn wrought nickel. I
The effect of subzero temperatures on the impact properties of cast
nickel is indicated in Fig. 2-9, which includes data on wrought nickel also.
This source gives the room temperature Charpy value for cast nickel as about
38 ft-lb as contrasted with that previously mentioned, but it is apparent
that there is no indication of embrittlement at low temperatures and the
cast nickel is as tough at - 320 F as it is at room temperature. IS
NICKEL POWDER
Nickel powder can be produced by a number of methods. However,

the major commercial procedures in use today are the chemical reduction
and the carbonyl nickel processes.
Carbonyl Nickel
In the production of nickel powder by the carbonyl process, nickel is
extracted from reduced nickel oxide by reaction with carbon monoxide under
Nickel 27
pressure. The product is liquid nickel carbonyl which may contain some iron
carbonyl also picked up from the raw material but is essentially free of other
impurities. Because of the differences in boiling points of nickel and iron
carbonyl, it is possible to separate them by fractionation. The nickel car-
bonyl is distilled off as a gas and is subsequently liquefied in a condenser.
The liquid nickel carbonyl is decomposed at elevated temperature to
produce nickel powder. 22 Adjustment of the conditions permits some control
over the characteristics of the powder produced. The carbonyl process yields
nickel powder of uniform size and high purity with particles less than 10
microns in size and with quite low density.
Prill and Upthegrove 23 determined the properties of compacts produced
from commercial carbonyl nickel powder having the following characteristics:
average particle size, 3.8 microns; apparent density, 1.87 g/cm 3 ; composi-
tion-O.lO % carbon, 0.08 % oxygen, 0.004 % iron, less than 1 part per mil-
lion sulfur, balance nickel.
The material was compacted at pressures ranging from 30 to 70 tons per
square inch and sintered in hydrogen at 2000 to 2100 F for periods ranging
from 5 min to 24 hr. After this series of treatments, the range in properties was
Sintered density, % of theoretical 84-95
Yield strength (0.2 % offset), ksi 8-30
Tensile strength, ksi 33-77
Elongation (1 in.), % l3-35
Charpy impact (V-notch), ft-lb 3-24
This range of properties, which is achieved by varying the compacting
pressure to achieve differences in sintered density, indicates that powder
metallurgy (P/M) parts having good strength, ductility, and toughness can
be produced from carbonyl nickel powder. Of course, the best properties are
obtained with the highest density, i.e., the parts having the lowest porosity.
Worn and Morton 24 determined the properties of extruded rod pro-
duced from carbonyl nickel powder. The powder was pressed at 35 tons/in. 2
and given a preliminary sintering at 1100 F for 2 hours in hydrogen. It was
then sintered at 2000 F for 2 hours in hydrogen, extruded in a steel sheath,
heated for 1 hour at 1830 F, and cooled in air. Finally the sheath was re-
moved by machining. This procedure yielded a bar of nickel which had been
worked and annealed out of contact with the air and had practically theoret-
ical density. The properties resulting from this working procedure were:
Vickers hardness 75
Proof stress (0.2 %), ksi 16
Tensile strength, ksi 40
Elongation, % 46
Reduction of area, % 65
28 Chapter 2
Reflecting the purity of the starting material, the strength of this bar is
quite low. The tensile strength of 40 ksi compares with 46 to 52 ksi reported
for "high purity" nickel by Rosenberg.! The ductility, as measured by the
elongation and reduction of area, is somewhat lower than that reported for
"high purity" wrought nickel but is excellent.
Worn and Morton also reported that the stress for rupture in 100 hours
at 1500 F was 2.2 ksi for the bar produced from powder. This value is fairly
close to the value of 3.6 ksi reported for low carbon commercial nickel under
the same conditions in Table 2-4.
Chemically Reduced Nickel Powder

In the production of nickel powder by chemical reduction on a com-
mercial scale, nickel sulfide ores are leached with ammonia at moderately
elevated temperatures and pressures, according to Cockburn and LoreeY
After boiling the leach solution to remove the excess ammonia and precipi-
tating the copper as sulfide, nickel powder is precipitated from solution by
reduction with hydrogen under pressure in an autoclave. The powder is
separated from the liquid by filtering on a vacuum filter and is dried in a
rotary drier.
The characteristics of the powder produced by chemical reduction
can be varied by changes in the operating procedures. The apparent density
of powder produced by this process ranges from 33 to 4.3 gj cm 3 and a typical
analysis is 99.8-99.9 % nickel + cobalt, 0.006-0.071 % iron, 0.012-0.019 %
sulfur, and 0.05-0.18 % hydrogen loss.
This type of powder is used commercially for the direct rolling of nickel
sheet. Some of the properties obtained on sheet after compacting, sintering,
hot and cold rolling are given in Table 2-6. The powder had the nominal
Table 2-6. Properties of Nickel Sheet Rolled from Powder z6
Physical properties
Thermal conductivity (158 F), BtuJhrJftzrF/ft 49.9
Coefficient of thermal expansion (68-212 F), per OF 7.7 x 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 45.9
Density,lb/in. 3 0.322
Mechanical properties of annealed material
Yield strength (0.2 % offset), ksi 8
Elongation (1 in.), % 45
Shear strength, ksi 47.5
Rockwell hardness, 30T scale 25
"Nickel 29
composition 99.93 % nickel + cobalt, 0.08 % cobalt, 0.006 % copper, 0.04 %

iron, and 0.007 % carbon. 26
Physical Properties
The density of sheet rolled from powder is the same as that of wrought
"high purity" nickel as shown in Table 2-1. The electrical resistivity, thermal
conductivity, coefficient of expansion, and modulus of elasticity also compare
favorably with those of wrought "high purity" nickel. The close relationship
between properties of material produced conventionally and that produced
from powder shows that the latter procedure is an excellent means of pro-
ducing a mill form for further processing by conventional secondary fab-
ricating procedures.
The tensile strength of the sheet, 50 ksi, lies within the range reported
by Rosenberg for "high purity" nickel. l As in the case of the bar produced
from carbonyl nickel powder, the sheet rolled from powder is somewhat less
ductile than that of "high purity" nickel produced conventionally.
An interesting comparison can be made of this rolled strip with the ex-
truded bar produced from carbonyl nickel. The chemically reduced powder
100
80
"Vi
-"=
60 60 ~
vJ
<f)
~
c'
-
Q)
'-
if) 40 40 C\J
c
0
B
20 20 0>
c
0
W
0 20 40 60 80
Reduction by Rolling, %
Fig. 2-12. Effect of cold rolling on the tensile proper-
ties of nickel strip prepared from powder. 25
30 Chapter 2
is somewhat lower in purity than the carbonyl product and this difference
is reflected in the higher strength of the former. The ductilities of the two
materials, however, are quite comparable.
The effect of cold rolling on the tensile properties of strip rolled from
powder is indicated in Fig. 2_12.26 The tensile strength rises to a maximum of
about 90 ksi at a reduction by rolling of 70% and the yield strength rises
rapidly, approaching the tensile strength at a reduction of about 40%. How-
ever, the ductility, as measured by the elongation, falls to a very low value
with a reduction of 40%.
REFERENCES
1. S. J. Rosenberg, Nickel and Its Alloys, Monograph 106, National Bureau of Standards
(1968).
2. Handbook of Huntington Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The Inter-
national Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
3. Nickel-Containing Magnetic Materials, The International Nickel Co., Ltd. (1961).
4. J. P. Morris, G. R. Zellars, S. L. Payne, and R. L. Kipp, Vapor Pressures of Liquid
Iron and Liquid Nickel, RI 5364, Bureau of Mines (1957).
5. C. Y. Ho, R. W. Powell, and P. E. Liley, Thermal Conductivity of Selected Materials,
NSRDS-NBS 16, National Bureau of Standards (1968).
6. S. Bouwman, "Magnetic materials," International Science and Technology, Dec. 1962,
p.20.
7. Magnetostriction, The International Nickel Co., Inc., (1960).
8. Huntington Nickel Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The International
Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
9. ASTM Standards, Part 7, American Society for Testing and Materials (1969).
10. J. L. Everhart, E. Lindlief, J. Kanegis, P. G. Weissler, and F. Siegel, Mechanical Prop-
erties of Metals and Alloys, Circular 447, National Bureau of Standards (1943).
11. H. J. Grover, R. A. Gordon, and L. R. Jackson, Fatigue of Metals and Structures,
NAVWEPS 00-25-534, Department of the Navy (1961).
12. F. R. Shober, The Effect of Nuclear Radiation on Structural Materials, DMIC Report
166, Battelle Memorial Institute (1961).
13. M. J. Mekin, "The effect of neutron radiation on the mechanical properties of copper
and nickel," J. Inst. Metals 86, 449 (1957).
14. W. D. Jenkins, T. G. Digges, and C. R. Johnson, "Creep of high purity nickel," J.
Res. Nat. Bur. of Std. 53, 329 (1954).
15. W. D. Jenkins and W. A. Willard, "Creep of cold drawn nickel, copper, 70% nickel-
30% copper and 30% nickel-70% copper," J. Res. Nat. Bur, Std. C 66,59 (1962).
16. P. Shahinean and M. R. Achter, "Comparison of the creep rupture properties of
nickel in air and vacuum," Trans. A/ME 215,37 (1959).
17. M. G. Lozinskiy and N. Z. Pertsivskiy, "Influence of temperature and degree of
deformation in thermomechanical treatment on the creep resistance of nickel," Physics
of Metals and Metallography 23 (2), 68 (1967).
18. R. M. McClintock and H. P. Gibbons, Mechanical Properties of Structural Materials
at Low Temperatures, Monograph 13, National Bureau of Standards (t 960).
Nickel 31
19. F. R. Schwartzberg, S. H. Osgood, R. D. Keys, and T. F. Kiefer, Cryogenic Materials

Data Handbook, AD609652, The Martin Co. (1964).
20. D. W. Grobecker, "An investigation of melting and casting procedures for high
purity nickel," Trans. Amer. Foundrymen's Soc. 58, 720 (1950).
21. "Nickel and its aIIoys-cast," Materials in Design Engineering, Mid-October 1966,
p.175.
22. J. R. Boldt, The Winning of Nickel, Van Nostrand (1967).
23. A. L. Prill and W. R. Upthegrove, "Properties of sintered carbonyl nickel compacts,"
Progress in Powder Metallurgy 20, 94 (1964).
24. D. K. Worn and S. F. Morton, "Some properties of nickel containing a dispersed
phase of thoria," Powder Metallurgy, Interscience (1961), p. 109.
25. K. O. Cockburn, R. J. Loree, and J. B. Haworth, "The production and characteristics
of chemicaIIy precipitated nickel powder," Proc. 13th Annual Meeting, Metul Powder
Assn., April 30-May 1, 1957, p. 10.
26. "Nickel strip by powder metaIIurgy," Precision Metal Molding 22, 33 (1964).
Chapter 3
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and

Heat-Resistant Alloys-I
This and the following two chapters will deal with several groups of alloys
which are in a sense related either through their major applications or
through their compositions. The original materials were developed for
corrosion resistance; later alloys extended the range of applications to heat
resistance at higher temperatures, finally culminating in the alloys which
extended the range to the highest temperatures at which nickel-base alloys
are used, the so-called superalloy range.
It is essential to point out that the breakdown is strictly arbitrary. The
corrosion-resistant alloys are frequently used in heat-resistant applications
and the latter are used in corrosion-resistant applications, even at cryogenic
temperatures. Because of their high alloy content and hence rather high cost,
the superalloys are generally used in high-temperature service.
Unfortunately, there is no simple numbering system for the nickel-
base alloys like that used by the AISI to classify steels. Several technical
societies are working together to develop a universal numbering system for
metallic materials but it is in the early stages of development. Consequently,
many of the materials to be discussed are familiar to engineers by the names
assigned to them by the originators of the alloys. Although use of trademarks
does not seem to be a particularly desirable procedure in a general publica-
tion, it appears to be the best method of identifying the alloys for the benefit
of the reader and therefore will be used. A list of trademarks and their owners
is included in the appendix.
Many alloys have been developed that would fit into the classification
of nickel-base corrosion- and heat-resistant materials and it is impossible
to cover them all. Therefore, representative alloys in various systems have
32
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I 33
been selected to indicate the properties that can be expected of the nickel-
base alloys. The most widely used materials can be broken down into the
following groups:
Nickel-copper alloys
Nickel-molybdenum and nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys
Nickel-silicon alloys
Nickel-chromium alloys
Nickel-chromium-iron and nickel-iron-chromium alloys
Nickel-chromium-cobalt alloys
Superalloys which are generally age hardenable modifications of
the alloy systems containing chromium
The first three groups will be considered in this chapter. Others will be
discussed in succeeding chapters.
NICKEL-COPPER ALLOYS
Nickel and copper are soluble in each other in all proportions. The only
transition in the solid alloys is the magnetic transition at the Curie tempera-
ture which, according to Rosenberg,l varies from 639 F for nickel to -274 F
for the 50% nickel-50 % copper alloy. This chapter deals only with the high-
nickel end of the system. The high-copper alloys will be discussed in Chapter
6.
The most important of the nickel-copper alloys are those containing
approximately 67 % nickel and 33 % copper, and modifications of this basic
composition. These alloys are called "Monel" alloys by their originator. The
basic member of the series is Monel alloy 400. This alloy has good strength,
is weldable, and has excellent corrosion resistance and toughness over a wide
range of temperatures. The nominal composition is given in Table 3-1. 2
Several modifications of this basic composition are:
Table 3-1. Nominal Compositions of Some Commercial

Nickel-Copper Alloys2
Composition, %
Designation Nia Cu C Mn Fe S Si Others
Monel alloy 400 66.5 31.5 0.15 1.0 1.25 0.12 0.25
Money alloy 404 54.5 44.0 0.08 0.05 0.D25 0.12 0.05 0.03 Al
Money alloy R405 66.5 31.5 0.15 1.0 1.25 0.43 0.25
Monel alloy K-500 66.5 29.5 0.13 0.75 1.00 0.005 0.5 3.0 AI, 0.63 Ti
"Nickel + cobalt.
34 Chapter 3
I. Monel alloy 404, which was developed to obtain an alloy having low
magnetic permeability and excellent brazing characteristics. Alloy
404 has a low Curie temperature and its magnetic properties are not
significantly affected by fabrication.
2. Monel alloy R-405, a material similar to alloy 400 to which sulfur
has been added to improve the machining characteristics for use as
stock for automatic screw machines.
3. Monel alloy K-500, an age harden able modification of alloy 400.
Heating the solution-annealed alloy to about 1100 F causes a precipi-
tation of an intermetallic compound, Ni 3 (AI, Ti), which increases
the strength and hardness of the material.
The compositions of these three alloys are given in Table 3-1. 2
A number of other modifications of alloy 400 are available. They in-
clude Monel alloy 401, produced for specialized electronic applications;
alloy 402, developed for resistance to pickling solutions; alloy 403, developed
for nonmagnetic applications in minesweepers; alloy 406, for use in cor-
rosive mine waters; and alloy 474, a higher-purity modification of alloy 404. 3
These materials will not be discussed in this publication.
Physical Properties
Representative physical properties of Monel alloy 400, alloy 404, and
alloy K-500 are given in Table 3_2.2,4 According to the producer, the physical
Table 3-2. Physical Properties of Some Nickel-Copper AII oys 2,4
Monel Monel Monel

alloy alloy alloy
400 404 K-500
Melting range, F 2370-2460 2400-2460

Specific heat (70 F), Btujlb;oF 0.102 0.099 0.100
Thermal conductivity (70 F), Btujhrjft2;oFjft 12.6 12.2 10.1
Coefficient thermal expansion (70-1000 F),
per of 9.0 x 10- 6 9.2 X 10- 6 8.7 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity (70 F), ohmsjcir mil ft 307 300 370
Temperature coefficient of resistance
(68-212 F) 0.0011 0.0001
Curie temperature, F 20-50 -110 -210a, -153 b
Permeability (70 F, H = 2000e) 1.002 1.001
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 26,000 25,000 26,000
Modulus of rigidity, ksi 10,000 9,400 9,500
Poisson's ratio 0.32 0.32
Density, Ibjin. 3 0.319 0.321 0.306
aAnnealed.
•Age hardened.
properties of alloy R-405 are identical with those of alloy 400 and, therefore,
they have not been included in the table.
The electrical resistivities and thermal conductivities of alloy 400 and
alloy 404 are quite similar. Reflecting the higher alloy content, Monel alloy
K-500 has a considerably higher electrical resistivity and a correspondingly
low thermal conductivity. Other physical properties of the three alloys are
also quite close together with the exception of the magnetic transformation
point.
The Curie temperature of alloy 400 is in the ambient temperature re-
gion, that of alloy 404 at -110 F, and that of alloy K-500 ranges from -210
F for the alloy in the solution-annealed condition to -153 F after age hard-
ening. The low Curie temperatures of alloy 404 and alloy K-500 indicate
that these alloys are virtually nonmagnetic at quite low temperatures.
Monel alloy 400, alloy 404, and alloy R-405 are solid-solution alloys
which can be hardened only by cold work. On the other hand, alloy K-500,
which contains aluminum and titanium, can be age hardened to achieve
higher strength and hardness than are obtainable by cold work alone.
Tensile Properties. Nominal tensile property ranges for these alloys

are given in Table 3_3. 3 ,5 They reflect the variation in expected properties
which will occur in different mill forms.
The tensile strengh of Monel alloy 400 ranges from about 70 ksi for
annealed material to 140 ksi for severely cold worked material. Since the
ductility decre2,ses with cold work, the elongation ranges from about 60 %
for annealed material to as low as 2 % after cold working.
Alloy R-405, the free-machining version of alloy 400, has strength prop-
erties in the same range as those of alloy 400 but the ductility is somewhat
lower. The limited data available on alloy 404 indicate properties in the
same range as those of alloy 400.
Monel alloy R-500, however, reflecting its ability to be age hardened,
has a much broader range of tensile properties than the other three materials.
The tensile strength ranges from 90 ksi for annealed material to 220 ksi for
material that had been age hardened after severe cold work. The ductility,
as measured by the elongation, ranges from about 45 %for annealed material
to 2 % for cold worked material, which has not been age hardened. Age
hardening, however, results in some improvement in the ductility of severely
cold worked material.
The effects of cold work and age hardening after cold work on the
36 Chapter 3
Table 3-3. Nominal Tensile Properties and Hardness

Values of Some Nickel-Copper All oys 3.s
Yield
strength Tensile Elongation
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), Rockwell
Form and condition ksi ksi % hardness
Monel alloy 400
Rod and bar
Annealed 25-50 70-90 60-35 B60-80
Hot finished 40-100 80-110 60-30 B95-100
Cold drawn, stress-relieved 55-100 84-120 40-22 B85-C20
Plate, hot rolled
Annealed 28-50 70-85 50-35 B60-76
As rolled 40-75 75-95 45-30 B70-96
Sheet
Annealed 25-45 70-85 50-35 B73 max
Cold rolled, hard 90-110 100-120 15-2 B93 min
Strip, cold rolled
Annealed 25-45 70-85 55-35 B68 max
Spring temper 90-130 100-140 15-2 B98 min
Monel alloy R-405
Rod and bar
Annealed 25-40 70-85 50-35 B60-76
Hot finished 35-60 75-90 45-30 B72-86
Cold drawn 50-105 85-115 35-15 B85-C23
Monel alloy 404
Rod
Annealed 25 67 47 B58
Hot rolled 31 69 45 B67
Cold drawn, stress-relieved 64 77 29 B84
Strip, cold rolled
Monel alloy K-500
Rod and Bar
Annealed 40-60 90-110 45-25 B75-90
Hot finished 40-110 90-155 45-20 B75-C35
Hot finished, aged 100-150 140-190 30-20 C27-38
Plate
Hot finished 40-110 90-135 45-20 B75-C26
Hot finished, aged 100-135 140-180 30-20 C27-37
Strip, cold rolled
Annealed 40-65 90-105 45-25 B85 max
Annealed, aged 90-120 130-170 25-15 C24 min
220~---.---.----.---~----r---,
46
200 44
42
__ 180 40 (f)
(f)
(f)
.:.::
37 c Q)
~
34 :r::0
(f)
31 0
~ 140 27 Q)
3
iii .:.::
c u
Q) 22 0
f- 0::
120 16
9
100 0
80 ~--~----~--~----~--~~--~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cold Work, %
Fig. 3-1. Effect of cold work and age hardening on the strength and
hardness of alloy K-500 5 •
tensile strength of alloy K -500 are indicated in Fig. 3-1. 5 Age hardening
produces a significant improvement in strength. For example, it results in
an increase in tensile strength of about 30 ksi in material cold worked with
a reduction of 60 %.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness ranges for the four alloys are included
in Table 3-3. The hardness values for alloy 400, alloy R-405, and alloy 404
range from about R60 for annealed material to C20 for cold worked material.
Reflecting its ability to be hardened by aging, the hardness of alloy K-5oo
ranges from about B75 in the annealed condition to a minimum of C24 in
the worked and aged condition. The range of hardness values to be expected
as a result of cold working followed by aging is indicated in Fig. 3-1.
There is an approximate relationship between the tensile properties and
the hardness of Monel alloy 400, which is useful to the engineer. This rela-
tionship is shown in Fig. 3-2 for sheet and strip.3 The tensile strength in-
creases gradually from 70 ksi to 115 ksi with yield strength increasing more
rapidly as the hardness resulting from cold work increases from Rockwell
38 Chapter 3
120
100
80
.iii
..><:
en- ~
en
...
<l>
60 60 ~
-
c
if)
C\J
40 40 c
0
..;=
0
Cl'
c
20 20 0
W
60 70 80 90 100
Rockwell B Hardness
Fig. 3-2. Relationship between tensile properties and hardness
of alloy 400 sheet and strip. 3
B60 to BlOO. In the same hardness range, the elongation falls from about
48% to 5%.
Fatigue Properties. The effects of working and aging on the fatigue

properties of several nickel-copper alloys are indicated in Table 3_4. 3 ,5
Monel alloy 400 rod has endurance ratios of about 0.40 in the annealed con-
dition and also after cold working; sheet ratios are about 0.31. Alloy R-405
rod has fatigue properties similar to those of alloy 400. The age hardening
of alloy K-500 rod and sheet results in a significant reduction in the endur-
ance ratio.
Impact Properties. As measured by the notched-bar impact test, Monel

alloy 400 is a very tough material. Data are given in Table 3-5 for annealed
and cold worked material tested by both the Izod and Charpy methods. The
specimens did not fracture completely in these tests.3 Although the resistance
to impact is somewhat lower than that of alloy 400, alloy R-405 also has
excellent toughness and the specimens did not fracture completely.3
Apparently, Monel alloy K-500 is less tough than alloy 400 although
the results are not directly comparable since different procedures were used.
A further indication is the fact that the aged materials fractured completely
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloy-I 39
Table 3-4. Fatigue Strengths of Some Nickel-Copper Alloys

Fatigue
Tensile strength
strength, (l08 cycles), Endurance
Form and condition ksi ksi ratio Ref.
Monel alloy 400
Rod
Annealed 82 33.5 0.41 3
Cold drawn 105 40.5 0.39
Cold drawn, stress-relieved 96.5 17 0.38
Sheet
Annealed 74.7 21 0.38
Cold rolled, hard 126 39 0.31
Monel alloy R-405
Rod
Annealed 75.5 30 0.40 3
Cold drawn 90.5 36.5 0.40
Monel alloy K-500
Rod
Annealed 88 38 0.43 5
Cold drawn 120 45 0.37
Cold drawn, aged 170 47 0.28
Sheet
Annealed 88 27 0.31
Spring temper, aged 153 37 0.24
Table 3-5. Impact Properties of Some Nickel-Copper Alloys

Impact resistance, ft-Ib
Condition Izod Charpy Ref.
V-notch Keyhole notch
Monel alloy 400

Annealed 90-120+ 215 3
Hot rolled 100-120+ 220
Forged 75-115
Cold drawn 75-115 150
Monel alloy R-405
Annealed 120+ 196 3
Hot rolled 96 187
Cold drawn 99 140
Monel alloy K-5oo
Annealed 1800 F, 1 hr, wqa 75 5
Hot finished 74
Hot finished, aged 1100 F, 16 hr 39 b
Cold drawn 40
Cold drawn, aged 1100 F, 16 hr 26 b
aWater quenched.
bFractured completely.
40 Chapter 3
in a Charpy test. Additional impact data are included under low-temperature

properties.
Elevated- Temperature Properties

A comparison of the short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths
of hot rolled Monel alloy 400 and alloy K-500 is given in Fig. 3_3. 3 ,5 Alloy
K-500 is significantly stronger than alloy 400 at all but the highest tempera-
tures. The effect of age hardening on alloy K-500 is also apparent in this
figure. The greatly increased strength resulting from aging persists up to
about 1000 F but above that temperature softening occurs and the aged
material approaches the unaged in strength.
Temperature, K
400 600 800 1000 1200
160 .........---..-----,-----,.--,...---..,....---,
140
120
(f)
-"" 100
-£
CJ1
C
~ 80
en
-ill
§ 60
f-
40
20
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 3-3. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths

of two nickeI-<:opper alloys. 3,5 (1) Alloy K-500, hot
rolled and aged; (2) alloy K-500, hot rolled; (3) alloy 400,
hot rolled.
Table 3-6. Creep and Rupture Properties of Some

Nickel-Copper Alloys
Stress (ksi) for creep

Test rate of Stress (ksi)
Condition F 0.001 %/hr 0.Q1 %/hr in 100 hr Ref.
Monel alloy 400

Hot rolled 700 30 40 3
800 14.5 25.5
900 4.0 13.5
1000 3.0
Annealed 800 15 24
900 8 16 46
1000 3.5 9.5
Cold drawn, 800 12 30 54
stress-relieved 900 3.5 12 38
1000 0.6 2.1 24
Monel alloy K-500
Cold drawn, aged 800 47 88 5
900 25 48
1000 8.2 21
1100 9.1
Hot finished, aged 900 66
1000 42
1100 34
Data on the creep and stress-rupture properties of alloy 400 and alloy
K-500 are included in Table 3_6. 3 ,5 The creep strengths of alloy 400 in the
annealed condition are markedly higher than those of the same alloy in the
hot rolled or the cold rolled stress-relieved conditions and the differences
increase with rising temperatures. The stress for rupture in 100 hours of
annealed material is also somewhat higher than that of material which has
been stress-relieved after cold rolling.
Alloy K-500 in the cold worked and aged condition has much higher
creep strengths than alloy 400 in the 800 to 1000 F range, as might be ex-
pected. As indicated in the table, this alloy has a creep strength at 1100 F
practically equivalent to that of annealed alloy 400 at 1000 F. The differences
in the 100-hour stress rupture strengths are much lower.
Low- Temperature Properties

The Monel alloys have excellent mechanical properties at subzero
temperatures. Strength and hardness increase and there is no ductile to brittle
transition even at extremely low temperatures.
42 Chapter 3
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
160
140
120
100 ...... ......

......
...... ......
~ 80 ... ~
~~ f:'Ot;
-~
( J) ...... LI
~~~e(j
R ......
......
60
...... '7
............ ~ ......
. -- ........... ..
......
......
...... .........
40
20
-400 -300 - 200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 3-4. Subzero-temperature tensile and yield strengths of

alloy400 in various conditions. 6
McClintock and Gibbons 6 included data on alloy 400 and alloy K-500
in their compilation of low-temperature properties. As shown in Fig. 3-4,
the strength of alloy 400 in both the annealed and worked conditions increases
continuously with falling temperatures. Similarly, the strength of alloy K-500
also increases, the difference in strength between the aged and unaged material
remaining practically constant as the temperature falls (Fig. 3-5).
The ductility of alloy 400 as measured by impact tests remains practi-
cally unaffected as the temperature falls to very low values, as shown in Fig.
3-6. 6 Although the Izod values are considerably lower than the Charpy, both
follow the same trend.
Fatigue data on alloy K-500 cold rolled and aged to a tensile strength of
182 ksi are given in Table 3-7. 5 In common with the other mechanical prop-
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
240
200
160
en
.Y
ul 120
en
~
U5
80
20
-200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
alloy K-500 in various conditions. 6
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
240 I I I I
--
I Ann. I
200 - ~=;
160 - -
>. 120- -
01
"-
CLl - ___ • Ann.
W
C
80 r-
-------------,-
40 r- -
-CharpyV
----Izod
I I I I I
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 3-6. Subzero-temperature impact properties of alloy 400. 6
44 Chapter 3
Table 3-7. Fatigue Strength of a Nickel-Copper Alloy

at Low Temperatures S

Test at indicated cycles
temperature,
Condition F 105 10 6 10 7
Monel alloy K-500 70 90 55 37

Cold rolled, half hard, -110 99 67
aged (tensile strength, -320 105 69
182 ksi) -423 143 101
erties of the Monel alloys, the fatigue strength increases with falling tem-
perature.
CAST NICKEL-COPPER ALLOYS
The compositions of the cast nickel-copper alloys differ from those of

the wrought types mainly because filling the molds requires greater fluidity
in the liquid metal. This is achieved principally by increasing the silicon
content of the alloy.
Eash and Kihlgren 7 have pointed out that a wide range of properties
can be obtained by controlling the silicon content. By this means, the tensile
strengths of cast nickel-copper alloys, nominally containing 30 to 32 %
copper, can be varied from 75 ksi at 1.5 % silicon to 150 ksi at 4 % silicon,
the high strength of the latter being achieved by precipitation hardening.
Recommended practice for casting these alloys is included in their discus-
sion.
There are two commercial nickel-copper alloys in common use as cast-
int alloys. Designated Monel alloy 410 and alloy 505, they have the following
nominal compositions:
Ni eu Fe Mn Si
Monel alloy 410 66 30.5 1.0 0.8 1.6
Monel alloy 505 64 29 2.0 0.8 4.0
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of these two casting alloys are given in
Table 3_8. 8 ,9 With the exception of the modulus of elasticity, which is con-
siderably lower, the physical properties of alloy 410 are quite similar to
those of alloy 400, which were given in Table 3-2.
Table 3-8. Physical and Mechanical Properties

of Cast Nickel-Copper Alloys 8,9
Monel alloy Monel alloy 505

410
as cast Annealed Annealed
and aged
Physical properties
Melting temperature range, F 2400-2450 2300-2350
Specific heat (32-212 F), Btu/lb;oF 0.13 0.13
Thermal conductivity (68-212 F),
Btu/hr/ft2;oF/ft 15.5 11.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1000 F),
per of 9.2 x 10- 6 8.9 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 320 380
Density,lb/in. 3 0.312 0.302
Yield strength (0.2 % offset), ksi 35 75 110
Tensile strength, ksi 75 115 135
Elongation (2 in.), % 40 10 2
Brinell hardness 150 225 340
Charpy impact (V-notch), ft-lb 70
Reflecting the higher silicon content, the melting range of alloy '505 is
about 100 F lower than that of alloy 410, whereas the electrical resistivity is
considerably higher and the thermal conductivity is somewhat lower.
Typical mechanical properties of the two nickel-copper casting alloys
are given in Table 3-8. The "as cast" tensile properties of alloy 410 lie in the
same range as those of annealed alloy 400, but the toughness as measured by
the Charpy method is considerably lower.
Reflecting the higher silicon content, alloy 505 has considerably higher
strength and hardness than alloy 410 but the elongation is much lower. Age
hardening of alloy 505 results in a significant increase in strength and hard-
ness with a corresponding reduction in ductility.
Warren and Reed! 0 included alloy 410 in their investigation of mechan-
ical properties at low temperatures. As shown in Fig. 3-7, both tensile and
yield strength increase continuously as the temperature falls from room to
-423 F. Charpy V-notch impact tests showed very little loss in energy
absorbed as the temperature was reduced: 41 ft-lb at room temperature,
39 ft-Ib at -320 F.
46 Chapter 3
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
160
140
~120
en
<f)
Q)
'-
iii 100
80
60
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F

alloy 41O.! 0
NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM ALLOYS
The nickel-molybdenum alloys were developed originally as corrosion-

resistant materials. They are primarily strengthened by elements which are
taken into solid solution in the base metal, nickel. These alloys are work
hardenable but can be strengthened moderately by simple heat treatments.
However, the corrosion and heat resistance of alloys of this type are greatest
in the annealed (solution treated) condition and they are generally used in
this condition, particularly for service above the recrystallization tempera-
ture.!!
The best known of these corrosion-resistant nickel-molybdenum alloys
are those called "Hastelloy" alloys by their originator. These alloys are
moderately strong but they retain much of their room-temperature strength
at relatively high temperatures and, therefore, they are also used for structural
applications at elevated temperatures. Nominal compositions of some of
these alloys are given in Table 3-9. 12
Hastelloy alloy B has high resistance to corrosion by hydrochloric acid.
It also has good high-temperature properties. In oxidizing atmospheres, it
can be used at temperatures up to 1400 F, in reducing atmospheres at sub-
stantially higher temperatures.!3
Hastelloy alloy C has excellent resistance to corrosion by strong oxidiz-
Table 3-9. Nominal Compositions of Some

Nickel-Molybdenum All oys 12
Composition, %
Designation Ni Co Mo Cr Fe C Other
Hastelloy alloy B 61 2.5 0 28 la 5 0.05 a unspecified, 3

Hastelloy alloy C 54 2.5 a 16 15.5 5.5 0.08 0 4 W; unspecified, 3
Hastelloy alloy N 69.5 16.5 7 5a 0.06 0.8 Mn a
Hastelloy alloy X 47 1.5 9 22 18.5 0.10 0.6 W; unspecified; 1.5
aMaximum.
ing agents, moist chlorine gas and chlorine solutions, and to oxidizing acids
and many organic acids and salts. It is resistant to oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres up to 2000 F.14
Hastelloy alloy N was developed for resistance to molten fluoride salts.
It has good oxidation resistance up to 1800 F.J5
Hastelloy alloy X has excellent strength and oxidation resistance up to
2200 F. It also resists stress-corrosion crackingY
A number of other Hastelloy alloys are available including alloy B 282
for service in strong reducing media in the as-welded condition, alloy C 276
for all-around corrosion resistance in the as-welded condition, and alloy G for
resistance to hot sulfuric and phosphoric acids. These alloys will not be
discussed in this publication.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the nickel-molybdenum alloys are given
in Table 3_10. 13 ,14,15,16 The electrical resistivities, ranging from 712 to 811
Table 3-10. Physical Properties of Nickel-Molybdenum

All oys 13,14,15,16
Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy Hastelloy

alloy B alloy C alloy N alloy X
Melting temperature range, F 2408-2462 2310-2450 2375-2550 2300-2470

Specific heat (212 F), Btu/lbrF 0.091 0.092 0.116
Thermal conductivity (392 F),
rF
Btu/hr/ft2 /ft 7.0 6.5 7.4 5.2
Coefficient of thermal expansion
(70-1500 F), per of 7.0 x 10- 6 8.1 X 10- 6 8.3 X 10- 6 8.9 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir
mil ft 811 779 712
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 30,800 29,800 31,700 28,500
Density (70 F), Ib/in. 3 0.334 0.323 0.317 0.297
48 Chapter 3
ohmsjcir mil ft, are much higher than those of the nickel-copper alloys
discussed previously, and the thermal conductivities are considerably lower.
The coefficients of thermal expansion are generally lower than those of the
nickel-copper alloys but there is no great difference between the two series of
alloys. On the other hand, the moduli of elasticity of the nickel-molybdenum
alloys are markedly higher than those of the nickel-copper alloys. Although
not listed in the table, the nickel-molybdenum alloys under discussion are
virtually nonmagnetic.
Nominal tensile properties and hardness values for the four alloys
under discussion in several forms and conditions are given in Table
Table 3-11. Nominal Tensile Properties and Hardness

Values of Some Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys 13,14,15,16
Yield
Hastelloy alloy B
Sheet
2000 F, raea 67 104 51 B96
Cold rolled, 10% 110 147 33
Cold rolled, 20% 138 164 22
Bar
2125 F, rae 56 127 52 B95
Hastelloy alloy C
Sheet
2225 F, rae 68 128 49 B91
2225 F, rae, aged 16 hr, 82 146 44 B98
l100F
Cold rolled, 20 % 1I8 145 23
Bar
2225 F, rae 51 121 50 B94
Hastelloy alloy N
Sheet
2150 F, rae 46 115 51 B96
Hastelloy alloy X
Sheet
2150 F, rae 50 112 43 B90
2150 F, rae, aged 25 hr, 58 121 28
1400F
Plate
2175 F, wqb 54 1I4 41
aRapid air cooled. bWater quenched.
Nickel-Base Corrosion and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I 49
3_11. 13 ,14,15,16 Alloy B and alloy N can be hardened only by cold work but
alloy C and alloy X can be aged to achieved a moderate improvement in
tensile properties.
TensIle Properties. The tensile strength of alloy B ranges from about

105 ksi for annealed material to 165 ksi for material that had been mode-
rately cold worked and this increase in strength is accompanied by a cor-
responding reduction in ductility as measured by the elongation. Alloy N
has tensile properties quite similar to those of alloy B.
The tensile strength of alloy C ranges from about 125 ksi in the annealed
condition to 145 ksi after moderate cold working. Aging alloy C after an-
nealing increases the strength to approximately the same degree as 20 % cold
work, but aging has the advantage that there is less severe raduction in elon-
gation accompanying the increase in strength. Age hardening of alloy X after
annealing increases the strength moderately.
Impact Properties. Limited data on resistance to impact are given in

Table 3-12. These alloys are considerably lower in toughness than the nickel-
copper alloys mentioned earlier but have good impact properties. The data
Table 3-12. Impact Properties of Nickel-Molybdenum

Alloysl3, 14, 15, 16
Impact resistance, ft-Ib
Izod Charpy
Form and condition (V-notch) (V-notch)
Hastelloy alloy B
Bar
2150 F, rac· 58-62
Hastelloy alloy C
Bar
2225 F, rac 21-23
Hastelloy alloy N
Bar
2150 F, rac 80-88
Hastelloy alloy X
Plate
2150 F, wqb 54
2150 F, wq, 168 hr, 1500 F 9
2150 F, wq, 500 hr, 1600 F 9
2150 F, wq, 500 hr, 1800 F 20
2150 F, wq, 50 hr, 1900 F 30
"Rapid air cooled. ·Water quenched.

50 Chapter 3
on alloy X indicate that this alloy is considerably more shock resistant in the
solution-annealed condition than it is after aging. They also indicate that the
aging conditions have a marked effect on the toughness.

Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of the four Hastelloy
alloys are shown in Fig. 3_8. 13 ,14.15.16 These alloys retain more than 50%
of their room-temperature strengths up to temperatures of at least 1200 F
and all reach approximately the same strength at 2000 F.
Typical stress-rupture properties of the alloys are given in Table
3_13. 13 ,14,15,16 Alloy X has a lower 100-hour rupture strength at 1200 F than
Temperature, K
400 600 800 1000 1200
140
120
·Vi
100
--X:
£
c;, 80
c:
~
if)
(j) 60
Vi
c:
(j)
f-
40
20
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 3-8. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of

several nickel-molybdenum alloys.13, 14, 15.16 (I) Alloy B,
0.078-in. sheet, heat treated at 2000 F, rapid air cooled; (2)
alloy C, 0.109-in. sheet, heat treated at 2225 F, water
quenched; (3) alloy X, O. 109-in, sheet, heat treated at 2150 F,
rapid air cooled; (4) alloy N, 0.063-in. sheet, heat treated at
2150 F, rapid air cooled.
Table 3-13. Rupture Strength of Some Nickel-Molybdenum

AlloYS13,14,15,16
Stress (ksi) for rupture in 100 hours at
Form and condition 1200 F 1350 F 1500F 1700 F 1800F
Hastelloy alloy B
Sheet, 0.078 in.
2000 F, rae· 50 24b 15.9
Hastelloy alloy C
Sheet, 0.050-0.141 in.
2250 F, rae 50 33 18 10 e
Hastelloy alloy N
Sheet, 0.063 in.
2150 F, rae 55d 26 e 9 3.7
Hastelloy alloy X
Sheet
2150 F, rae 42 26 14 6.2 3.8
aRapid air cooled. ·1400 F. '1600 F. dll00 F. '1300 F.
the other materials but retains a greater proportion of its strength than the
others as the temperature increases.
Fatigue tests on alloy B bar, water quenched from 2000 F and aged at
1200 F for 4 hours, showed an endurance limit of 66 ksi at 1200 F and 10 8
cyclesY Similar tests on alloy N sheet, after rapid air cooling from 2150 F,
showed the following stresses for failure in 10 8 cycles:
47.5 ksi at 1100 F
38 ksi at 1300 F
23 ksi at 1500 F
As shown in Fig. 3-9, the tensile strength of alloy B cold rolled sheat
increases with falling temperature. 1 7 The increase is gradual for material
which had been cold worked 20% but is very marked below about -320 F
for material cold worked 40 %. Elongation also increased but there was a
downward trend for the material that had been cold worked 40 %, at tempera-
tures below -320 F.
Alloy X plate also showed an increase in strength with falling tempera-
turesY On material which had been water quenched from 2150 F, the tensile
strength was 150 ksi at -321 F compared with 104 ksi at room temperature.
The elongation, however, remained virtually the same at the two tempera-
tures: 45.5% at -321 F and 46.2% at room temperature.
52 Chapter 3
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
280
260
"Vi
~
240 60
.c
g.220 50 ~
~
(jj c
o
(!) '"5
~200
c
40 g
o
~ W
180 30
160 20
140
- 400 -300' - 200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 3-9. Subzero·temperature tensile properties of alloy B sheet. 17

(1) Tensile strength, O.Oll-in. sheet,40 % cold worked; (2) elongation
0.080-in. sheet, 20% cold worked; (3) tensile strength, 0.080-in.
sheet, 20% cold worked; (4) elongation, O.Oll-in. sheet, 40% cold
worked.
The effect of low temperatures on the toughness of these alloys as

measured by the notched bar test is indicated in Table 3_14.13,14,16 There is
no indication of a transition from ductile to brittle behavior down to at
least -321 F. Alloy B is considerably tougher at all temperatures than alloy
C, but both materials have very good properties. Alloy X cannot be com-
pared directiy with the others because of a different testing procedure, but
also has very good toughness.
Table 3-14. Low-Temperature Impact Properties of Some

Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys13,14,16
Impact resistance, ft-lb

Test
temperature, Izod Charpy
Form and condition F (V-notch) (V-notch)
Hastelloy alloy B
Bar
2125 F, raca Room 60
-58 49
-148 53
-326 53
Hastelloy alloy C
Bar
2225 F, rac Room 21-23
-58 25
-148 22
-326 27
HasteJloy alloy X
Plate
2150 F, wqb Room 54
-20 56
-108 51
-216 44
-321 37
"Rapid air cooled. .Water quenched.
CAST NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM AND

NICKEL-CHROMIUM-MOLYBDENUM ALLOYS
The four Hastelloy alloys discussed previously are also produced in cast
form. Another group of cast corrosion-resistant alloys is called "IIlium"
alloys by its originator. This group includes three nickel-chromium-molyb-
denum aIloys having the following designations and nominal compositions:
Designation Composition, %
Ni Mo Cr Cu Fe
IIlium B 52 8.5 28 5.5 1.15
IIlium 98 55 8.5 28 5.5 1.0
Illium G 56 6.4 22.5 6.5 6.5
Illium B is a machinable wear- and corrosion-resistant alloy developed
54 Chapter 3
for corrosion resistance where resistance to erosion, galling, and wear must
also be considered. I 8
Illium 98 is a machinable casting alloy developed to withstand the cor-
rosive attack of 98 %sulfuric acid at elevated temperatures. It is also resistant
to other nonhalogen acids. I 8
Illium G is a machinable casting alloy which is resistant to attack by
acids and alkalies under oxidizing and reducing conditions up to moderately
high temperatures, especially to most sulfur compounds. 18
Physical Properties
The physical properties of the four cast Hastelloy alloys are similar to
those of the corresponding wrought alloys and are given in Table 3-2.
No data were found on the physical properties of Illium B or Illium 98
but the following properties were reported for Illium G: 18
Specific heat, Btu/lbtF 0.105
Thermal conductivity (70 F), Btu/hr/fPtF/ft 7.0
Coefficient of thermal expansion (32-1472 F), per of 8.5 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohmsJcir mil ft 743
Density, Ib/in. 3 0.31
The electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity of Illium G lie in the
same range as those of the Hastelloy alloys and its coefficient of expansion is
about the same as that of Hastelloy alloy N.
The properties of the Hastelloy alloys in the form of sand and invest-
ment castings are given in Table 3_15. 13 ,14,15,16 The strengths of the cast
alloys in the "as cast" condition are somewhat lower than those of the cor-
responding wrought alloys in the annealed condition, as will be apparent
from a comparison of Table 3-15 with Table 3-11. The ductilities of the cast
alloys are much lower than those of the wrought materials. However, the
Rockwell hardness values of the cast and wrought materials are comparable.
The cast alloys are also less tough than the corresponding wrought materials,
as indicated by the data in Tables 3-12 and 3-15.
The strength of alloy B can be improved considerably by aging, and this
effect is accompanied by a small increase in ductility. On the other hand,
although the strength of alloy C can be improved to some extent by aging,
the ductility is adversely affected.
Properties of the Illium alloys in the "as cast" condition are included
Table 3-15. Nominal Mechanical Properties of Cast Nickel-Molybdenum and
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum All oys I3,14,IS,16,18 2
n'
,..
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Reduction Impact ~
(0,2 % offset), strength, (in 1 in,), of area, Rockwell (V-notch), l1li
II>
Form and condition ksi j:si hardness ft-Ib III
% % CD
(')
Hastelloy alloy B 0
Sand cast
...
lOb
;;III
2125 F, 1 hr, raca 50 90 10 B93 18 c
Investment cast 0'
~
As cast 53 85 15 15 B93 13 e .
II>
Cast, aged 25 hr, 1475 F 64 107 18 21 B97 ~
c.
Hastelloy alloy C %
CD
Sand cast II>
2250 F, 1 hr, rae 51 83 9b 12 B93 20 c 1-
:u
Investment cast CD
III
As cast 52 89 11 12 B96 iii'
Cast, aged 25 hr, 1475 F 76 98 4 5 C37 II>
~
..
Hastelloy alloy N
Sand cast ~
0'
2150 F, rae 44 87 22 '<
III
Investment cast
2150 F, rae 37 86 17 28d -I
Hastelloy alloy X
Sand cast
As cast 43 78 23 27 B89
Investment cast
As cast 46 70 12 17 B87
IIIium B
As cast 62 1.0b 244-
IIIium 98
As cast 54 18 b 22 160-
Illium G
As cast 39 68 8b 11 168- 61 CII
CII
-Rapid air cooled. .In 2 in. cIzod. ·Charpy. ·Brinell. INotched specimen, type of test not specified.
56 Chapter 3
also in Table 3-15. 18 These alloys are not as strong as the cast Hastelloy
alloys. Illium B is quite brittle in the "as cast" condition but Illium 98 and
Illium G have ductilities which are comparable with those of the Hastelloy
alloys in the "as cast" condition.
NICKEL-SILICON ALLOYS
Hastelloy alloy D is the only commercial representative of the nickel-

silicon alloys. Alloy D is a sand-casting alloy best known for its resistance to
sulfuric acid at all concentrations and at temperatures up to the boiling
points. This alloy is also resistant to organic acids and acid salts. 19
It has the following nominal composition:
Ni Si Cu Mn Co Cr Fe C
82 9 3 0.9 1.5 max 1 max 2 max 0.12 max
Physical Properties
The physical properties of Hastelloy alloy D are given in Table 3-16Y
Although the compositions are not comparable in any sense, some of the
physical properties of alloy D lie in the same range as those of the nickel-
copper alloys previously discussed. These include the specific heat, thermal
Table 3-16. Physical and Mechanical Properties •

of Hastelloy Alloy 0 19
Physical properties
Melting temperature range, F 2030-2048
Specific heat (70 F), Btu/lbrF 0.11
Thermal conductivity (72 F), Btu/hr/ft 2 /oF/ft 12
Coefficient of thermal expansion (32-1800 F), per OF 10.1 x 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 679
Density, Ib/in. 3 0.281
Elongation (1 in.), % 1
Reduction of area, % 1
Rockwell hardness C30-39
Izod impact, ft-Ib 1-2
Transverse breaking strengtha
Load,lb 5
Deflection, in. 0.070-0.080
a12·in. span, 1/2-in. square bar.

conductivity, and coefficient of thermal expansion. However, the electrical

resistivity of alloy D is more than twice that of Monel alloy 400.
The mechanical properties of Hastelloy alloy D are included also in
Table 3-16. The alloy is generally furnished in the solution-annealed condition
to provide optimum machinability. This treatment consists of heating at
1800-1850 F followed by furnace cooling.
The tensile strength of Hastelloy alloy D is comparable with that of
Monel alloy 505 in the annealed condition and with Hastelloy alloy C "as
cast" and age hardened. However, alloy D is much less ductile than the other
two alloys as indicated by the low values of elongation and reduction of area.
REFERENCES
(1968).
2. Handbook ofHuntington Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The International
3. Engineering Properties of Monel Nickel-Copper Alloys, Tech. Bull. T5, Huntington
Alloy Products Division, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
4. M. E. Langston and C. H. Lund, Physical Properties of Some Nickel-Base Alloys,
OTS PB 151086, Battelle Memorial Institute (1960).
5. Engineering Properties of Monel Alloy K-500, Huntington Alloy Products Division,
The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1965).
6. R. M. McClintock and H. P. Gibbons, Mechanical Properties of Structural Materials
at Low Temperatures, Monograph 13, National Bureau of Standards (1960).
7. J. T. Eash and T. E. Kihlgren, "Effect of composition on the properties and structure
of cast monel," Trans. Amer. Foundrymen's Soc. 57, 535 (1949).
8. Properties of Some Metals and Alloys, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
9. J. S. Yanick, "Nickel-base alloy castings," Cast Metals Handbook, Amer. Foundry-
men's Soc. (1957), p. 291.
10. K. A. Warren and R. 1". Reed, Tensile and Impact Properties of Selected Materials
from 20 to 300 K, Monograph 63, National Bureau of Standards (1963).
11. R. J. Favor, D. A. Roberts, and W. P. Achbach, Design Information on Nickel-Base
Alloys for Aircraft and Missiles, OTS PB 151090, Battelle Memorial Institute (1960).
12. Corrosion Resistance of Union Carbide Alloys, Union Carbide Corp., Stellite Division
(1966).
13. Hastelloy alloy B, ibid. (1967).
14. Hastelloy alloy C, ibid. (1966).
15. Hastelloy alloy N, ibid. (1967).
16. Hastelloy alloy X, ibid. (1968).
Data Handbook, AD 609562, The Martin Co. (1964).
18. Illium Alloys, Stainless Foundry and Engineering, Inc. (1969).
19. Hastelloyalloy D, Union Carbide Corp., Stellite Division (1960).
Chapter 4
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and

H eat-Resista nt Alloys-II
Chromium is a major alloying element in many of the corrosion-resisting

nickel-base alloys and in most of those developed for elevated-temperature
service. Chromium increases resistance to oxidation and also assists in solid-
solution strengthening. 1
Approximately 30 % chromium is soluble in nickel and the two most
important binary alloys are those containing 90 % nickel-lO % chromium
and 80% nickel-20% chromium. These alloys are used primarily for elec-
trical resistance applications although their corrosion and heat resistance
makes them suitable for use as construction materials. 2 They will be discus-
sed in Chapter 8, which deals with electrical resistance and thermocouple
alloys.
Modifications of these nickel-chromium alloys, together with others
based on the nickel-chromium system, are produced for applications in
various fields where advantage can be taken of their corrosion- and heat-
resisting characteristics. Among the best known of these are the nickel-
chromium, also sometimes called nickel-chromium-iron, alloys designated
"Inconel" alloys and the nickel-iron-chromium alloys designated "Incoloy"
alloys by their originator.
NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
The basic member of this group of alloys is Inconel alloy 600. This alloy
was developed for use in severely corrosive environments at elevated tem-
peratures. It is resistant to oxidation at temperatures up to 2150 F and also
58
Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-II 59
has excellent properties at cryogenic temperatures. 3 Modifications of this base

composition include alloy 601, a solid-solution alloy with excellent high-tem-
perature properties and alloy 625, containing molybdenum and columbium,
which has excellent strength and toughness from cryogenic temperatures to
2000 F. For improved strength at elevated temperatures, modifications which
are age harden able have been developed. These include alloy 718 and alloy
X-750.
Usually age hardening properties have been developed in high-nickel
alloys by adding aluminum and titanium to the composition to form a nickel-
aluminum-titanium intermetallic compound, generally called gamma prime.
Inconel alloy X-750 is an alloy of this type.
Alloy X-750 is a modification of the original composition which can be
heat treated to form the intermetallic compound Ni 3(AI, Ti). It has excellent
creep and stress rupture properties in addition to corrosion and heat
resistance up to 1500 F. It also has good strength and ductility down to
-423 F.3
Alloy 718 differs from most of the high-temperature alloys in having
columbium substituted for much of the aluminum and titanium and iron
substituted for the cobalt and much of the molybdenum. The effect of these
changes is to reduce the high-temperature strength but, at the same time, to
improve the weldability. Alloy 718 was developed for service up to 1300 F.
It also has good strength and ductility down to -423 F.3
The compositions of the alloys mentioned above are given in Table
4-1.
There are a number of other modifications of Inconel alloy 600 includ-
ing: alloy 604, which contains 2 % columbium to improve creep and rupture
properties at intermediate temperatures; alloy 700, primarily intended for jet
engine blades operating at intermediate temperatures; alloy 702, which con-
tains aluminum to improve the oxidation resistance for high-temperature
service; alloy 721 for use in the exhaust valves of piston-type aircraft engines;

Nickel-Chromium Alloys 3.4
Composition, %
Designation Nia Cr Fe Al Ti Mo Cb +Ta
Inconel alloy 600 76 15.5 8.0

Inconel alloy 601 60.5 23.0 14.1 1.15
Inconel alloy 625 61 21.5 2.5 0.2 0.2 9.0 3.65
Inconel alloy 718 52.5 19.0 18.5 0.5 0.9 3.0 5.1
Inconel alloy X-750 73 15.5 7.0 0.7 2.5 0.95
aplus cobalt.
g
Table 4-2. Physical Properties of Some Nickel-Chromium All oys 4,s,6,7,8
Alloy 600 Alloy 601 Alloy 625 Alloy 718 Alloy X-750
Melting range, F 2500-2600 2375-2495 2350-2460 2300-2435 2540-2600

Specific heat (70 F), Btu/lbtF 0.106 0.107 0.098 0.104 0.1031
Thermal conductivity (70 F), Btu/hr/ft2tF/ft 8.6 6.5 5.7 6.4c 7.01
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1600 F), per of 9.1 x 10- 6 9.5 X 10- 6 9.4 X 10- 6 9.5 X 10- 6 9.3 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity (70 F), ohms/cir mil ft 620 717 776 753,c 725d 759,' 7741
Curie temperature, F -192 -320 -320 -320,c -17Qd -225,' -1931
Permeability (70 F, H = 200 Oe) 1.010 1.003 1.006 l.oo13,c l.oo11 d 1.0020,' 1.00351
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 31,000 29,900 29,8()()a 29,800 31,000
Modulus of rigidity, ksi 11,000 11,800 11,4()()a 11,600 11,000
Poisson's ratio 0.29 0.267 0.308" 0.284 0.29
Density, Ib/in. 3 0.304 0.291 0.305 0-.296 0.298
aDynamic. "Computed. cAnnealed. dAged. 'As hot rolled. ISolution treated and double aged.
o
::r
III
'tI
;-
....,.
alloy 722 for special applications in jet engines; and alloy 751, a modification
of alloy X-750. 3 These alloys will not be discussed.
Physical Properties
The physical properties of the nickel-chromium alloys included in
Table 4-1 are given in Table 4_2. 4 ,5,6,7,8 In the 600 series, the total alloy
content increases from alloy 600 to alloy 625 and this progression is reflected
in some of the physical properties.
Thus the thermal conductivity decreases and the electrical resistivity
increases markedly from alloy 600 to alloy 625. There is also a moderate
decrease in the elastic constants. However, the Curie temperatures of alloy
601 and alloy 625 are much lower than that of alloy 600. All three materials
are essentially nonmagnetic to quite low temperatures.
Both alloy 718 and alloy X-750 are age harden able and this property
influences some of the physical properties, as can be noted from the table.
Age hardening influences the electrical resistivity moderately but has con-
siderable effect on the magnetic properties. Thus, the Curie temperatures of
the alloys in the solution-annealed condition are considerably lower than
those in the aged condition. Essentially, the properties of these two age
hardenable alloys fall within the range of those of the 600 series, however.
Room- Temperature Properties
Inconel alloy 600, alloy 601, and alloy 625 are not harden able by heat
treatment. Strengthening can be achieved only by cold work. On the other
hand, both alloy 718 and alloy X-750 can be strengthened by heat treatments
which result in age hardening.
Tensile Properties. Nominal tensile properties of these alloys in various

forms and conditions are given in Table 4_3. 4 ,5,6,7,8
The tensile strength of alloy 600 ranges from 80 ksi for annealed material
to 150 ksi for cold drawn material and the ductility ranges from an elonga-
tion of 55 % for annealed material to 10 % for cold worked. Limited data on
alloy 601 indicate that this alloy has tensile properties similar to those of alloy
600. Alloy 625 is somewhat stronger than alloy 600, but the ductilities of the
two alloys are comparable.
The effect of age hardening on the tensile properties of alloy 718 is
clearly indicated by the property improvement achieved. The tensile strength
ranges from 55 ksi for solution-annealed material, which is comparable with
62 Chapter 4
Table 4-3. Nominal Tensile Properties and Hardness Values

of Some Nickel-Chromium All oys 4.s.6.7.8
Yield Elon-
strength Tensile gation
(0.2 % offset). strength, (2 in.), Rockwell
Inconel alloy 600

Rod and bar
Annealed 25-50 80-100 55-35 B65-85
Hot finished 35-90 85-120 50-30 B75-95
Cold drawn 80-125 105-150 30-10 B90-C30
Plate
Annealed 30-50 80-105 55-35 B65-85
Hot rolled 35-65 85-110 50-30 B80-95
Sheet and Strip
Annealed 30-45 80-100 55-35 B88 max
Cold rolled, hard 90-125 120-150 15-2 C24min
Cold rolled, spring temper 120-160 145-170 10-2 C30 min
Inconel alloy 601
Rod
Hot rolled, solution treated 28.5 86.5 58
Flats
Hot finished, annealed 49 107 45
Inconel alloy 625
Rod, bar. plate
As rolled 60-110 120-160 60-30
Solution-annealed 42-60 105-130 65-40
Sheet and strip
Annealed 60-75 120-140 55-30
Inconel alloy 718
Rod and bar
Annealed 55-80 110-135 62-45 B83-96
Hot rolled 65-105 140-150 45-55 C20-30
Solution-annealed, aged" 165-180 190-210 20-17 C45
Sheet
Cold rolled, 18-27 % 115-130 140-155 26-10
Cold rolled, aged b 185-210 205-225 10-8
Inconel alloy X-750
Bar
Hot rolled, heat treated c 128-146 180-200 26-23 C34-40
Hot rolled, heat treated d 130-150 185-195 26-21 C38-42
Sheet
Cold rolled, aged- 115-130 175-185 28-26 C35-39
Cold rolled, aged! 130-140 180-190 26-23 C35-41
-Solution annealed at 1750 F. aged at 1325 F. 8 hr. furnace cool to 1150 F. held for total aging time of 18 hr.
bAged at 1325 F. 8 hr. furnace cool to 1150 F, held for total aging time of 18 hr.
cAnnealed 1750 F, 1 hr, air cool; J400 F, 1 hr, furnace cool at 50 F/hr to 1150 F, air cool (total aging time
6hr).
"Annealed 1750 F. 1 hr. air cool; 1350 F. 8 hr. furnace cool at 25 F/hr to 1150 F. air cool (total aging time
16hr).
'Age 1300 F. 20 hr. air cool.
fAge 1350 F. 8 hr. furnace cool at 25 Flhr to 1150 F .air cool.
that of alloy 600, to 225 ksi for sheet which had been aged after cold rolling.
The corresponding elongations were 62 % and 8 %.
Inconel alloy X-750 is also age hardenable with tensile strengths ranging
up to 200 ksi in the aged condition. Even as aged, however, the ductility of
alloy X-750, as measured by the elongation, is considerably higher than that
of alloy 718.
The relationship between the tensile properties and hardness of alloy 600
is indicated in Fig. 4-1 for hot rolled and cold drawn rods. s The yield strength
rises rapidly, the tensile strength more gradually as the hardness resulting
from cold work increases from Rockwell B70 to BI05. The ductility is
reduced during cold work but the reduction of area is less affected than
the elongation.
The effect of cold reduction on the tensile properties of alloy 625 is
shown in Fig. 4-2.6 Although the strength levels achieved are considerably
160
140
120
100
'Vi
.::r:.
ul ~
(/)
Q)
80 80 ~
"-
en
Q)
"-
<{
60 60 '0
-0
Q)
n::
40 40.-.:-
.S
C\J
20 20 g'
o
W
60 70 80 90 100 110
Rockwell 8 Hardness
Fig. 4-1. Relationship between the tensile properties and hard-
ness of hot rolled and cold drawn alloy 600 rods. 5
64 Chapter 4
220 r---~----r-----r-----.
200
180
160
'Vi
-'<:: 140
c.n-
c.n
....
(l)
(jj 120 80
100 60 0
~
<!
'+-
80 40 0
"0
(l)
0:::
60 20 CJl
c
o
W
o 20 40 60 80
Cold Reduction, %
Fig. 4-2. Effect of cold work on the tensile properties
of alloy 625 strip.6
higher than those of alloy 600, a similar relationship exists between cold
work and the properties developed.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness values for some of the alloys are included
also in Table 4-3. The hardness of alloy 600 ranges from B65 in the annealed
condition to C30 for strip cold rolled to spring temper. The hardness of
alloy 718 ranges from B83 in the annealed condition to C45 in the aged
condition and that of alloy X-750 ranges up to C41 in the age hardened
condition.
Fatigue Properties. The effects of working and annealing on the fatigue

properties of alloy 600, alloy 601, and alloy 625 are given in Table 4_4. 4 • 5 • 6 • 9
Nickel-Base Corrision- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-II 65
Table 4-4. Fatigue Properties of Some Nickel-Chromium

Alloys
Tensile
strength, Fatigue strength (ksi) at
Form and condition ksi 10 6 cycles 10 7 cycles 10 8 cycles Ref.
Inconel alloy 600
Bar
Annealed 67 54 52 50 9
Cold drawn 178 76 73 71
Bar
Annealed 85-114 39 5
Hot rolled 87-130 40.5
Cold drawn, stress-equalized
525 F, 3 hr 122-173 52.5
Inconel alloy 601
Bar
Hot .olled, solution treated 40 4
Inconel alloy 625
Bar
Hot rolled, annealed 1800 F,
1 hr 104 100 100 6
Sheet
Cold rolled, mill anneal 96 92 90
Inconel alloy 718
Forgings
Annealed 1750 F 143 74 67.5 66.5 7
Annealed and aged· 191 77.5 71 69.5
Plate
Hot rolled 132 73 70 70
Annealed and aged 196 91 82 77
Inconel alloy X-750
Bar
Annealed and aged h 90 81 80 8
aSee footnote a, Table 4-3. ·See footnote d, Table 4-3.
The limited data indicate that the endurance ratio of alloy 600 is reduced
moderately by cold work.
The effects of aging treatments on the fatigue properties of alloy 718 are
also included in Table 4-4. 7 Aging this alloy reduces the endurance ratio.
The fatigue strength of alloy X-750 in the aged condition approximates that
of alloy 718.
Impact Properties. As indicated in Table 4-5, Inconel alloy 600 is a

very tough material. 5 The limited data on the other alloys indicate that they
66 Chapter 4
Table 4-5. Impact Properties of Some Nickel-Chromium

Alloys
Impact resistance, ft-lb
Form and condition Izod Charpy Ref.
V-notch Keyhole
Inconel alloy 600

Rod and bar
Annealed 120 230 5
Inconel alloy 625
Plate
As rolled 49 6
Inconel alloy 718
Plate
Hot rolled, heat treated· 11-18 7
Hot rolled, heat treated b 26-33
Inconel alloy X-750
Bar
Hot rolled, heat treated c 37 8
Hot rolled, heat treatedd 38
"1750 F, I hr, air cooled; 1325 F, 8 hr, furnace cooled to 1150 F and held for total aging time of 18 hr.
"1950 F, I hr, air cooled; 1400 F, 10 hr, furnace cooled to 1200 F and held for total aging time of 20 hr.
'2100 F, 2 hr, 1550 F, 24 hr, 1300 F, 20 hr.
'1300 F, 20 hr.
are quite tough, although the treatment given the age hardenable alloys
influences the impact resistance. Thus, changing the aging conditions for
alloy 718 more than doubles the toughness as measured by the impact test.
Additional data on toughness are included in the section on low-temperature
properties.

The short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of several of the
Inconel alloys are given in Fig. 4-3. S,6, 7,8 The alloys fall into three distinct
groups. Alloy 600 has the lowest strength, next is alloy 625, and highest are
alloy 718 and alloy X-750. All of the alloys retain much of their strength up
to temperatures of 1000-1200 F but above that range strength falls off
rapidly.
Typical creep and stress-rupture properties are given in Table 4-6. The
creep strength and the 100-hour rupture strength of alloy 600 are consider-
ably below those of the other materials. The rupture and creep properties of
Table 4-6. Creep and Rupture Properties of Some Nickel-Chromium Alloys z
o·
~
Test Stress (ksi) for creep rate of Stress (ksi) ~

1:11
temperature, for rupture at
III
Condition F 0.00001 %/hr 0.0001 %/hr 0.001 %/hr 0.01 %/hr in 100 hr Ref. CD
0
0
Inconel alloy 600 .
Annealed 1750 F, 3 hr 800 30.0 40.0 5 0
III
1000 6.1 12.5 50 o·
:::I
1200 2.2
,
23 at
1400 0.97 8.4 :::I
Q,
Hot rolled 800 47 54 ::t
CD
1000 13 25 at
1200 8 9.5 't
:II
1400 0.77 3.6 CD
III
iii'
Inconel alloy 625 at
:::I
Solution-annealed 1200 37 42 57 66 68 6 ..
1400 9 12 18 24 30 ~
1600 2.6 3.5 5 7 12 0'
-<
III'
Inconel alloy 718
Bar
~
Heat treateda 1200 104 7
1300 80
Inconel alloy X-750
Bar
Heat treated b 1200 53 64 73 81 80 8
1500 14 18 21 25 28
1600 8 9 11 14
1800 3.2
"Annealed 1700-1850 F; aged 1325 F, 8 hr, furnace cooled to 1150 F and held for total aging time of 18 hr.
.Annealed 2100 F, 2-4 hr, air cooled; 1550 F, 24 hr, air cooled; 1300 F, 20 hr. ....GI
68 Chapter 4
Temperature, K
300 500700 900 1100 1300
200 r-r----r-----.-----..----.----,--r
180
160
140
(f)
..0.:::
L
-
"&
c 120
~
(f)
~ 100
-Vi
c
Q)
I-
80
60
40
400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F

several nickel--chromium alIoys.s, 6, 7, 8 AlIoy 718, solution
annealed and aged; alIoy X-750, solution annealed and aged,
alIoy 625, mill annealed; alIoy 600, hot rolIed.
alloy 625 are given in the solution-annealed condition. Material in this

condition has higher long-time strength properties than that in the mill-
annealed condition, although the latter has properties adequate for many
applications. 6
For optimum creep and rupture properties, alloy 718 is annealed at 1700
to 1850 F and aged at 1350 F for 8 hours, furnace cooled to 1150 F, and held
at that temperature for a total aging time of 18 hours.7 The 100-hour rupture
strengths of alloy 718, heat treated by this procedure, are given in Table 4-6.
For maximum creep and rupture properties at temperatures above 1100 F,
bar stock of alloy X-750 is given a three-step heat treatment. It is solution-

annealed at 2100 F for 2 to 4 hours, air cooled, aged at 1550 F for 24 hours,
air cooled, aged at 1300 F for 20 hours, and air cooled. It is usually not
practical to apply this treatment to sheet because the 2100 F solution anneal
could cause distortion of the material. However, the stress rupture strength
of sheet hardened by a furnace aging treatment beginning at 1350 F is about
the same as that achieved by the three-step treatment. The sheet is held at
1350 F for 8 hours, furnace cooled at 25 F per hour to 1150 F, and air cooled. 8
Creep and rupture properties of bar heat treated by the three-step process
are included in Table 4-6.
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
240 r-~.---.---~--~--~--~
220
200
"(j)
.:.: 180
..r:::.
0>
c
~ 160
(f)
-'!!
"(j)
a3 140
f-
120
100
80 ~~--~----~--~--~--~
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 4-4. Subzero-temperature tensile strengths of some
nickel-chromium alloys. 7, 10 (1) Alloy X-750, solution an-
nealed and aged; (2) alloy 718, solution annealed and aged;
(3) alloy 600, cold reduced 50%; (4) alloy 600, cold reduced
20%; (5) alloy 600, as rolled.
70 Chapter 4

Inconel alloy 600 has excellent mechanical properties at subzero tem-
peratures. Strength increases substantially without appreciable loss in
ductility, according to the producer. United States Navy tear tests on alloy
600 plate showed a considerable increase in maximum load with excellent
ductility and fracture characteristics as the temperature was reduced from
ambient to -320 F.S
The effect of low temperatures on the tensile strengths of alloy 600,
alloy 718, and alloy X-750 is shown in Fig. 4_4. 7 ,10 Regardless of the condi-
tion of these alloys, the strengths increase markedly as the temperature is
reduced.
The effect of low temperatures on the impact resistance of several of the
alloys is given in Table 4_7. 2 ,7,8 Alloy 600 is considerably tougher in the
annealed condition than after hot rolling. Cold drawing reduces the tough-
ness markedly.
Table 4-7. Impact Properties at Low Temperatures of Some

Nickel-Chromium Alloys
Test Charpy impact

temperature, (V-notch),
Form and condition F ft-lb Ref.
Inconel alloy 600
Annealed Room 236 2
-110 206
-310 187
Hot rolled Room 213
-315 169
Cold drawn, 50 % Room 69
-315 64
Inconel alloy 718
Plate
Annealed and ageda Room 21 7
-320 19
Inconel alloy X-750
Bar
Hot rolled, annealed and aged b Room 37 8
-109 36
-320 33
Hot rolled, aged c Room 38
-109 37
-320 34
"Annealed 1750 F; aged 1350 F, 8 hr, furnace cooled to 1150 F and held for total aging time of 18 hr.
"Annealed 2100 F, 2 hr; aged 1500 F, 24 hr; aged 1300 F, 20 hr.
CAged 1300 F, 20 hr.
In the age hardened condition, alloy X-750 is considerably tougher than

alloy 718, but both of these alloys are much lower in impact resistance than
alloy 600. There is no indication of a transition from ductile to brittle behav-
ior in these alloys.
CAST NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
Modifications of the basic Inconel alloy 600 composition are used as

casting alloys. The major change in composition lies in increasing the silicon
content to increase the fluidity of the alloys and improve the filling of the
molds. Two commercial materials are alloy 610, having a nominal silicon
content of 1.6 %, and alloy 705, with a nominal silicon content of 5.5 %.11
The high silicon content of alloy 705 makes the alloy age hardenable to some
degree. By contrast, the basic wrought material, Inconel alloy 600, has a
nominal silicon content of 0.25 %.
Two nickel-chromium alloys are included in the Alloy Casting Institute
heat-resisting alloy category. They are designated HW and HX.
Nominal compositions of all four of these materials, given in Table 4-8,
indicate that they range from 60 to 68 % nickel and 12 to 17 % chromium.
Table 4-8. Nominal Compositions of Some Cast

Nickel-Chromium Alloys 1 1, 12
Composition, %
Designation Ni Cr Fe Si Cu C Cb +Ti
Inconel alloy 610 68.5 15.5 Bal. 1.5 0.5 0.2 2.0
Inconel alloy 705 68 15.5 Bal. 5.5 0.5 0.2
HW 60 12 Bal. 2.5 a 0.55
HX 66 17 Bal. 2.5a 0.55
aMaximum.
Physical Properties
Limited physical property data on the four alloys are given in Table
4_9. 11 ,13 Alloy 705, reflecting the higher silicon content, has a higher electrical
resistivity than alloy 610, which in turn has a much higher resistivity than that
of wrought alloy 600. However, the thermal conductivities of alloy 600 and
610 are comparable.
The coefficients of thermal expansion of these cast materials lie in the
same range as those of the wrought nickel-chromium alloys.
The modulus of elasticity of alloy 610 is comparable with that of alloy
.....
N
Table 4-9. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Some Cast Nickel-Chromium All oys ll.13
Alloy 610 Alloy 705 HW HX

Physical properties
Melting point, F 2500-2550 2350 2350
Specific heat (70 F), BtujlbrF 0.11 0.11 0.11
Thermal conductivity (212 F), Btujhrjft 2 rFjft 8.7 7.7
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1400 F), per of 8.9 x 10- 6 9.2 X 10- 6 8.8 x 10-6 a 9.2 X 10- 6 a
Electrical resistivity (32 F), ohms/cir mil ft 709 757
Density,lbjin. 3 0.300 0.292 0.294 0.294
Mechanical properties (as cast)
Yield strength (0.5 % extension), ksi 30-45 80-100 36b 36b
Tensile strength, ksi 70-95 90-120 68 65
Elongation (2 in.), % 30-10 3-1 4 9
Brinell hardness 190 300-380 185 176
"70-1800 F. .0.2% offset.
o
:::r
til
~...
...
600. However, the three other cast alloys have moduli considerably lower
than those of the wrought nickel-chromium alloys.
Typical mechanical properties of the four casting grades of nickel-
chromium alloys are included also in Table 4-9.
Reflecting the higher silicon content, alloy 705 is somewhat stronger
and, in particular, has a much higher yield strength than alloy 610. This
improvement in strength, however, is accompanied by a drastic reduction in
ductility as measured by the elongation. Alloy 705 can be age hardened after
annealing to achieve properties which are practically the same as those given
in the table for the "as cast" condition.
Alloys HW and HX are not as strong as the other two alloys but they
are somewhat more ductile than alloy 705. Alloys 610, HW, and HX have
comparable hardness values as cast but all are much softer than alloy 705.
NICKEL-IRON-CHROMIUM ALLOYS
Most widely know members of the nickel-iron-chromium family of

alloys are those known as the Incoloy alloys. These materials are charac-
terized by much lower nickel content and higher chromium content than the
Inconel alloys. 2
Incoloy alloy 800, prototype alloy of the group, was developed to provide
a material having good strength combined with resistance to oxidation and
carburization at elevated temperatures. The alloy has a stable austenitic
structure and does not form the brittle sigma phase even after long periods
of exposure in the temperature range 1200 to 1600 F. 14
Other members of this group are alloy 804, formulated to produce high
strength at elevated temperatures combined with resistance to oxidizing and
sulfidizing atmospheres,1 S and alloy 825, which was developed for use in
corrosive environments such as sea water, sulfuric and phosphoric acids,
and reducing solutions. 16 Nominal compositions of these materials are given
in Table 4-10.
Among other modifications of the base composition are a number devel-
oped for special purposes. These include alloy 801, which contains 1%
titanium to increase the strength at intermediate temperatures; alloy 805,
developed to provide a low-temperature coefficient of the modulus of elastic-
ity; and alloy 901, an age harden able alloy for use at temperatures near
1200 F. These alloys will not be discussed. Another nickel-iron-chromium
alloy, Ni-Span-C, is an alloy having a controllable rate of change of the
74 Chapter 4

Nickel-Iron-Chromium All oys 3
Composition, %
Designation Nia Fe Cr Al Ti Mo Cu
Incoloy alloy 800 32.5 46.0 21.0 0.38 0.38

Incoloy alloy 804 41.0 25.4 29.5 0.30 0.60
Incoloy alloy 825 42.0 30.0 30.0 0.10 0.90 3.0 2.25
"Plus cobalt.
modulus of elasticity with temperature. This alloy will be discussed in

Chapter 9.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the three alloys mentioned above are

given in Table 4_11.14,1 S, 16 The thermal conductivities of the materials do not
differ significantly but their electrical resistivities increase markedly from alloy
800 to alloy 825. As a basis of comparison, the electrical resistivity of alloy
800 is relatively close to that of Inconel alloy 600.
There is a progressive decrease in the coefficient of thermal expansion
from alloy 800 to alloy 825.
The Curie temperatures of alloy 804 and alloy 825 are much lower than
that of alloy 800. All three alloys, however, are virtually nonmagnetic to very
low temperatures.
Table 4-11. Physical Properties of Some

Nickel-Iron-Chromium Ail oys I4,ls,16
Alloy 800 Alloy 804 Alloy 825

Melting range, F 2475-2525 2500-2550
Specific heat (32-212 F), Btu/lbrF 0.12
Thermal conductivity (70 F), Btu/hr/ft 2 rF/ft 6.6 6.4
Coefficient of expansion (70-1600 F), per OF 10.2 x 10- 6 9.8 X 10-6 a 9.7 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 595 652 678
Curie temperature, F -175 -321 -320
Permeability (70 F, H = 2000e) 1.0092 1.0032 1.005
Modulus of rigidity, ksi 10,600
Density, Ib/in. 3 0.290 0.286 0.294
"70-1750 F.
None of these alloys can be hardened by heat treatment. Strength and
hardness can be increased only by cold work. As will be mentioned later,
special annealing is used to enhance certain properties.
Tensile Properties. Nominal tensile properties of the three Incoloy

alloys in various forms and conditions are given in Table4-12.14,ls.16 The

of Some Nickel-Iron-Chromium All oys I4,IS.16
Yield
Incoloy alloy 800
Rod and bar
Annealed 30-60 75-100 60-30 B65-90
Hot finished 35-90 80-120 50-25 B75-95
Cold drawn 75-125 100-150 30-10 B85-C35
Plate
Annealed 30-60 75-105 50-30
Hot rolled 30-65 80-110 50-25
Sheet and strip
Annealed 30-55 75-105 50-30 B88 max
All forms and sizes
Solution-annealed 20-50 70-95 50-30 B55-90
Incoloy alloy 804
Mill-annealed (1900 F, 1/2 hr) 45 95 40 B85
Solution-annealed (2000 F, 2 hr) 34 89 53 B69
Incoloy alloy 825
Rod and bar
Annealed (1725 F, 1 hr) 44 100 43
tensile strength of alloy 800 ranges from about 75 ksi for annealed material
to about 150 ksi for material that has been cold worked and the elongation
ranges from 60 % for annealed to 10 % for cold worked material. Solution
annealing results in somewhat lower strength. The purpose of this treatment
will be discussed under elevated-temperature properties.
Only limited data are available for alloy 804 and alloy 825. Both have
tensile properties in the annealed condition which are comparable with those
of alloy 800. The solution annealing of alloy 804 yields a product that is
76 Chapter 4
somewhat lower in strength than that achieved by normal annealing practice,

an affect similar that obtained with alloy 800.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness values for the Incoloy alloys are included
also in Table 4-12. The hardness of alloy 800 ranges from about B95 for
material which has been given a conventional anneal to C35 after cold work-
ing. Solution annealing yields the lowest hardness obtainable in this alloy,
a minimum of about B55.
The hardness of alloy 804 lies in the same range as that of alloy 800 and
solution annealing again reduces the hardness.
Fatigue Properties. The effects of working and annealing on the fatigue

properties of alloy 800 are given in Fig. 4_5. 14 The fatigue properties are
influenced markedly by the condition of the material. Hot rolled material
appears to be most resistant to fatigue and cold drawn material the least.
As the following data show, the endurance ratio ranges from 0.51 for hot
rolled to 0.29 for cold drawn material.
Tensile Fatigue strength Endurance
Condition strength, ksi at 10 8 cycles, ksi ratio
Annealed 82 31 0.38
Hot rolled 92 51 0.51
70
60
~ 50
vi
If)
Q)
"-
(j) 40
30
20
7
10 4 106 10
Cycles
Fig. 4-5. S-N curves for alloy 800 in several conditions. 1 0

Impact Properties. Limited data on the impact properties of these

Incoloy alloys are given in Table 4-13. All three alloys are quite tough in the
annealed condition with alloy 800 having the greatest resistance to impact
followed by alloy 825.
Table 4-13. Impact Properties of Some

Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys
Charpy impact
(V-notch),
Form and condition ft-lb Ref.
Incoloy alloy 800
Annealed at 2050 F 207 14
Plate, annealed at 1800 F, 1 hr 90a
Incoloy alloy 804
Annealed 56 b 15
Cold worked 28 b
Incoloy alloy 825
Plate 79- 16
"Keyhole notch. ·Notch not specified.
A comparison of the impact resistance of alloy 804 in the annealed and

cold drawn conditions indicates that the shock resistance of this alloy is
reduced significantly by cold working.
Additional data on impact properties are included in the discussion of
the low-temperature properties of these alloys.

The short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of alloy 800 and
alloy 825 are shown in Fig. 4_6. 14. 16 Alloy 800 retains more than 80 % of its
room-temperature strength, in both the annealed and cold rolled conditions,
up to temperatures of about 1000 F, above which temperature strength falls
rapidly. At 1250 F, for example, the strength has been reduced by 50%.
These properties are similar to those of the Inconel alloys.
Alloy 825 in the annealed condition shows a more gradual reduction in
strength with rising temperatures and this alloy also retains more than 80 %
of its strength at 1000 F. Like alloy 800, strength is reduced by 50% as the
temperature rises to 1250 F.
Typical creep and rupture properties of alloy 800 and alloy 804 are given
in Table 4_14.14,15 The properties of alloy 800 indicate the advantage of solu-
tion annealing over conventional annealing. The coarse grain structure,
resulting from solution annealing, markedly improves the creep and rupture
properties of this material. At 1600 F, for example, the stress for a creep rate
.....
co
Table 4-14. Creep and Rupture Properties of Some Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys

Condition F 0.00001 %/hr 0.0001 %/hr 0.001 %/hr om %/hr in 100 hr Ref.
Incoloy alloy 800

Mill anneal, 1800 F, 10 min 1000 36 44 50 55 62 14
1200 7.5 12 20 31
1400 1.9 2.8 4.0 6.0 8.5
1600 0.3 1.0 1.2 2.4 3
Solution anneal, 2050 F, 1 hr 1000 42 47 50 60
1200 11 18 25 35
1400 3.5 5.1 6.5 14
1600 1.7 2.5 3.0 6
Incoloy alloy 804
Mill anneal, 1900 F, 1/2 hr 1400 6.2 15
1600 2.4
1800 2.0
Solution anneal, 2050 F, 1/2 hr 1400 12.5
1600 5.8
1800 2.9
o::T
DI
"C
::
.
.po.
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100
120 r-r---r---r----r---,.----,,...:..,
100
-Vi
.0<:,80
..c
Q,
c 3
~ 60
(f)
~
Vi
c 40
~
20
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
two nickel-iron-chromium alloys. 1 4. 16 (1) Alloy 800, cold
rolled; (2) alloy 825, annealed 1725 F, 1 hr; (3) alloy 800,
annealed 2100 F, 1 hr.
of 0.0001 % per hour of solution-annealed material is more than twice that

for mill-annealed stock. The stress for rupture in 100 hours at the same
temperature follows a similar pattern.
A similar effect is achieved with alloy 804. According to the producer, 1 6
solution annealing to produce grain coarsening in alloy 804 results in the
best properties for long-time service in the range 1400 to 1600 F. Thus the
stress for rupture in 100 hours at 1600 F, for example, of solution-annealed
material is more than twice that for mill-annealed material.
Although material in the solution-annealed condition is generally super-
ior at 1800 F, as shown in the table, the advantage of large grain size becomes
negligible in long-time exposure under equivalent stress. For example, under
a stress of 1 ksi at 1800 F, mill-annealed material had a life of 29,026 hours,
solution annealed material one of 29,460 hours. 1 6
The impact resistance of alloy 800 and alloy 825 plate at subzero tem-
peratures is indicated in Fig. 4_7. 14• 16 Both of these materials exhibit excel-
80 Chapter 4
Temperature, K
.g 50 100 150 200 250 300
--
~IOO~~--~--~---.---.---n
L
U ~ Alloy 800
c 80
-0
Q)
(5
L
ii)'
~
60
----
~~AlIoy825
uo
Cl. 40
.£
>-
2
Cl.
20~~----~----~--~~--~----~
<.) -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 4-7. Subzero-temperature impact properties of two nickel-
iron---<:hromium alloys in the annealed condition. 14 • 16
lent toughness at low temperatures although there is some reduction in

impact resistance as the temperature is reduced. There is no indication of a
transition from ductile to brittle behavior down to at least -400 F.
REFERENCES
1. R. J. Favor, D. A. Roberts, and W. F. Ashbach, Design Information on Nickel-Base

(1968).
3. Handbook of Huntington Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The Interna-
tional Nickel Co., Inc. (1969).
4. Inconel alloy 601, ibid. (1969).
5. Engineering Properties of Inconel Alloy 600, Bull. T-7, ibid. (1968).
6. Engineering Properties of Inconel Alloy 625, Bull. T-42, ibid. (1968).
7. Inconel Alloy 718, ibid. (1968).
8. Engineering Properties of Inconel Alloy X-750, Bull. T-38, ibid. (1967).
9. H. J. Grover, S. A. Gordon, and L. R. Jackson, Fatigue of Metals and Structures,
10. F. R. Schwartzberg, S. H. Osgood, and T. F. Kiefer, Cryogenic Materials Data Hand-
book, AD 609562, The Martin Co. (1964).
11. "Nickel and its alloys-cast," Materials in Design Engineering, Mid-October 1966,
p.175.
12. "Heat resistant iron-chromium and iron-chromium-nickel castings for general appli-
cations," Designation A 297, ASTM Standards, Part 2,1969.
13. "Heat resisting alloys-cast," Materials in Design Engineering, Mid-October, 1966,

p.93.
14. Engineering Properties of Incoloy Alloy 800, Bull. T-40, Huntington Alloy Products
Division, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
15. Basic Data-Incoloy Alloy 804, ibid. (1964).
16. Incoloy Alloy 825, ibid. (1968).
Chapter 5
Nickel-Base Superalloys
The so-called nickel-base superalloys or high-strength high-temperature

alloys are, in general, modifications of the corrosion- and heat-resisting alloys
of the types discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. Their improved strength and creep
resistance at elevated temperatures have been developed by including ele-
ments which will produce a stable hard phase or phases, such as precipitated
carbides or intermetallic compounds. As Rosenberg! points out, most of the
commercial nickel-base superalloys are made age hardenable by the intro-
duction of aluminum and titanium into their alloy compositions.
In the nickel-base superalloys, chromium is present to provide resistance
to oxidation and to contribute some strengthening. Columbium, molyb-
denum, tungsten, and tantalum are often present in various combinations to
assist in the solid-solution strengthening of the matrix. The major improve-
ment in high-temperature strength, however, is the result of the precipitation
of the intermetallic compound, Ni 3 (AI, Ti), usually called gamma prime.
In some of the alloys, cobalt is used as a replacement for part of the nickel.
Boron and zirconium are also added to some alloys to improve the high-
temperature creep properties and increase the hot workability of the materi-
als.
The strengths of the superalloys at high temperatures make hot working
difficult and introduce forming problems. Therefore, some of the more highly
alloyed materials are used in cast form, particularly as investment castings.!
According to Sims,2 the phases usually present in wrought nickel-base
superalloys are gamma (the matrix, which has a face-centered cubic structure),
gamma prime, and a series of carbides. In the solution-treated condition, the
alloy consists essentially of the gamma matrix with some high-temperature
carbides. After a solution anneal, usually at 1900 to 2150 F, a series of aging
82
Nickel-Base Superalloys 83
treatments is used to develop the strengthening phases which consist of gam-

ma prime and complex carbides. The mechanism is discussed in some detail
by Sims.
In general, cast nickel-base superalloys have compositions similar to
those of the wrought materials but, according to Sims, there is a tendency
for them to contain less chromium and more aluminum than the wrought
types. As in the wrought materials, the major phases are the alloy matrix,
gamma, the intermetallic compound, gamma prime, and various carbides.
Generally, the cast alloys can be heat treated by procedures that are less
complicated than those used for the wrought materials. For example, the
investment cast part is usually cooled and then aged at a temperature such as
1400 F for a sufficient time to insure the full development of gamma prime.
For greater stability, however, the cast alloys can be given heat treatments
similar to those used for the wrought alloys.
Some indication of the range of stress-rupture properties which can be
developed in the nickel-base superalloys is given in Fig. 5-1. 3 The cast alloys
tend to have higher rupture strengths than the wrought alloys, but there is
some overlapping, as is apparent from this graph.
The line of demarcation between heat resisting alloys and superalloys
is very poorly defined and no systematic classification of these materials has
Temperature, K
1000 1100 1200 1300
100 r--....--.,.----~----..-------,I'"t
"in
~
80
.r::.
~
0
Q
60
.r::.
"&
c
~
i/) 40
~
~
Q.
:::J
20
a:::
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900

Temperature, F
Fig. 5-1. Range of loo-hour rupture strengths for nickel-base super-
alloys. 3
84 Chapter 5
been developed. Thus a number of the alloys discussed previously in Chapters

3 and 4 are usually included among the superalloys, particularly Hastelloy
alloy X and Inconel alloy X-750 and Inconel alloy 718.
Although the Western world has based most nickel-base superalloy
development on nickel--chromium-aluminum-titanium combinations, Prock
and Wagner4 report that the Soviet Union has used a different approach. In
their alloy development, molybdenum, which is in short supply, has been
replaced by tungsten wherever possible and the use of cobalt has been re-
stricted for the same reason. In addition, the aluminum and titanium addi-
tions have been reduced and vanadium has been added. Prock and Wagner
note that they appear to have been successful in devising means of coping
with limited supplies of cobalt and molybdenum and apparently have devel-
oped cast and wrought alloys which compare favorably with those produced
in the United States and Great Britain. These Soviet alloys will not be dis-
cussed. Information on them can be found in the publication cited.
In the Western world there are more than fifty commercial superalloys
and many others are in various stages of development. Space is not available
to discuss all of these materials and therefore a limited number of wrought
and cast alloys have been selected to indicate the properties that can be
expected.
WROUGHT ALLOYS
The compositions of five representative nickel-base superalloys, whose

properties are determined primarily by the precipitation of the gamma prime
phase, are listed in Table 5-1. These alloys are arranged in the order of
increasing content of aluminum plus titanium and were selected to indicate
Table 5-1. Nominal Compositions of Some Wrought

Composition, %a
Designation C Cr Co Mo Ti Al Other
M-252 0.15 20.0 10.0 10.0 2.6 1.0 0.005 B
Waspaloy 0.08 19.5 13.5 4.3 3.0 1.3 0.006 B; 0.06 Zr
Rene 41 0.09 19.0 11.0 10.0 3.1 1.5 0.005 B
Udimet 500 0.08 18.0 18.5 4.0 2.9 2.9 0.006 B; 0.05 Zr
Nimonic 115 0.15 15.0 15.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
TDNickel 2.2 ThO z
"Nickel remainder. With the exception of TD Nickel, the alloys are arranged in order of increasing Al + Ti
content.
the influence of these elements on the properties. A sixth superalloy, TD

Nickel, has also been included because it is hardened by a different mechan-
ism.
The alloys that are hardened by precipitation of the gamma prime
phase are very strong within the temperature range in which the precipitated
phase is stable. At temperatures above about 1800 F, however, these precipi-
tates begin to dissolve and the strength falls off rapidly at higher tempera-
tures.
On the other hand, TD Nickel is hardened by a different mechanism.
This mechanism is dispersion strengthening achieved by incorporating stable,
insoluble particles in the matrix. Since these particles are not soluble, TD
Nickel can be expected to extend the service temperature range of nickel-
base alloys to higher temperatures, as noted by Rice. S
Physical Properties
Representative physical properties of the six selected alloys are given
in Table 5-2.3, S, 6, 7 With the exception of TD Nickel, the physical properties
of these materials are quite comparable with each other. The electrical
resistivities of the precipitation harden able alloys are quite high and their
thermal conductivities correspondingly low. These properties lie in the same
range as those of the nickel-chromium alloys discussed in Chapter 4. They
are practically nonmagnetic and have permeabilities in the same range as
those of the nickel-chromium alloys. Their coefficients of thermal expansion
are comparable with those of certain of the chromium-nickel stainless steels.
The physical properties of TD Nickel are quite different. Rices noted that
this material is approximately 98 %nickel with 2 % inert oxide. Therefore its
properties are quite close to those of nickel. For example, the electrical
resistivity and thermal conductivity lie within the same range as those of
commercial nickel. Thus TD Nickel is a much better conductor of electricity
and heat than the precipitation harden able superalloys. The coefficient of
thermal expansion of TD Nickel also approaches that of commercial nickel
but is also comparable with those of the other superalloys under discussion.
The elastic properties of these alloys, again with the exception of TD
Nickel, lie within the same range as those of other wrought nickel-base alloys
discussed previously. The modulus of elasticity of TD Nickel, on the other
hand, is much lower than that of commercial wrought nickel and is compa-
rable with that of commercial cast nickel.
The effects of temperature on the dynamic modulus of elasticity of these
materials are indicated in Fig. 5-2.3 The age hardenable alloys are shown as
a band because their properties are quite close together. This modulus can
be determined from the natural frequency of a length of rod or sheet of known
(1)
en
Table 5-2. Physical Properties of Some Wrought Nickel-Base Superalloys 3,5,6.7
Nimonic
M-252 Waspaloy Rene 41 Udimet 500 115 TD Nickel
Melting point, F 2470-2500 2425-2475 2350-2450 2400 2600

Specific heat (70 F), Btu/lb/"F 0.108 0.11 0.106
Thermal conductivity (70 F), Btu/hr/ft 2 /"F/ft 6.8 6.1 5.2 6.4 48
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1600 F), per of 8.5 x 10- 6 8.9 X 10- 6 8.7 X 10- 6 8.9 X 10- 6 9.0 X 10- 6 8.6 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 788 a 773 b 803 a 722 803 46
Permeability (75 F, H = 200 Oe) 1.002 a 1.011 b <1.002 <1.002
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 29,700 30,600 31,600 31,100 31,300 c 22,000 c
Poisson's ratio 0.325 0.31 0.31
Density (70 F), Ib/in.3 0.298 0.295 0.298 0.290 0.284 0.322
'Annealed 2150 F, air cooled. 'Annealed 1975 F, air cooled. cDynamic modulus.
o
:r
III
1.
en
Temperature, K
40000 300 500 700 900 1100 1300
,
.£ 30,000
u
Ui
o
w
'+-
o
If)
:::J
:; 20,000
D
o
~
10,000 L . . - . _ - ' - - _.........._ _L....-_-'--_--'

400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature, F
Fig. 5-2. Effect of temperature on the dynamic modulus of

elasticity of some wrought superalloys.3 (Band plotted from
data for Mimonic 115, Udimet 500, Rene 41, Waspaloy, and
M-252. Lower curve TD Nickel.)
density. According to Stokes,8 the dynamic modulus is the adiabatic modulus,

Ea, and is related to the isothermal modulus, E;, as determined by static
methods by the following equation:
where T is the absolute temperature, IX is the coefficient of thermal expansion,

c is the specific heat, and p is the density.
The moduli of Nimonic 115, Udimet 500, Waspaloy, and Rene 41 range
from about 32,000 ksi at room temperature to about 22,000 ksi at 1800 F.
M-252 lies on the low side of the band, ranging from 29,900 ksi at room
temperature to 21,000 ksi at 1600 F. In its elastic properties, again TD Nickel
differs markedly from the other materials. Its modulus ranges from about
22,000 ksi at room temperature to 11,000 ksi at 2000 F. Stokes notes that the
dynamic modulus is generally slightly higher than the static modulus.
88 Chapter 5
R oom- Temperature Properties

Typical tensile properties of the six materials are given in Table 5_3.3,5,9
The heat treatments used in developing the properties are given as footnotes
to the table. Although these heat treatments varied considerably among the
alloys, the strengths of M-252, Waspaloy, Udimet 500, and Nimonic 115
are quite close together and their ductilities, as measured by the elongation,
do not differ greatly although Waspaloy and Nimonic 115 appear to be
Table 5-3. Typical Tensile Properties of Some Wrought


(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.),
Form and condition ksi ksi % Ref.
M-252
Bar
Heat treated- 120 180 16 9
Sheet
Heat treated- 110 180 20
Waspaloy
Bar
Heat treatedb 115 188 28 9
Rene 41
Bar
Heat treated- 154 206 14 9
Heat treatedc 120 160 18
Sheet
Heat treated- 145 185 9
Heat treated c 97 140 12
Udimet 500
Rolled bar and forgings
Heat treatedb 110 175 15 9
Sheet
Heat treatedb 130 190 18
Nimonic 115
Bar
Heat treatedd 125 180 27 3
TD Nickel
Bar 48-87 61-103 31-22 5
Sheet 47-60 64--70 19-12
-Solution treated 1950 F, 4 hr, air cooled; aged 1400 F, 16 hr, air cooled.
·Solution treated 1975 F, 4 hr, air cooled; aged 1500 F, 24 hr, air cooled; 1400 F, 16 hr, air cooled.
cSolution treated 2150 F, 2 hr, air cooled; aged 1650 F, 4 hr, air cooled.
'Solution treated 2175 F, 1.5 hr, air cooled; 2010 F, 6 hr, air cooled.
somewhat more ductile than the other two alloys. The two heat treatments
used for Rene 41 resulted in considerable variations in strength properties
with less variation in ductility. The ductility of Rene 41 appears to be com-
parable with those of M-252 and Udimet 500.
TD Nickel is produced by compacting and rolling a powder produced
by the aqueous reduction of nickel ammonium carbonate in which an aquesol
of thoria is incorporated according to Rice. S After compaction, the material
is usually sintered in hydrogen. Subsequent hot rolling, cold rolling, and
annealing determine the properties. As shown in Table 5-3, the room-tempera-
ture strength of TD Nickel is much lower than those of the precipitation
harden able alloys, but the ductility lies approximately in the same range.
RiceS notes that exposure to elevated temperatures has virtually no effect
on the room-temperature tensile strength or on the shock resistance of TD
Nickel. As an example, he notes that the Charpy V-notch impact value was
34 ft-Ib for material in the "as received" condition and fell only to 30 ft-Ib
after exposure of 100 hours at 2400 F.

Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of the six materials
under discussion are presented in Fig. 5_3. 3 ,9 Since the strengths of the five
age hardenable materials were quite close together, they have been indicated
as a band. These alloys retain much of their room-temperature strength up
to about 1200 F. Above that temperature, however, strength begins to
fall off rapidly and at 1600 F is only about 40% of the room-temperature
strength.
The tensile strength of TD Nickel is much lower than those of the age
hardenable alloys at all temperatures and it falls continuously as the tem-
perature is increased. At 1600 F, its strength is only about 25 % of the room-
temperature strength.
Typical stress-rupture properties of the materials are given in Table
5-4. 3 Although there was no significant difference in the short-time strengths
of the age hardenable alloys above 1200 F, the effect of increasing the alumi-
num plus titanium content is clearly indicated by the progressive increase in
rupture strength.
For example, the aluminum plus titanium content of M-252 is 3.6 % and
its WOO-hour rupture s"trength at 1600 F is 10 ksi. Nimonic 115 has an alumi-
numplus titanium content of9% and its WOO-hour rupture strength at 1600 F
is 27 ksi. As can be noted in the table, the WOO-hour rupture strength of
Nimonic 115 at 1800 F is almost as high as that of M-252 at 1600 F. Thus,
the increase in titanium and aluminum content of Nimonic 115 has resulted
in a significant increase in the useful temperature range.
The value of TD Nickel is clearly indicated by these long-time tests.
90 Chapter 5
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
200 ,....,...---r----,----..,.----,---,I""""'I
180
160
140
~
..c
0, 120
c
.....~
Cf)
.Si! 100
'iii
c
~
80
60
40
20 L-_....l-_---'-_ _....L.-_---I..._;::a..J
400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 5~3. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of

some wrought superalloys.s,9 (Band plotted from data for
Waspaloy, Rene 41, M-252, and Udimet 5()(). Lower curve
TO Nickel.)
Although its room-temperature strength is much lower than that of the

age hardenable alloys and the short-time elevated-temperature tensile prop-
erties are not impressive, TD Nickel retains its strength to higher tempera-
tures than the age hardenable alloys. For example, the lOoo-hour rupture
strength of TD Nickel at 2000 F is equal to that of Nimonic 115 at 1800 F,
a very significant advance.
In this connection, Donachie and Bradley! 0 reported that in a test in
which TD Nickel and Hastelloy alloy X were compared by service tests in
Table 5-4. Stress Rupture Properties of Some Wrought

Test Stress (ksi) for rupture in

temperature,
Form and condition F 100hr 1000 hr
M-252
Bar, heat treateda 1200 98 79
1400 52 38
1600 23 10
Waspaloy
Bar, heat treated b 1200 110 86
1400 60 42
1600 25 16
Rene 41
Bar, heat treated c 1200 100
1400 64 40
1600 23 14
Udimet 500
Bar, heat treated b 1200 135 110
1400 66 47
1600 29 18
Nimonic 115
Bar, heat treatedd 1400 79 61
1600 38 27
1800 16 9.5
TD Nickel
Stress-relieved 1200 28 26
1400 23 21
1600 18 16
1800 14 13
2000 11 9.5
"1900 F, 4 hr, air cooled; 1400 F, 16 hr, air cooled.

'1975 F, 4 hr, air cooled; 1550 F, 24 hr, air cooled; 1400 F. 16 hr, air cooled.
c1950 F, air cooled; 1400 F, 16 hr, air cooled.
"2175 F, 1.5 hr, air cooled; 2010 F, 6 hr, air cooled.
jet-engine burner cans, the former was superior by a wide margin after 151
hours.
The high strengths of the nickel-base superalloys have led to the investi-
gation of some of them for possible service at subzero temperatures. Among
these are Rene 41, Waspaloy, and TD Nickel. Others were discussed in
Chapters 3 and 4.
92 Chapter 5
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
260~~----~--~--T---~--~
240
220
200
"Vi
->C 180
..c
0,
c
QJ
In 160
~
Vi
~ 140
f-
120
100
80
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 5-4. Subzero-temperature tensile strengths of some
wrought superalloys.ll.12 (1) Rene 41 bar, solution annealed;
(2) Waspaloy, aged; (3) Rene 41 sheet, aged; (4) Waspaloy,
solution annealed; (5) Rene 41 sheet, solution annealed; (6)
TD Nickel.
As shown in Fig. 5-4, the strengths of all three of the alloys mentioned
in the preceding paragraph increase as the temperature is reduced below zero.
There is, however, some difference in the rate of change. The greatest increase
in strength occurs in material which has been solution annealed.
The tensile strength of Rene 41 bar stock in the solution-annealed condi-
tion increased from 188 ksi at room temperature to 255 ksi at -400 F. The
tensile strength of Rene 41 sheet increased from about 135 ksi at room
temperature to 200 ksi at -400 F, whereas the strength of aged hardened
sheet increased only from 181 ksi to 209 ksi with the same temperature
change.
Similarly, the strength of solution annealed Waspaloy sheet increased
from approximately 142 ksi at room temperature to about 215 ksi at -423 F,
whereas the strength of age hardened material increased only from 178 ksi
at room temperature to 197 ksi at -423 F. In addition, the Waspaloy sheet
in the aged condition reached a peak value in the -250 to -300 F range and
decreased below that range. However, Martin and Miller I 2 note that although
the notched-to-unnotched strength ratio (K, = 10) is below unity for Wasp-
aloy in both the solution annealed and aged conditions, notch sensitivity
would probably not pose any problems at low temperatures.
The tensile strength of TD Nickel also increases significantly with fall-
ing temperatures ranging from 67 ksi at room temperature to 117 ksi at
-423 F. According to Martin and Miller,12 the ductility also shows a marked
increase with falling temperature and no serious problems with notch sen-
sitivity would be expected.
An indication of the toughness of Rene 41 sheet in the solution annealed
condition is given in Fig. 5_5. 11 Charpy V-notch tests, made on subsize speci-
mens, indicated that there was only a small reduction in the energy absorbed
as the temperature was reduced from room temperature to -400 F. There
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
£20
I
+-
'+-
~
..c
u 15
0C
I
>
+-
10
u
0
Q.
.s 5
>.
....
Q.
0
..c
()
0
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 5-5. Subzero-temperature impact properties of Rene
41 solution annealed bar. I I
94 Chapter 5
was no indication of a transition from ductile to brittle behavior at low

temperatures for this material.
CAST ALLOYS
The compositions of five representative cast nickel-base superalloys are

given in Table 5-5. 3 GMR-235D is a modification of the original GMR-235
alloy. These alloys are hardened by precipitation of the NilAI, Ti) inter-
metallic compound and were developed for service in gas-turbine applica-

Composition, %a
Designation C Cr Co Mo Ti Ai Other
GMR-235D 0.15 15.5 5.0 2.5 3.5 0.05 B; 4.5 Fe

Alloy 713C 0.12 12.5 4.2 0.8 6.1 0.12 B; 0.10 Zr; 2.0 Cb
IN-loo 0.18 10.0 15.0 3.0 4.7 5.5 0.014 B; 0.06 Zr; 1.0 V
MAR-M200 0.15 9.0 10.0 2.0 5.0 0.015 B; 0.05 Zr; 12.5 W; 1.0 Cb
Mar-M246 0.15 9.0 10.0 2.5 1.5 5.5 0.Q15 B; 0.05 Zr; 10.0 W; 1.5 Ta
aNickel remainder.
tions. The modified alloy contains increased quantities of aluminum and

titanium and less iron than the original. As a result of this modification in
composition, the rupture life of GMR-235D, cast in an inert atmosphere
from vacuum melted material, is approximately 50% higher at 1600 F than
that of vacuum cast GMR-235 alloyP
Alloy 713C and IN-100 are vacuum-melted, vacuum-cast materials of
the aluminum-titanium precipitation type. They have excellent strength up
to about 1800 FP
MAR-M200 is an age harden able alloy containing relatively large
quantities of tungsten which contributes to the strengthening of the matrix
and in carbide formation. It also contains cobalt to increase the solvus tem-
perature of the gamma-prime phase. 14 MAR-M246 was developed to obtain
higher ductility than was achieved in MAR-M200 and also to improve the
high-temperature strength and rupture properties.
Physical Properties
Limited data on the physical properties of these alloys are given in Table
5_6. 3 • 7 • 14 The thermal expansion data indicate that these cast alloys have
expansion characteristics similar to those of the wrought age hardenable
z
n'
~
!!.
,
III
I»
1/1
CD
en
c
"C
CD
!.
0"
<1/1
Table 5-6. Physical Properties of Some Cast Nickel-Base Superall oys 3,7,14
GMR-235D Alloy 713C IN-100 MAR-M200 MAR-M246
Melting point, F 2350-2450 2435 2400-2450 2450

Specific heat (70-200 F), Btu/lb;oF 0.100
Thermal conductivity (200 F), Btu/hr/ft 2 ;oF/ft 12.2 8.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1600 F), per of 8.6 x 10- 6 8.8 X 10- 6 8.2 X 10- 6
Modulus of elasticity, ksi a 28,700 29,900 31,200 31,600
Density (70 F), Ib/in. 3 0.291 0.286 0.280 0.304 0.305
aDynamic modulus.
CD
CII
96 Chapter 5
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
40,000 .-.---,----,---,--,---...,.,
f.30,000
.(3
.~
c
W
'0
VI
-§ 20,000
"0
o
::?!
10,000 L - . . _ . . . I . . - _ - l - _ - - - L_ _L...---I
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 5-6. Effect of temperature on the dynamic modulus of
elasticity ofsomecast superalloys.3 (1) MAR-M2oo; (2) IN-loo;
(3) 713C; (4) GMR-235D.
nickel-base superalloys. However, the thermal conductivities of alloy 713C

and MAR-M2oo are considerably higher than those of the wrought composi-
tions previously discussed in this chapter.
The modulus of elasticity increases progressively from 28,700 ksi for
GMR-235D to 31,600 ksi for MAR-M2oo. No values were found for MAR-
M246. The effect of temperature on the dynamic modulus of elasticity is
indicated in Fig. 5-6. 3 The modulus of GMR-235D is considerably lower
than those of the other cast alloys under discussion and temperature has a
greater effect on it. However, all four of the materials show a relatively uni-
form decrease in modulus as the temperature is increased.
Typical tensile properties for the five alloys in the "as cast" condition are
given in Table 5_7.3.13.14 Alloys GMR-235D, 713C, and IN-loo, which de-
pend primarily on the intermetallic compound, gamma prime, for hardening,
Table 5-7. Typical Tensile Properties and Hardness Values

of Some Cast Nickel-Base Superalloys

Condition ksi ksi % hardness Ref.
GMR-235D
As casta 103 112 3 C36 13
Alloy 713C
As castb 112 127 6 C38 13
IN-l 00
As cast 127 146 7 13
MAR-M200
As cast 120 135 7 14
MAR-M246
As cast 125 140 5 3
-Vacuum melted, cast in inert atmosphere.

bVacuum melted, vacuum cast.
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
160 r-T""---,----r--r---.,...--~
140
60
40 '----'-----'---..........---'------'
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature, F
Fig. 5-7. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths
of some cast superalloys.3.13 (1) IN-l00; (2) MAR-M246;
(3) MAR-M200; (4) GMR-235D; (5) 713C.
98 Chapter 5
show a progressive increase in strength with increasing aluminum and titani-

um content. Alloys MAR-M200 and MAR-M246 do not fit into this pattern,
probably because of the inclusion of alloying elements which strengthen the
matrix, notably tungsten. Their strengths lie between those of alloy 713C
and IN-lOO. The ductility, as indicated by the elongation, is low in all five
materials.
Although there is a marked difference in the tensile strengths of GMR-
235D and alloy 713C, their Rockwell hardness values are quite close to-
gether.
Tests on alloy 713C indicated that some improvement in toughness was
achieved by casting in a vacuum over that resulting from casting in an
inert atmosphere. Charpy V-notch impact tests indicated that the energy
absorbed was 9.4 ft-Ib for vacuum cast material compared with 7.0 ft-Ib for
inert-atmosphere-cast material. 1 5
The short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of the five cast
alloys under discussion are indicated in Fig. 5_7. 3 ,13 All of these materials were
tested in the "as cast" condition. The effect of the precipitation of the gamma
Table 5-8. Stress-Rupture Properties of Some Cast

Test Stress (ksi) for rupture in

temperature,
Condition F 100hr 1000 hr Ref.
GMR-235D
As casta 1500 48 33.5 13
1700 20.5 16.9
Alloy 713C
As casta 1200 105 91 13
1500 63 47
1800 20 14.8
IN-1oo
As casta 1500 70 56 13
1800 24
MAR-M2oo
Cast, heat treated b 1500 72 60 3
1700 42 29
1800 26 18
MAR-M246
Cast, heat treatedb 1500 78 62 3
1700 43 30
1800 28 19
aVacuum melted, investment cast. '1600 F, 50 hr, air cooled.
prime phase is indicated by the increase in strength which occurs in the 1200
to 1500 F range. Above that range, the strengths fall off rapidly and are so
close together that they have been indicated by a band. At 1800 F, all five of
the alloys have strengths in the 70 to 80 ksi range.
Typical stress-rupture properties of these cast alloys are given in Table
5_8. 3 ,13 The effect of increasing the aluminum and titanium content on im-
proving the rupture properties is indicated by the data reported for GMR-
235D, alloy 713C, and IN-IOO at 1500 F. The stress for rupture in 1000
hours at that temperature, for example, increased from 33.5 ksi for GMR-
235D to 56 for IN-lOO, an improvement of about 75 %. MAR-M200 and Mar-
M246, which contain large quantities of matrix-strengthening elements in
addition to aluminum and titanium, show an additional improvement over
IN-JOO. Their 1000-hour rupture strengths at 1500 Fare 60 and 62 ksi, re-
spectively. This improvement is maintained at the highest temperature on
which data were reported, 1800 F.
REFERENCES
(1968).
2. C. T. Sims, "A contemporary view of nickel-base superalloys," J. Metals, October
1966, p. 1119.
3. High-Temperature High-Strength Nickel-Base Alloys, The International Nickel Co.,
Inc. (1965).
4. J. Prock, Jr. and H. J. Wagner, A Primer of Soviet Superalloys, DMIC Report 235,
Battelle Memorial Institute (1966).
5. L. P. Rice, Metallurgy and Properties of Thoria-Strengthened Nickel, DMIC Memo
210, ibid. (1965).
6. M. E. Langston and C. H. Lund, Physical Properties of Some Nickel-Base Alloys,
DMIC Report 129, ibid. (1960).
8. H. J. Stokes, "Apparatus for the measurement of Young's modulus between -200
and 700 C by transverse vibration in a vacuum," J. Sci. Inst. 37, 117 (1960).
9. R. J. Favor, D. A. Roberts, and W. F. Ashbach, Design Information on Nickel-Base
10. M. J. Donachie, Jr. and E. F. Bradley, "Jet engine materials for the 1970's," Metal
Progress, March 1969, p. 60.
11. F. R. Schwartzberg, S. H. Osgood, H. D. Keys, and T. F. Kiefer, Cryogenic Materials
12. H. L. Martin and P. C. Miller, Effects ofLow Temperature on the Mechanical Properties
of Structural Materials, NASA SP-5012 (01), 1968.
13. Comparative Properties of Union Carbide High-Temperature Alloys, Union Carbide
Stellite Division (1966).
14. J. A. Van Echo and W. A. Simmons, Mechanical and Physical Properties of MAR-
M280, MAR-M302 and MAR-M322, DMIC Memo 193, Battelle Memorial Institute
(1964).
15. Haynes Alloys No. 7J3C, Union Carbide Stellite Division (1966).
Chapter 6
Copper-Base Nickel Alloys
There are quite a number of copper-base alloys which contain nickel as an

alloying constituent. The most widely used engineering alloys, however, fall
into two groups, the copper-nickel alloys and the copper-nickel-zinc alloys,
generally called Nickel Silvers. The latter are also sometimes called Nickel
Brasses. These two groups will be discussed in this chapter.
COPPER-NICKEL ALLOYS
Copper and nickel are soluble in each other in all proportions and many
alloys have been developed which are based on this binary alloy system. In
the high nickel end of the system, the major engineering alloys are the Monel
alloys which were discussed in: Chapter 3.
Alloys containing less than 50 % nickel are generally called copper-
nickel alloys in America now although they were formerly often called cupro-
nickels. Basically, these are binary alloys of copper and nickel but iron is
added to some of them to increase the resistance to corrosion and erosion.
In addition, about 1 %manganese is generally included in the composition to
deoxidize the melt and improve the corrosion resistance.
Practically every combination of copper and nickel up to 50 %nickel has
been made and many proprietary alloys are available in this alloy range.
However, the most important copper-nickel alloys for engineering applica-
tions are those containing from 10 to 30 %nickel, specifically those based on
the 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30 compositions. These have been designated CA
706, CA710, and CA 715, respectively, by the Copper Development Associa-
tion. Nominal compositions are given in Table 6-1.1 Another alloy containing
55 % copper and 45 % nickel could also be included with this group. This
100
Copper-Base Nickel Alloys 101
Table 6-1. Nominal Compositions of Some Copper-Nickel

Alloys!
Composition, %
CDANo. Common name Cu Ni Fe Mn
CA 706 Copper-Nickel, 10% 88.6 10 1.4 l.Oa

CA 710 Copper-Nickel,20% 80 20 l.oa l.oa
CA 715 Copper-Nickel,30% 70 30 0.7a l.oa
aMaximum.
alloy, however, has quite high electrical resistivity and a low temperature
coefficient of resistance and, as a result of these properties, is generally used
in applications which differ from those of the 90/10 to 70/30 groups. It will
be discussed in Chapter 8.
Alloy CA 706, also called Copper-Nickel, 10 %, is modified by the ad-
dition of iron to the base composition. This alloy is commonly used in the
form of tubing for saltwater service lines and heat exchangers. The iron is
added to improve resistance to impingement attack that may occur in any
tube material carrying water at moderate to high velocity.
Alloy CA 710, also called Copper-Nickel, 20%, is used primarily in tube
form for evaporators and heat exchangers. However, it is also used for tur-
bine applications and in electrical components.
Alloy CA 715, also called Copper-Nickel, 30%, is the,most widely used
of the engineering copper-nickel alloys. With small additions of iron and
manganese, it has outstanding resistance to impingement attack and is widely
used in condenser applications on shipboard and in power stations where
sea water is the cooling medium. Because of its excellent corrosion resistance
to a wide variety of media, this alloy is also used in chemical plant construc-
tion.
All three of these copper-nickel alloys are very ductile, a property that
assures good workability. They can be worked hot or cold and can be readily
joined by brazing or welding.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of CA 706, CA 710, and CA 715 are given in
Table 6-2.1. 2 As indicated in the table, there is a gradual change in many of
the physical properties with increasing nickel content.
The melting range increases progressively and that of CA 715 is much
higher than the melting point of pure copper. Because of its higher melting
range, CA 715 is sometimes used for applications where copper brazing is a
102 Chapter 6
Table 6-2. Typical Physical Properties of Some

Copper-Nickel Alloysl,2
CA 706 CA 710 CA 715

90/10 80/20 70/30
Melting range, F 2010-2100 2100-2190 2140-2260

Specific heat (68 F), Btu/lbtF 0.09 0.09 0.09
Thermal conductivity (68 F), Btu/hr/ft2tF/ft 26 21 17
per of 9.5 x 10- 6 9.1 X 10- 6 9.0 X 10- 6
Density,lb/in. 3 0.323 0.323 0.323
desirable method of joining but the melting point of copper is too low to
permit its use.
The electrical resistivity also increases with increasing nickel content
from 115 ohms/cir mil ft for CA 706 to 225 ohms/cir mil ft for CA 715.
Incidently, resistivity continues to increase with nickel content and at 55 %
copper-45 % nickel reaches a value of 300 ohms/cir mil ft.
As would be expected because of its relationship to the electrical prop-
erties, the thermal conductivity decreases with increase in nickel content.
The coefficient of thermal expansion also decreases as the nickel content
increases. This group of copper-nickel alloys is also practically nonmagnetic.
The modulus of elasticity increases progressively with the nickel content
from 18,000 ksi for CA 706 to 22,000 ksi for CA 715. It is noteworthy that the
modulus continues to increase with nickel content and at 55 % copper-45 %
nickel reaches the highest value that is achieved in copper-base alloys. The
modulus of rigidity, like the modulus of elasticity, also increases with the
nickel content.

Strength and hardness of the standard copper-nickel alloys can be
increased only by cold work. Heat treatment is used only to anneal or stress-
relieve the material.
Tensile Properties. Typical tensile properties of the three copper-nickel

alloys in various forms and conditions are given in Table 6_3. 1 ,2 Data on the
materials in the annealed condition show that the strength increases with the

of Some Copper-Nickel Alloysl,2

(0.5 % extn.), strength, (2 in.), Rockwell
Form and condition % ksi % hardness
CA 706
Strip, annealeda 15 44 40 BlO
Tube, annealeda 16 44 42 B15
Light drawn 57 60 10 B73
CA 710
Strip, annealed a 51 27
Light drawn 75 80 B81
CA 715
Bar, hot rolled 20 55 45 B35
Rod, half hard (20%) 70 75 15 B80
Strip, annealeda 22 60 45 B50
Half hard 68 73 12 B80
Hard 73 80 5 B85
Light drawn 75 B85
·Properties of annealed material vary with grain size.
nickel content. Using annealed strip, for example, the tensile strength of CA
706 is 44 ksi, that of CA 710 is 51 ksi, and that of CA 715 is 60 ksi. The
elongation, however, does not show a similar trend, Actually CA 715 is more
ductile, as measured by the elongation, than CA 706 and considerably more
ductile than CA 710. In particular, cold work has a significant effect on the
yield strengths of all three alloys. At the same time the elongation is reduced
markedly.
The effect of cold roIling on the tensile properties of a 70/30 copper-
nickel alloy is shown in Fig. 6-1.3 This graph points up the significant in-
crease in yield strength that results from working; the tensile strength in-
creases in a more moderate fashion.
The effect of annealing after cold work on the tensile properties of a
70/30 copper-nickel alloy is shown in Fig. 6-2.3 The alloy had been cold rolled
with a reduction of 78 % before annealing. The data indicate that softening is
complete in material annealed at 1200 F.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness values for the three copper-nickel alloys

in various forms and conditions are included also in Table 6-3. In the annealed
alloys, the hardness increases with the nickel content. The hardness of CA706
ranges from BIO to B15 depending on the form of the material; for alloy
104 Chapter 6
100 ---.-----.--.....----,
80
~60
vJ
(/)
(j)
~
(f)
40 40 .~
N
c
o
20 20 B
CJl
c
o
W
o 20 40 60 80
Fig. 6-1. Effect of cold rolling on the tensile properties

of 70/30 copper-nickel (ready-to-finish grain size
0.025 mm).3
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 .........----.----.----,,.----r--..,....,
80
~60 60
(/)
(/)
(j)
~
(f)
40 40·!::
N
c
o
20 20 :gCJl
C
o
W
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Fig. 6-2. Effect of annealing on the tensile properties of 70/30
copper-nickel, cold rolled 78 % betore annealing. 3
CA 715, it ranges from B45 to B50, again depending on the form. The
hardness of CA 715 strip ranges from B50 for the annealed condition to B85
for material cold rolled to the hard condition.
Fatigue Properties. Fatigue properties of several copper-nickel alloys

in various forms and conditions are given in Table 6_4.4,5,6 These data were
obtained from various sources and some of the compositions do not fit into
Table 6-4. Fatigue Strengths of Some

Copper-Nickel Alloys

strength,
Form and condition ksi lOS 10 6 10 7 10 8 Ref.
CA 706 Hard 53.8 38 21 4

90/10 Wire, 0.072 in., drawn 88 % 89.5 47 35 28 28 5
CA 710 Annealed 1400 F, 1 hr 24 22 19 18 5
CA 710 Stress-relieved 400 F, 3 hr 35 30 27 26 5
80/20 Rod, 1 in., cold rolled 49.9 18 17.6 6
80/20 Wire, 0.072 in., drawn 88 % 84.3 53 41 34 34 5
CA 715 Annealed 58.5 29 25 4
CA 715 Drawn 33 % 43 36 35 5
70/30 Sheet, 0.025 in., annealed 37 27 26 5
70/30 Rod, 1 in., cold drawn 87.3 35 33 6
70/30 Wire, 0.072 in., drawn 88 % 96.2 59 44 35 35 5
the limits specified for the alloys standardized by the Copper Development
Association. Unless the compositions indicate that the alloys met these specifi-
cations, therefore, they are listed merely as 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30 copper-
nickel alloys.
Grover et al. 6 point out that the fatigue strength of copper-nickel alloys
can be increased by cold work but, in general, the increase is not proportional
to the increase in tensile strength. No tensile data were given for a number of
the alloys included in the table. However, annealed 70/30 copper-nickel alloy
had a fatigue strength of 25 ksi at 10 8 cycles (tensile strength 58.5 ksi) and cold
drawn rod had a fatigue strength of 33 ksi at 10 8 cycles (tensile strength 87.3
ksi) which is in line with Grover's comments.
Listed in the table are tests on wire samples of 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30
copper-nickel alloys. The wires had been drawn with a reduction of 88 %
and had fatigue strengths at 10 8 cycles of 28, 34, and 35 ksi respectively.
Apparently, the increase in nickel content had a moderate effect on the fatigue
strength.
106 Chapter 6
The excellent resistance of copper-nickel alloys to corrosion by saline

and fresh waters is indicated by fatigue tests made in these media. Reed and
MikeselP have included fatigue data on both annealed and stress-relieved
samples of CA 710 in salt water and in fresh water containing carbon dioxide.
The fatigue strengths were practically the same as those obtained on samples
tested in air.
Impact Properties. The notch toughness of the copper-nickel alloys in
the annealed condition is shown in Table 6-5. 5 Although only scattered data
are available, they indicate that the three alloys are quite tough. Apparently.
Table 6-5. Impact Energy of Some Copper-Nickel All oys 5
Impact energy, ft-lb

Rockwell
Condition hardness Izod Charpy
CA 706 Annealed 900 F, 40 min B33

CA 710 Annealed 77
CA 715 Annealed B47 115 a
70/30 b Annealed 92 c 73 d
70/30b Annealed B55 65 d
aV-notch. bIron content not given. bBrinell hardness. dKeyhole notch.
nickel content has little influence on room temperature toughness, however.

For example, CA 706 had a Charpy V-notch impact value of 114 ft-Ib as
compared with a value of 115 ft-Ib for CA 715.
Additional impact data are included under low-temperature properties.
The short-time elevated-temperature tensile strength of a 70/30 copper-
nickel alloy in the annealed and cold drawn condition (40% reduction by
drawing) are given in Fig. 6_3. 2 • 3 As indicated in the graph, the annealed
material retains much of its roem-temperature strength up to about 800 F,
but above that temperature, the strength decreases rather rapidly.
The graph also indicates that the strength imparted by cold work is lost
completely at about 1200 F, and above this temperature both cold worked
and annealed material have similar properties. Figure 6-4, based on Jenkins
et al.,7 presents the short-time yield strengths of a 70/30 copper-nickel alloy
after various amounts of cold work. The data confirm the loss in strength
that occurs at about 1200 F.
Representative stress-rupture and creep properties of the 90/10 and
70/30 copper-nickel alloys in the annealed and worked conditions are given
in Table 6-6. A comparison of the creep properties of 90/10 (CA 706) and
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 r-r----r-~--r---...---........,
"iii
80
.><:
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 6-3. Short-time elevated temperature tensile strength
of 70/30 copper-nickel. 2. 3
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 r-r-----r-----r---,.----,.--...,....-.
"iii
.><:
Q) 80
........
(f)
0
~
N
60
Q
B,
c
40
~
en
"D 20
Q)
"-;:
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 6-4. Short-time yield strengths of 70/30 copper-
nickel in the annealed and cold worked conditions (figures
on curves indicate percentage of cold work). 7
...
0
011
Table 6-6. Stress-Rupture and Creep Properties of Some Copper-Nickel Alloys
Test Stress (ksi) for designated creep rate Stress (ksi)

Condition F 0.000001 %/hr 0.00001 %/hr 0.0001 %/hr in 100 hr Ref.
CA 706 Annealed (0.25 mm grain size) 300 17.0 24.0 3
400 12.0 17.0
500 7.5 8.0 40.0
600 6.0 35.0
800 16.5
CA 706 Cold drawn, 21 % 300 37.8 2
400 25.6 42.5 46.0
500 16.7 28.5 36.0
70/30 Annealed (0.020 mm grain size) 300 24.0 3
500 16.0
Annealed (0.040 mm grain size) 400 49.0
600 44.0
800 26.5
70/30 Drawn and stress-relieved 500 59.0 3
600 49.0
750 17.0 38.0 56.0
850 6.0 17.0 40.0
950 4.0 30.0
(')
:::T
I»
"C
r+
(11
...
Q)
70/30 alloys, annealed to approximately the same grain size, indicates that
nickel has a marked effect on the long-time strength.
The data in this table show that the copper-nickel alloys retain good
strength at moderately high temperatures. These alloys are among the strong-
est of the copper-base materials at elevated temperatures.

The effects of low temperature on the tensile properties of 90/10 and
70/30 copper-nickel alloys in' the annealed condition are indicated in Fig.
6-5. 5 and 6-6. 2 Yield and tensile strengths increase as the temperature is
reduced, although there is less effect on the yield than on the tensile strength.
The elongation also rises but the reduction of area shows a slight decrease.
A comparison of the properties of the two materials shows that the 70/30
alloy is as strong at -300 F as the 90/10 is at -400 F. The ductility of the
70/30 alloy, as measured by the elongation, remains superior to that of the
90/10 alloy at all temperatures. However, the reduction of area is practically
the same at all temperatures for both materials, although there is a slight
trend in favor of the 90/10 composition.
For ductile materials, the notched tensile strength is often a better
indication of toughness than the notched impact test because the materials
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
100 I I I I I I
r-'
~
80 R of A 80 g
....
~ ~~
<!
'+-
.iii 0
60 60 -D
--
.::.::. r--
en
<f)
Q) - E ---
Q)
a::
~ 40 - 40 ;
20 -
- YS
- 20
N
c
.g
0
0'
C
0
I I J I I W
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 6-5. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of annealed 90/10
copper-nickel. 5
110 Chapter 6
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
100 ~--"----'r----r---~--r---n 100
'S=-
o
80 80 ~
T. s. '+-
o
~ 60 -- E 60 "D
Q)
If> 0::
If>
Q)
c7) 40 40 c
(\J
______ Y S 02 % c
o
20 20"5
0'
c
o
W
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 6-6. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of annealed 70/30
copper-nickel. 2
Temperature, K
50 100 I~ ~O 2~ ~O
100 I'T----y----y----,r----,...--T"I
.ti) 80
.::£ ...... ......
L .........
"& 60 ............ I
c
...
Q)
------.-
i7i _ ... _ 2 ... _
~ 40 ----------
4
20
-Unnotched
----Notched
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 6-7. Subzero-temperature tensile strengths of 70/30
(curves 1,2) and 80/20 (curves 3, 4) copper-nickel. 8
Table 6-7. low-Temperature Impact Properties of Some

Copper-Nickel Alloys
Impact energy, ft-lb

Test
temperature, Charpy Izod
Condition F V-notch Ref.
CA 706 Annealed 72 114 8
-108 113
-323 115
-423 116
80/20 Annealed Room 77 2
-110 79
-170 84
-290 85
CA 715 Annealed 72 115 8
-108 114
-323 114
-423 114
70/30 Annealed Room 68 a 5
-50 59a
-100 59 a
-195 6Qa
"Keyhole notch.
do not have an impact transition temperature. Figure 6-7. 8 indicates the effect
of low temperature on the unnotched and notched tensile strength of annealed
80/20 and 70/30 copper-nickel alloys. The toughness of the 70/30 alloy was
not impaired by notches but that of the 80/20 alloy was reduced.
Notch impact tests indicate that the materials are tough to very low
temperatures. No indications of embrittlement were found in the standard
alloys when tested in the annealed condition at temperatures as low as -423F.
Some data on these alloys are given in Table' 6_7. 2 • 5 • 9 No data were found
on the effect of cold working on the low-temperature impact properties.
CAST COPPER-NICKEL ALLOYS
According to Vanick,l 0 cast copper-nickel alloys often have approxi-

mately the same compositions as the wrought alloys. Since they cannot be
hardened by working, however, they contain hardeners such as carbon, iron,
manganese, silicon, aluminum, or tin.
Carbon up to 0.15 % adds some strength; iron up to 1 % improves the
resistance to corrosion in sea water; about 1 % manganese assists in deoxidi-
112 Chapter 6
zation and contributes fluidity; and silicon at 0.25 %aids in producing tough,
pressure-tight castings.
As a means of producing pressure-tight castings in 70/30 copper-nickel
alloy, Kihlgren II suggests melting under oxidizing conditions, adding man-
ganese and silicon a few minutes before pouring to deoxidize the melt, and
completing the deoxidation by adding magnesium in the ladle. He suggests
pouring at 2500 to 2650 F, depending on the section size of the casting, into
generously gated molds made of a refractory open sand. Details are given in
his paper.
According to Shepherd,13 the use of columbium in connection with
silicon yields an alloy considerably stronger than that achieved with silicon
alone. The ratio of silicon to columbium which is selected depends on the
strength-ductility level required. At 49 ksi yield strength, he suggests that the
silicon and columbium content should each be approximately 0.45 %.
A number of copper-nickel casting alloys have been standardized by the
Copper Development Association. Nominal compositions are given in Table
6_8. 13

Copper-Nickel Alloysl3
Composition, %
CDA No. Common name Cu Ni Fe Mn a Si a Other
CA 962 90:10 copper-nickel 88.6 10 1.4 1.0 0.25 1.0 Cba

CA 963 79.3 20 0.7 1.0 0.7
CA 964 70 :30 copper-nickel 69.1 30 0.9 1.5 0.7 1.0 Cb a
CA 966 717C beryllium--copper-nickel 68.5 30 1.0 1.0 0.15 0.5 Be
aMaximum.
In general, these alloys are used for applications similar to those of the
corresponding wrought alloys. Alloys CA 962, CA 963, and CA 964 are
modifications of the 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30 compositions, respectively.
Alloy 966, however, is a 70/30 alloy modified by the addition of beryllium and
is precipitation harden able. It is used for high strength constructional parts
for service in sea water.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the cast copper-nickel alloys are given in
Table 6_9. 13 With the exception of the precipitation hardenable alloy, CA 966
the properties of the alloys are influenced by the nickel content. The melting
range rises with increase in nickel, the thermal and electrical conductivities
oo
"tI
"tI
CD
7
CD
AI
III
CD
Z
Table 6-9. Properties of Some Cast Copper-Nickel Alloys! 3
~
~
CA 962 CA 963 CA 964 CA 966 ~
0"
Physical properties <III
Melting range, F 2010-2100 2100-2190 2140-2260 2010-2160
Specific heat (68 F), Btujlb;oF 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
Thermal conductivity (68 F), Btujhrjft2;oFjft 26 21 17 18
Coefficient of thermal expansion (68-572 F), per of 9.5 x 10- 6 9.1 X 10- 6 9.0 X 10- 6 9.0 X 10- 6
Electrical conductivity (68 F), % lACS 11 6.5 5 4.3 a
Density,lbjin. 3 0.323 0.323 0.323 0.318
Mechanical properties (as sand cast)
Yield strength (0.5 % extn.), ksi 25 55 32 70 a
Tensile strength, ksi 45 75 60 llQa
Elongation (2 in.), % 20 10 20 7a
Brinell hardness 150b 140b 230a
Note: Tensile properties for CA 762, CA 763, and CA 764 are minimum.
aTypical values for material solution-treated at 1825 F, 1 hr, water quenched, aged 950 F, 3 hr.
'Typical values.
....
....
W
114 Chapter 6
decrease, the coefficient of thermal expansion decreases, and the modulus of

elasticity increases. CA 966 does not follow this pattern but it does have the
highest modulus of elasticity of the group.
Table 6-9 also gives minimum tensile properties determined on sand
cast test bars of alloys CA 962, CA 963, and CA 964. These alloys do not
show the same progression in strength with increasing nickel content that
was characteristic of the wrought copper-nickel alloys. As measured by the
elongation, the alloys have quite good ductility in the "as cast" condition.
Alloy CA 966 can be precipitation hardened to a tensile strength of 110
ksi, which is almost double the strength of CA 965, the conventional 70/30
alloy. However, the elongation of CA 966 in the precipitation hardened
condition is rather low.
Gross and Schwab 4 included a cast 70/30 copper-nickel alloy in their
investigation of fatigue properties. The tensile strength of the alloy "as cast"
was 79 ksi and the fatigue strength at 10 8 cycles was 13 ksi.
Reed and MikeselP reported the effects of low temperatures on the
notched-bar impact resistance of a cast 70/30 copper-nickel alloy having an
"as cast" Brinell hardness of 65 to 74 as follows:
Temperature, F -320 -195 -100 -50 80
Charpy impact (keyhole notch), ft-Ib 86 61 50 60 50
NICKEL SIL VERS (COPPER-NICKEL-ZINC ALLOYS)
The copper-nickel-zinc alloys, usually called nickel silvers, are essentially

brasses in which a part of the zinc has been replaced by nickel. A major
reason for the use of nickel, originally, was to obtain a copper-base alloy
which is white. Therefore, the composition limits are restricted. Generally
nickel silvers contain from 45 to 72 % copper, 5 to 18 % nickel, and the bal-
ance zinc. The nickel silvers and the copper-nickel alloys are the only copper-
base materials which are white.
Although originally used most widely for architectural and decorative
purposes, their excellent mechanical properties and their resistance to cor-
rosion by water, the atmosphere, and various organic materials have expanded
the applications of the nickel silvers into the industrial field.
At least 25 nickel silver combinations are produced commercially but a
few can be used to indicate the properties to be expected of these materials.
Those selected are the Copper Development Association standard compos i-
tions designated CA 745, CA 752, CA 757, and CA 770. Nominal composi-

tions are given in Table 6-10. 1
Of the group, the two that are most important commercially are CA 770
(55 % copper-I 8 % nickel) and CA 752 (65 % copper-I 8 % nickel). The former
Table 6-10. Nominal Compositions of Some Nickel Silvers l
Composition, %
CDA No. Common name Cu Ni Zn
CA 745 Nickel Silver, 65-10 65 10 25
CA 757 Nickel Silver, 65-12 65 12 23
CA 752 Nickel Silver, 65-18 65 18 17
CA 770 Nickel Silver, 55-18 55 18 27
work hardens to the highest yield strength of the group and is commonly
used for springs; the latter is used for forming, drawing, spinning, and stamp-
ing operations. Alloys CA 745 (65% copper-lO% nickel) and CA 757 (65%
copper-I 2 % nickel) are lower nickel modifications of the 65 % copper alloy.
With the increase in the price of nickel, they can be expected to take over some
of the applications now being served by CA 752.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the four nickel silvers are given in Table
6-11. 1 In the group containing 65 % copper, the melting point (liquidus)
increases with the nickel content. The electrical resistivity also increases in
the same manner, and the thermal conductivity decreases. The variation in
nickel content appears to have little influence on the coefficient of thermal
expansion and on the elastic properties.
The 55 % copper-I 8 % nickel alloy, CA 770, has a higher electrical
resistivity than that of the 65 % copper-I 8 % nickel alloy, CA 752, and a
lower thermal conductivity. Again, however, the variation in composition
seems to have little effect on the coefficient of thermal expansion and on the
elastic properties.
Since th.se alloys are modifications of yellow brass, a comparison can be
made with it. In general, the substitution of nickel for zinc in these materials
results in increasing the density and the modulus of elasticity. The electrical
resistivity of the nickel silvers is markedly higher than that of yellow brass.
These nickel silvers have resistivities ranging from 115 to 189 ohms/cir mil
ft as compared with 38 for yellow brass. The thermal conductivity is also
markedly lower than that of yellow brass.
....
....
Q)
Table 6-11. Typical Physical Properties of Some Nickel Silvers!
CA 745 CA 757 CA 752 CA 770

(65-10) (65-12) (65-18) (55-18)
Melting point, F 187()a 1830-1900 1960-2030 1930a

Specific heat (68 F), Btu/lb;oF 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
Thermal conductivity (68 F), Btu/hr/ft 2 /oF/ft 26 23 19 17
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 115 130 173 189
Modulus of rigidity, ksi 6,600 6,800 6,800 6,800
Density, Ib/in. 3 0.314 0.314 0.316 0.314
aLiquidus.
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The nickel silvers, like the copper-nickel alloys, can be hardened only by
cold work. The mechanical properties are determined by the annealing
conditions and by the cold work performed after annealing.
Tensile Properties. Nominal tensile properties for the group of nickel

silvers in various forms and conditions are given in Table 6-12.1 The properties
of annealed material vary with grain size. Generally, the larger the grain, the
softer the material. For example, CA 745 flat products annealed to 0.070 mm
grain size had a tensile strength of 49 ksi whereas the same material annealed
to 0.015 mm grain size had a tensile strength of 60 ksi. Ductility is also affec-
ted by grain size, the elongation values for the two materials being 49 and
36 %, respectively.
Comparison of the four materials shows that the nickel content has
little effect on the annealed tensile properties. There appears to be little
effect on the properties after cold work for the alloys containing 65 % copper.
However, CA 770 work hardens to a greater tensile strength than the other
three nickel silvers.
The effect of cold work on the tensile properties is shown in Fig. 6-8 for
a 65 % copper-lO % nickel alloy and in Fig. 6-9 for a 55 % copper-18 %
nickel alloy. 1 These graphs show that the latter work hardens to a greater
degree than the former. For example, at 50% cold work, the 65/10 alloy had
a yield strength of 76 ksi whereas the 55/18 alloy had a yield strength of 90
ksi. The elongations of the two materials after 50 % cold work, however,
were approximately the same, 3 %.
The effect of annealing on the tensile strength and elongation of a 65/10
nickel silver is shown in Fig. 6_10. 14 Little loss of strength occurs with
annealing temperatures below about 700 F but above that temperature there
is a progressive decrease. The ductility, as measured by the elongation, in-
creases as the strength falls.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness values for the four alloys are given also
in Table 6-12. The hardness ranges from B22 for alloy CA 745 in the softest
condition to B99 for alloy CA 770 in spring temper, For example, in hard
temper, flat products ranged from B87 for CA 752 to B92 for CA 745.
Fatigue Properties. Fatigue properties of two types of nickel silver are

given in Table 6-13. 1S As indicated in the table, the fatigue strength of the
55/18 alloy can be increased by cold work but, as was the case with the cop-
per-nickel alloys, the increase is not proportional to the increase in tensile
118 Chapter 6

of Some Nickel Silvers!

(0.5 % extn.), strength, (2 in.), Rockwell
CA 745
Flat products, 0.040 in.
Annealeda 18-28 49-60 49-36 B22-52
Hard 75 86 4 B89
Extra hard 76 95 3 B92
Wire, 0.080 in.
Annealeda 50-63 50-35
Spring temper (84 % reduction) 130 1
CA 757
Annealeda 18-28 52-61 48-35 B22-55
Hard 75 85 4 B89
Extra hard 79 93 2 B92
CA 752
Annealeda 28 59 36 B50
Half hard ')2 74 8 B83
Hard 74 85 3 B87
Rod, 0.500 in.
Annealeda 25 56 42
Half hard (20 % reduction) 60 70 20 B78
Wire, 0.082 in.
Annealeda 28 59 40
Hard 90 103 3
CA 770
Annealeda 27 60 40 B55
Hard 85 100 3 B91
Spring temper 115 2.5 B99
Wire, 0.080 in.
Annealeda 60 40
Spring temper 145 2
(I Annealed properties vary with grain size.

.iii 60
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vi
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401
ii5 N
c
20 20 ..§
0
0-
C
0
W
0 20 40 60 80
Reduction by Roiling, %
Fig. 6-8. Effect of cold rolling on the tensile proper-

ties of 65-10 nickel silver.1
120
100
80
.iii
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vi
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(/) ~
~
40 40.~
N
c
0
20 20 '"§
0-
C
0
W
0 20 40 60 80
Fig. 6-9. Effect of cold rolling on the tensile properties
of 55-18 nickel silver. 1
120 Chapter 6
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 n::=::::::::-,i-T-Tl
80 80
..c
0,60 60 ~
c
C1J
.;:: c:
(f) N
..!!! 40 40 ';;'
'Vi Q
c
ory
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20 20 §
W
o 400 800 1200 1600 1200

Temperature, F
Fig. 6-10. Effect of annealing on the tensile properties of 65-10

nickel silver.I 4
strength. Thus, the endurance ratio ranges from 0.20 for extra spring temper
to 0.25 for annealed material. A ratio of 0.35 was reported for cold drawn
65/18 nickel silver.
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of a 65/10 nickel
silver, which had been cold worked with a reduction of 20 %, are given in
Fig. 6-11. 1 S The material retained most of its room-temperature strength up
Table 6-13. Fatigue Properties of Two Nickel Silvers ls
Tensile Fatigue
strength, strength, No. of Endurance
Condition ksi ksi cycles ratio
65-18
Rod, cold drawn 62.5 22 5 x 10 7 0.35
55-18
Strip, annealed 66 16.5 10 8 0.25
Hard 98 20.8 10 8 0.22
Spring temper 112 24.7 10 8 0.22
Extra spring 116 23.2 10 8 0.20
Temperature, K
300 400 500 600 700 800
80 r--T--,.--,.--..,.--,.----.,
Vi T.S.
~ 60
..c
"&
c
~ 40
(f)
40~
c
C\J
c
-
E 202
o
CJ"I
c
.2
w
o 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature, F
Fig. 6-11. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties

of 65-10 nickel silver, cold worked 20 %.! 5
to about 500 F but above that temperature there was a continuous decrease
in strength with rising temperature. The ductility, as measured by the elonga-
tion, also began to decrease at about 500 F and remained low up to 900 F,
the highest temperature used in the investigation.
Only limited creep data have been reported for the nickel silvers. A 74 %
copper-20% nickel-5 % zinc alloy, which had been cold drawn and annealed
at 1200 F, had the following creep strength at 600 F:!5
Creep rate Stress, ksi
0.00001 %/hr 13.8
0.0001 %/hr 27.8
As a basis of comparison, data in Table 6-6 indicate that CA 706 (90/10
copper-nickel) in the annealed condition had a 0.00001 %/hr creep rate at
600 F under a stress of 6.0 ksi.

Like the copper-nickel alloys, the nickel silvers become stronger as the
temperature is reduced and the ductility is retained. The low-temperature
tensile properties of a 55% copper-30% nickel-14% zinc alloy, shown in
Fig. 6-12, illustrate the effect.! 5 The strength increases continuously and at
- 290 F is about 25 % higher than it is at room temperature. At the same time,
the elongation increases moderately.
Izod impact tests over the range from room temperature to - 290 F
122 Chapter 6
Temperature, K
50 100
150 200 250 300
120 ,---,.--r---,---,..--..,...---n
100
0(j)
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en
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c::
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-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 6-12. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of a
55 Cu-30 Ni-14 Zn nickel silver.I S
showed that the alloy mentioned in the preceding paragraph retained its
toughness down to the lowest temperature used in the investigation. 1S The
data obtained were
Temperature, F -290 -180 -80 -40 80
Izod impact, ft-Ib 79 80 83 87 80
CAST NICKEL SIL VERS
According to Vanick,16 the principal strengthening agent in the cast

nickel silvers is tin. This element contributes strength and hardness, lowers
the melting point, and improves the casting qualities by moderately im-
proving the fluidity. Lead is used to improve the machinability but, at the
same time, reduces the strength and toughness. As in the wrought types,
nickel increases the tensile strength and the corrosion resistance.
In the production of nickel silver castings, rapid melting has been sug-
gested as a desirable procedure to avoid gas absorption and, in addition, the
crucible should be covered or the contents fluxed with inert fluxes. Triple
deoxidation with manganese, magnesium, and phosphorus is desirable and

pouring can begin as soon as the melt is quiet. Most nickel silver is cast in
sand molds made up of an open sand. Heavy gates and risers are preferred.
Pouring temperatures can range from 2250 to 2450 F for light castings and
from 2050 to 2350 F for heavy ones. 16 • 1 7
Nominal compositions of four nickel silver casting grades as stand-
ardized by the Copper Development Association are given in Table 6_14. 13

Nickel Silvers l3
Composition, %
CDANo. Cu Ni Sn Pb Zn
CA973 56 12 2 10 20
CA974 59 17 3 5 16
CA976 64 20 4 4 8
CA978 66 25 5 2 2
These alloys are designated CA 973, CA 974, CA 976, and CA 978. In this
series, the copper, nickel, and tin contents increase progressively from CA 973
to CA 978. At the same time, the lead and zinc contents decrease.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the four cast nickel silver alloys are given
in Table 6-15,13 As in the wrought types, the melting temperature increases
with the nickel content. Unlike the wrought types, however, there are no mar-
ked differences in the thermal and electrical conductivities of the four alloys.
The coefficient of thermal expansion increases progressively with the nickel
content.
Typical mechanical properties of these materials "as cast" in sand molds
are included also in Table 6-15. Tensile strength increases progressively with
nickel content from 35 ksi for CA 973 to 55 ksi for CA 978. The effects of
strengthening elements are evident for these cast alloys approach the wrought
nickel silvers in strength. The castings are quite ductile as indicated by the
elongation, only alloy CA 978 falling below 20 % elongation. Hardness in-
creases progressively with the nickel content.
Alloy CA 976 with a fatigue strength of 15.5 ksi at 10 8 cycles compares
favorably with wrought 55% copper-18% nickel in endurance properties.
~
Table 6-15. Properties of Some Cast Nickel Silvers!3
CA973 CA 974 CA976 CA 978

Physical properties
Melting range, F 1850-1904 1958-2012 2027-2089 2084-2156
Specific heat, BtujlbtF 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
Thermal conductivity (68 F), Btujhrjft 2 tFjft 16.5 15.5 13 14.7
Electrical conductivity, % lACS 5.7 5.5 5 4.5
Density, lbjin. 3 0.321 0.320 0.321 0.320
Yield strength (0.5 % extn.), ksi 17 17 24 30
Tensile strength, ksi 35 38 40 55
Elongation (2 in.), % 20 20 20 16
Fatigue strength (10 8 cycles), ksi 15.5
Brinell hardness 55 70 80 130
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Only limited data on elevated temperatures are available on the cast

nickel silvers. The stress for a creep rate of 0.00001 %/hr of alloy CA 976 is
reported as 32.5 ksi at 500 F and 22.2 ksi at 550 FY
NICKEL SIL VER POWER
Nickel silver structural parts are also produced by powder metallurgy.

A number of compositions are available, among which two have been stand-
ardized by the American Society for Testing and Materials and the Metal
Powder Industries Federation. The designations and nominal compositions
are given in Table 6_16. 18 ,19 The second composition is a leaded version of the
first.
Table 6-16. Compositions of Two Nickel

Silver Powders l8 ,19
Nominal composition, %
ASTM MPIF Density,
designation designation gjcm3 eu Ni Pb Zn
B458, Grade 1, Type I eZn-1818-U 7.5-8.0 64 18 Bal.

Type II eZn-1818-W 8.0 min
B458, Grade 2, Type I eZn-1618-U 7.5-8.0 64 18 1.5 Bal.
Type II eZn-1618-W 8.0 min
These specifications cover the composition of the powder and include

two ranges of density. They do not cover any of the characteristics of the
powder, leaving it to the fabricator to meet the density requirements and to
the fabricator and customer to devise suitable limits of mechanical proper-
ties.
Nickel silver P/M (powder metallurgy) parts can be produced from
mixtures of elemental powders or from pre-alloyed powders. Atomization is
one method by which a suitable nickel silver powder can be produced in alloy
form. The properties of two types of parts produced from atomized nickel
silver powders are given in Table 6-17. 20
Before discussing these properties, it should be pointed out that a number
of variables influence the properties developed in a PjM part. They include
the characteristics of the powder, the compacting pressure, and the sintering
temperature and atmosphere. Ultimately, however, the sintered density is a
major factor in determining the properties developed and, for this reason,
sintered densities are used in the specifications mentioned previously rather
than physical or mechanical property minimums.
...
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Table 6-17. Properties of P/M Nickel Silver Parts 20
64 Cu-18 Ni 64 Cu-18 Ni-1.5 Pb

Sintered density, g/cm 3 Sintered density, g/cm 3
7.7 8.0 7.7 8.0
Physical properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion, per of 9.2 x 10- 6 9.2 X10- 6 9.5 X 10- 6 9.6 X10- 6
Electrical conductivity, % lACS 5 5 5 5
Tensile strength, ksi 34.9 38.4- 32.1 35.7-
Elongation (1 in.), % 14 15- 15 18-
Rockwell hardness H80 H84" H76 H79-
Charpy impact (unnotched), ft-lb 10 13 9 12
Modulus of rupture, ksi 66 77 61 71
Note: Sintered at 1760 F, 30 min in nitrogen after preheat at 1020 F. 30 min in nitrogen.
·Sintered density 7.9 gJcm 3 •
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Properties
As shown in the table, there is little difference in the physical properties
of these two series of PjM nickel silver parts resulting from differences in
sintered density. Their coefficients of expansion and their electrical resisti-
vities lie in the same range as those of the cast nickel silvers discussed pre-
viously. On the other hand, their moduli of elasticity are somewhat lower.
However, differences in density have a marked effect on the mechanical
properties. All of these properties increase with increasing density in both
compositions. The 64 % copper-I 8 % nickel alloy P/M parts are somewhat
stronger and more ductile than the PjM parts produced from the 64 % cop-
per-I8 % nickel-I.S % lead composition. The tensile strengths of both com-
positions compare favorably with those of the cast nickel silvers. The duc-
tilities of the P 1M parts, however, are somewhat lower than those of the cast
nickel silvers.
REFERENCES
1. Standards Handbook, Wrought Mill Products Alloys Data, Copper Development

Association, Inc. (1968).
2. J. L. Everhart, "Cupro nickels offer corrosion resistance and hot strength," Materials
in Design Engineering, May 1958, p. 114.
3. Copper-Nickel Alloys, Basic Engineering Data, The International Nickel Co. Inc.
(1962).
4. M. R. Gross and R. C. Schwab, "Fatigue properties of nonferrous alloys for heat
exchangers and pumps," Trans. ASME J. Engineering for Power 89, 345 (1967).
5. R. P. Reed and R. P. Mikesell, Low-Temperature Mechanical Properties of Copper and
Selected Copper Alloys, Monograph 101, National Bureau of Standards (1967).
NAVWEPS 00--25-534, Department of the Navy (1960).
7. W. D. Jenkins, T. G. Digges, and C. R. Johnson, "Tensile properties of copper, nickel,
70% copper-30% Nickel, and 30% copper-70% nickel at high temperatures," J.
Res. Nat. Bur. Std., 58, 201 (1957).
8. "Copper in cryogenics," Copper, Nos. 20 and 21, Spring and Summer, 1964, pp. 4, 6.
9. Mechanical Properties of Copper and Copper Alloys at Low Temperatures, Copper
Development Association, Inc. (1968).
10. J. S. Yanick, "Cupro-nickel castings," Foundry 80, 100 (Feb. 1952).
11. T. E. Kihlgren, "Production of pressure-tight castings of 30% cupro-nickel," Trans.
Amer. Foundrymen's Soc. 45, 225 (1937).
12. B. F. Shepherd, "Cast 70--30 cupro-nickel: inherent characteristics," Modern Castings
37, 120 (May 1960).
13. Standards Handbook, Cast Products iJata Specifications, Copper Development Asso-
ciation, Inc. (1970).
14. J. L. Everhart, W. E. Lindlief, J. Kanegis, P. G. Weissler, and F. Siegel, Mechanical
Properties of Metals and Alloys, Circular 447, National Bureau of Standards (1943).
15. J. L. Everhart, "Nickel Silvers," Materials & Methods, December 1956, p. 117.
128 Chapter 6
16. J. S. Yanick, "Nickel silver castings," Foundry 79,92 (Dec. 1951).

17. T. E. Kihlgren, N. B. Pilling, and E. M. Wise, "Physical and casting properties of
Nickel Silvers," Trans. AIME 117, 279 (1935).
18. "Nickel Silver sintered metal powder structural parts," Designation B 458-67, ASTM
Standards, Part 7, 1968.
19. PjM Material Standards and Specifications, Metal Powder Industries Federation
(1969).
20. Horsehead Metal Powders Data Sheets, New Jersey Zinc Co. (1969).
Chapter 7
Nickel-Containing
Stainless Steels
Many years ago, it was discovered that chromium increased the corrosion
resistance of iron alloys. From this discovery, there has developed a large
family of alloys which are termed "stainless steels," a rather inaccurate
designation. In order to confer stainless properties, chromium must be pres-
ent in amounts above 11.5 % but, with this as a primary requirement, the
steels can also contain nickel, manganese, molybdenum, etc. Some of the
steels have been standardized, others are produced on a proprietary basis.
For the purpose of this chapter, the nickel-containing stainless steels will be
divided into three groups: wrought, precipitation hardenable, and cast.
WROUGHT STAINLESS STEELS
There are 24 types of wrought stainless steels containing nickel which

are currently designated as standard by the American Iron and Steel Institute.
These are chromium-nickel and chromium-nickel-manganese steels which
are austenitic in structure and are nonmagnetic in the annealed condition
although some of them become slightly magnetic after being cold worked.
Compositions of some of these types, together with two others which are not
standard but follow the AISI numbering system, are given in Table 7_1. 1 • 2
This table also indicates the purposes for which the various types have been
developed.
The basic composition, Type 302, is widely known as 18-8 and is a
general purpose austenitic material. Including the chromium-nickel-man-
ganese types, there are 22 standard materials based on Type 302. In the 300
129
Table 7-1. Compositions of Some Chromium-Nickel and Chromium-Nickel-Manganese Col
0
Stainless Steels!
-
Composition, %
AISI Purpose
type C Mn Cr Ni Other
201 0.15 5.5-7.5 16-18 3.5-5.5 0.25 N Low Ni equivalent of Type 301
202 0.15 7.5-10 17-19 4-6 0.25 N Low Ni equivalent of Type 302
211 0 0.5 6 17 5.5 1.5 Cu Work hardening rates approximate those of Type 304
2160 0.08 8.25 19.75 6 2.5 Mo; 0.37 N Low Ni equivalent of type 316
301 0.15 2 16-18 6-8 High work hardening rate
302 0.15 2 17-19 8-10 General purpose
304 0.08 2 18-20 8-10.5 Low carbon modification of Type 302; superior corrosion
resistance
304L 0.03 2 18-20 8-12 Lower carbon modification of Type 304 for welding
305 0.12 2 17-19 10.5-13 Low work hardening rate
309 0.20 2 22-24 12-15 Elevated temperature strength; scaling resistance
309s 0.08 2 22-24 12-15 Low carbon modification of Type 309 for welding
310 0.25 2 24-26 19-22 Higher elevated temperature strength and scaling resistance
than Type 309
310s 0.08 2 24-26 19-22 Low carbon modification of Type 310 for welding
316 0.08 2 16-18 10-14 2-3 Mo Molybdenum added to improve corrosion resistance
316L 0.03 2 16-18 10-14 2-3 Mo Low carbon modification of Type 316 for welding
317 0.08 2 18-20 11-15 3-4 Mo Improved corrosion resistance over Type 316
321 0.08 2 17-19 9-12 5 x C min Ti Stabilized for welding; for service in corrosion resisting
applications
347 0.08 2 17-19 9-12 10 x C min Cb-Ta Same as Type 321
384 0.03 2 15-17 17-19 Lower work hardening rate than Types 304 and 385
0
385 0.08 2 11.5-13.5 14-16 Lower work hardening rate than Type 304 :T
III
"C
Note: Single values indicate maximum. CD
...
"Not AISI standard steel., typical analyses (Ref. 2). Ooo,j
Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels 131
series, the chromium-nickel ratio has been altered to change the forming
characteristics; the carbon content has been reduced to prevent intergranu-
lar corrosion after welding; columbium or titanium have been added to
stabilize the structure; molybdenum has been added to improve the corro-
sion resistance in some environments; or elements such as selenium have been
added to improve the machinability. In the 200 series, the desirable austenitic
structure has been maintained by replacing part of the nickel with manganese,
nitrogen, or copper.
Thus a series of steels has evolved, each having a specific purpose. For
example, the chromium-to-nickel ratio in Type 301 has been adjusted to
obtain a material having a high rate of work hardening and that in Type 305
to achieve a low rate of work hardening. Recent additions to the AISI stand-
ard steels are Types 384 and 385, which have compositions adjusted to work
harden at a lower rate than Type 304.
Types 303 and 303Se are free-machining modifications of Type 302
produced by adding sulfur and selenium respectively. The machinability of
these two types is perhaps 15 % better than Type 302, for example.
If chromium-nickel stainless steels are heated for long periods or cooled
slowly through the temperature range 1450 to 800 F, chromium carbides
tend to deposit at the grain boundaries. This robs the adjacent areas of
chromium and makes these areas less resistant to corrosive attack than the
bulk of the metal. Exposure of the steel in this condition to corrosive environ-
ments can result in intergranular failure, a type which often develops adjacent
to a weldment.
There are two methods of avoiding intergranular attack. First, the car-
bides can be redissolved by heating in the range 1800 to 2050 F and quench-
ing in water. Second, precipitation can be avoided by using modified types of
steels. This is the reason for the development of the extra-low-carbon types,
such as 304L and 316L, and of the stabilized types, 321 and 347. The former
minimize chromium carbide precipitation, the latter avoid it. All four can be
used in the as-welded condition without post-weld heat treatment.
In both Types 309 and 310, the chromium and nickel contents have been
increased considerably over the nominal 18 %chromium-8 %nickel composi-
tion. These materials were developed for service at elevated temperatures
where scaling resistance is important.
Alloys of the 200 series were developed to conserve nickel while at the
same time retaining the properties of the corresponding alloys of the 300
series as closely as possible. For esample, Type 201 can be used as a replace-
ment for Type 301 and Type 216 can replace Type 316. The latest alloy in this
series, Type 211, has a work hardening rate closely matching that of Type 304
and can be used as a replacement for the latter in deep drawing and roll
forming operations. 2
...
W
N
Table 7-2. Physical Properties of Some Wrought Stainless Steels l ,z,3
AISI type 201 216 304 309 310 316 347
Melting range, F 2550-2650 2550-2650 2450-2650 2500-2550 2550-2600

Specific heat (32-212 F), Btu/lbrF 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
Thermal conductivity (212 F),
Btu/hr/ftZrF/ft 9.4 9.0 8.2 9.4 9.3
(32-1200 F), per of 10.1 x 10- 6 a 11.2 X 10- 6 b 10.4 X 10- 6 10.0 X 10- 6 9.7 X 10- 6 10.3 X 10- 6 10.6 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil
ft 424 420 433 469 469 445 439
Magnetic permeability (H = 2000e)
Annealed 1.004 1.003 1.004 1.003 1.003 1.004 1.004
Cold worked, 65 % 1.021 2.12 1.004 1.0070 1.440
Cold worked, 80-90 % 4.75 1.010 4.12
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 28,600 28,000 29,000 29,000 28,000 28,000
Density,lb/in. 3 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29
'32-900 F. .68-1800 F. 'Cold worked 60%.
0
:r
III
"C
CD
....
.....
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of representative austenitic stainless steels
are given in Table 7_2.1. 2 • 3 Several of the properties of these steels are almost
identical, for practical purposes, regardless of the composition.
They have densities of about 0.29 lbjin. 3, specific heats of about 0.12
BtujlbtF, and tensile moduli of elasticity of 28,000 to 29,000 ksi. The elec-
trical resistivities reflect the alloy content. The various modifications of 18-8,
i.e., Types 201,216,304,316, and 347, have resistivities which are quite close
together. There is a marked increase in resistivity in Types 309 and 310,
which have higher chromium and nickel contents. The thermal conductivity
shows a similar trend, the lowest conductivity being that of Type 310.
All of these alloys are practically nonmagnetic in the annealed condition.
Cold work affects them to different degrees. Types 304 and 347 become more
magnetic after severe cold work than the other alloys which have been
included in Table 7-2. The stability of the austenitic structure in Types 216,
316, and 310 is indicated by the very slight effect that cold work has on the
permeabilities of Types 216 and 316 and the absence of any effect in Type
310.
The austenitic stainless steels can be strengthened only by cold work.
Heat treatment is used to soften the material as an intermediate step in cold
working, to redissolve the carbides after cold working as mentioned previous-
ly, or for stress relieving.
Tensile Properties. Typical tensile properties of representative chro-

mium-nickel and chromium-nickel-manganese stainless steels are given in
Table 7_3. 1 • 2 As indicated in the table, Type 301 can be worked to achieve
high tensile strengths. Type 201 has similar characteristics and is a satisfac-
tory substitute for Type 301 in many applications.
Type 304 has become the most widely used of the austenitic stainless
steels, having to a great extent replaced Type 302 because of its superior
corrosion resistance. The tensile properties of annealed Type 304 are repre-
sentative of a group which includes most of the 18 % chromium-8 % nickel
modifications of Type 302. Type 304L, the low carbon modification of Type
304, has moderately lower tensile properties than the latter.
Type 305 has a lower work hardening rate than Type 304, and the recent-
ly standardized Types 384 and 385 also have lower work hardening rates
than Type 304. As indicated by the reduction of area values included in Table
134 Chapter 7

of Some Wrought Stainless Steels\,2
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Reduction

(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), of area, Rockwell
Form and condition ksi ksi % % hardness
Chromium-nickel steels
Type 301
Sheet and strip
Half hard temper 11 ()a 15()a 18a C32
Hard temper 140- 185a 9a C41
Type 304
Sheet and strip
Bars
Annealed 35 85 60 70
Cold drawn 60--95 100--125 60--25
Wire
Annealed 35 90--105 60 b 65 B83
Soft temper 60--90 100--125 45 b 65 B95
Hard temper 105-125 140--160 25 b 55 C33
Type 304L
Sheet and Strip
Type 305
Sheet and strip
Wire
Annealed 47 85 60 b 77 B78
Soft temper 54 100 58 b 74 B82
Types 309 and 309s
Sheet and strip
Bars
Annealed 40 95 45 65 B83
Wire
Soft temper 70--80 105-125 35 b 60 B98
Types 310 and 310s
Sheet and strip
Bars
Annealed 45 95 50 65 B89
Wire
Soft temper 75-90 105-125 30b 60 B98
Type 384
Wire
Annealed 35 75 55 b 72 B70

Type 385
Wire
Annealed 30 72 55 b 78 B66
Chromium-nickel-manganese steels
Type 201
Sheet and strip
Half hard temper 110a 15Qa 15 a C32
Hard temper 14Qa 185 a 8a C41
Type 211
Sheet and strip
Cold worked, 60 % 169 188 C43
Type 216
Rod
Annealed 58 107 53 76 B91
aMinimum. "Gage length 4 x diameter.
7-3, all three of these alloys are markedly more ductile in wire form than Type
304. Type 211 is a chromium-nickel-manganese steel, deVeloped to conserve
nickel, which has a work hardening rate approximating that of Type 304.
Types 309 and 310 are more highly alloyed than the other materials
discussed above and this compositional difference is reflected in their some-
what greater strengths in the annealed condition.
Type 216, the chromium-nickel-manganese alloy developed as a lower
nickel modification of Type 316, is considerably stronger than the latter
which has tensile properties similar to those shown for Type 304 in the table.
Figure 7_1,2,3 indicates the effect of cold work on the yield strengths of
several of the steels mentioned above. It is apparent that Types 201 and 301
work harden at a much higher rate than the other materials shown on the
graph and have characteristics which are quite comparable, over at least a
part of the range. Type 305 has a lower work hardening rate than Type 304
whereas Type 211 shows comparable rates with Type 304 up to about 40 %
reduction, above which it work hardens at a higher rate than the latter.
Hardness. Nominal Rockwell hardness values for a group of austenitic

stainless steels in various forms and conditions are shown also in Table 7-3.
Hardness ranges from Rockwell B80-85 for annealed material to C33-43
for cold worked material. Composition appears to have little effect on the
hardness of these materials in the annealed condition. However, the hardness
136 Chapter 7
240
"(j}200
..>c:.
~
Q)
If)
'+-
'+- 160
0
~
N
g 120
..c
0,
c
Q)
~ 80
ifj
"0
Qi
):. 40
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cold Work, %
Fig. 7-1. Effect of cold work on the yield strengths of several
wrought stainless steels. 2, 3
120 ,----r------,--,.....----,---r----r----,
100
E 80
-.J
e
Q)
u
60
::::l
"0
C
W
40
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220

Tensile Strength, ksi
Fig. 7-2. Relationship between the endurance limits and the tensile strengths
of wrought chromium-nickel stainless steels. 3
after cold work varies. Types 201 and 301 harden to a greater degree than Type
304 with the same amount of cold work. Insufficient data are available for
other comparisons.
Fatigue Properties. Representative endurance limits for a number of

austenitic stainless steels are given in Table 7_4.1,2,3 The endurance limit
ranges from 32-39 ksi for annealed material to 62-88 ksi for cold worked
TalJle 7-4. Fatigue Properties of Some Wrought

Stainless Steels
Tensile Endurance
strength, limit, Endurance
Form and condition ksi ksi ratio Ref.
Type 301
Sheet and strip
Annealed 110 35 0.32
Hard temper 185 a 80
Type 302
Bars
Annealed 85 34 0.40 1
Hard temper 185 a 70-80 3
Type 304
Sheet and strip
Annealed 84 35 0.42
Bars
Annealed 85 34 0.40
Half hard temper 150 a 70 3
Type 310
Annealed 95 32.5 0.33 3
Type 316
Sheet and strip
Annealed 84 39 0.46
Bars
Annealed 80 38 0.48
Type 321
Annealed 85 38 0.45 3
Type 347
Annealed 90 39 0.43 3
Three-quarter hard temper 175 a 88 3
Type 216
Annealed 115 62.5 0.54 2
aMinimum.
138 Chapter 7
materials; the greater spread of the latter arises from the different degrees of
cold work. With the exception of Types 301, 310, and 216, the endurance
ratios of annealed steels range from 0.40 to 0.48. Types 301 and 310 had
endurance ratios of 0.32 and 0.33 respectively, whereas Type 216 had a
ratio of 0.54. The relationship between the tensile strength and the endurance
limit of chromium-nickel stainless steels is indicated in Fig. 7-2.3
Unlike ferritic steels, these austenitic stainless steels are not notch
sensitive. For example, a 60-deg. notch with a 0.010 in. root radius increased
the endurance limit of a Type 304 steel from 36 to 43 ksi. 3
Impact Properties. Notch impact properties of a number of stainless

steels in the annealed condition are given in Table 7-5. 3 There is greater
variation in the Charpy test, using a keyhole notch, than in the other tests,
Table 7-5. Impact Properties of Some Annealed Wrought

Stainless Steels 3
Izod Charpy impact, ft-lb

AISI impact,
type ft-lb Keyhole notch V-notch
201 76
202 85 a
301 70-120 40 110
302 70-120 68-92 100-
304 100-120 70-97 100a
304L 65
309 90-120
310 90-110 80 89
aMinimum.
but all three methods indicate that these steels are tough materials. Additional
data on impact are included under low-temperature properties.

Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of selected chromium-
nickel and chromium-nickel-manganese stainless steels in the annealed con-
dition are plotted in Fig. 7-3 for the purpose of pointing out certain proper-
ties of the steels. 2 • 4 These materials are representative of the groups of
wrought steels under discussion.
Although Type 316 has approximately the same tensile properties
in the annealed condition at room temperature as Type 304, they differ
markedly at elevated temperatures. Type 316 retains its short-time strength
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
120 ,...,----r----r---,----,.----,-,
100
·in
.Y.
80
..c
Q,
c
Q.l
60
~
if)
~
in
c
40
~
20
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 7-3. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile stren-
gths of some wrought stainless steels. 2.4
to considerably higher temperatures than Type 304 and has practically the
same tensile strength as the more highly alloyed Type 310 in the moderate-
temperature range. Limited data on Type 216, a recent addition to the chro-
mium-nickel-manganese series, indicate that this steel has higher short-time
tensile properties at elevated temperatures than either Type 316 or Type 310.
All of the materials included in this graph lose strength quite rapidly at
temperatures above 1600 F and approach a common value.
Greep and stress-rupture properties of several compositions are given in
Table 7-6. 4 As indicated in the table, the creep properties of Types 316 and
347 are superior to those of Type 304 at moderate temperatures. For example,
the 0.0001 %/hr creep stress of Type 347 at 1200 F is twice that of Type 304.
For moderate exposure time (0.0001 %/hr), Types 347 and 310 have
almost identical creep properties and the creep strength of Type 316 ap-
proaches these values. For longer exposure (0.00001 %/hr), Type 347 is
markedly superior to types 316 and 310 up to about 1200 F but above that
temperature all have approximately the same properties. Above 1500 F,
all of the materials listed in the table have very low resistance to creep. This
is true also of the other wrought chromium-nickel stainless steels of the
140 Chapter 7
Table 7-6. Creep and Stress-Rupture Properties of Some

Annealed Wrought Stainless Steels 4

AISI temperature, for rupture
type F 0.00001 %/hr 0.0001 %/hr in 100 hr
304 1000 12 20 47
1200 4 8 23
1500 1 2 7
310 1000 18 33 38
1200 8 15 26
1500 2 3 11
316 1000 17 25
1200 7 12 32
1500 2 3 9
347 1000 28 32 54
1200 10 16 28
1500 1 2 9
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
320
280
If)
.x: 240
.c
0>
~ 200
en
~
.iii
c: 160
~
120
80
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 7-4. Subzero-temperature tensile strengths of some wrought
stainless steels in the annealed condition. S, 6
AISI series. A comprehensive review of the elevated-temperature properties

of these steels is contained in reference 4.
The tensile strengths of the austenitic stainless steels increase as the
temperature is reduced into the subzero range. As shown in Fig. 7_4 5 • 6 , the
strengths of annealed materials at -320 F are more than double their room-
temperature strengths. Type 301, strongest at room temperature, retains its
superiority at low temperatures.
Figure 7_5 5 ,6 shows similar data for full hard materials. Although Types
301 and 304 have practically the same tensile strength at room temperature,
the former is superior at -320 F. The increase in strength of Type 304L is
parallel to that of Type 304, but strength is lower at all temperatures as a
result of the lower carbon content.
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
360 r-----,----,----,,..--,..---,..---T'"I
320
280
.c
"6>240
c
~
en
~ 200
'Vi
cQ)
~ 160
120
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 7-5. Subzero-temperature tensile strengths of some wrought
stainless steels in the full-hard condition. 5, 6
142 Chapter 7
Table 7-7. Fatigue Strengths of Several Wrought Stainless

Steels at Subzero Temperatures
Test Tensile Fatigue strength
AISI temperature, strength, (10 6 cycles),
type Form and condition F ksi ksi Ref.
301 Sheet, extra full hard 70 241 74 7

-320 116
-423 96
302 Annealed Room 35 5
-40 42
302 Cold worked Room 62 5
-40 75
304 Bar, cold reduced 70 212 115 7
-110 130
-320 155
Table 7-8. Impact Properties of Some Wrought Stainless

Steels at Subzero Temperatures 7
Test Charpy impact
AISI temperature, (keyhole notch),
type Form and condition F ft-lb
301 Plate, annealed Room 91
-100 93
-200 84
-320 79
304 Bar, annealed Room 76
-100 82
-200 81
-320 80
Bar, cold reduced 20% Room 50
-100 51
-200 51
-320 51
310 Annealed Room 80
-100 70
-200 66
-320 61
-100 71
-200 63
-300 48
-100 55
-200 54
-320 54
Endurance tests indicate that the fatigue strength also increases as the
temperature is reduced below zero, at least to temperatures of the order of
-320 F. However, the fatigue strength of Type 301 sheet in the extra full
hard condition appears to be lower at -423 F than at -320 F. Data on
several steels are given in Table 7-7. s. 7
Data on notched bar· impact tests on a number of stainless steels are
given in Table 7-8. 7 All of the materials are quite tough but there is some
variation in properties. The impact resistance of all of the alloys excepting
Type 304 falls moderately from room temperature to -320 F. On the other
hand, Type 304 in the annealed condition shows an increase in toughness at
subzero temperatures down to -320 F. In the cold worked condition (20%
reduction), the impact resistance of Type 304 is practically the same at room
temperature as it is at -320 F.
PRECIPITATION HARDENABLE STAINLESS STEELS
The precipitation hardenable stainless steels which will be considered

here are proprietary chromium-nickel steels to which additional elements
have been added to permit hardening by precipitation reactions. As pointed
out by Rosenberg,8 these steels may be divided into three groups:
1. Martensitic, which includes Stainless Wand 17-4 PH, for example.
These steels are normally martensitic after solution treatment.
High strength is developed by a single low-temperature aging treat-
ment.
2. Semiaustenitic, which includes AM-355, 17-7 PH, and PH 15-7Mo
as examples. These steels are austenitic as supplied by the producer
and a two-stage heat treatment is required to develop their aged
properties. This treatment involves an austenite conditioning treat-
ment followed by heating to a designated temperature to achieve
transformation to martensite, and this in turn is followed by a pre-
cipitation hardening heat treatment.
3. Austenitic, which includes HNM, 17-IOP, 17-14CuMo, and A 286.
These steels are austenitic regardless of heat treatment and improve-
ments in strength are achieved by single or double precipitation
hardening heat treatments.
New alloys of each type are being continually introduced but those
mentioned are representative. Their compositions and producers are given
in Table 7-9,8 which also includes designations assigned to some of them by
the American Iron and Steel Institute. 9
...
t
Table 7-9. Nominal Compositions of Some Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steels 8 • 9
Composition, %
AISI
type Name Producer C Mn Cr Ni Mo Other
Martensitic steels
635 Stainless W U. S. Steel 0.07 0.50 17 7 0.70 Ti; 0.20 Al
630 17--4 PH Armco 0.04 0.25 16 4 3.2 Cu; 0.25 Cb-Ta
Semiaustenitic steels
633 AM 350 Allegheny Ludlum 0.10 0.80 16.5 4.3 2.75 0.10 N
634 AM 355 Allegheny Ludlum 0.13 0.95 15.5 4.3 2.75 0.10 N
631 17-7 PH Armco 0.07 0.60 17 7 1.15 Al
632 PH 15-7 Mo Armco 0.07 0.60 15 7 2.2 1.15 Al
Austenitic steels
HNM Crucible 0.30 3.50 18.5 9.5
17-10 P Armco 0.12 0.75 17 10
653 17-14 CuMo Armco 0.12 0.75 16 14 2.5 3 Cu; 0.25 Ti; 0.50 Cb-Ta
660 A-286 Allegheny Ludlum 0.06 1.50 15 26 1.2 1.8 Ti; 0.2 AI; 0.3 V
(')
:T
DI
'0
S'
.....
z(;.
~
~
(")
o
:::J
...
!!.
:::J
5'
cc
Table 7-10. Physical Properties of Some Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steels 9 • 10 tJl
...
!!.
:::J
Stainless W AM 355 17-7 PH HNM
if
<II
Annealed Aged Condo H SCT Cond A. TH-1050 RH-950 Aged tJl
...
CD
Thermal conductivity, Btu/hr/ft2;oF/ft 10.8 12.1 8.72 9.8 9.8 CD
iii
(68-932 F), per of 6.3 x 10- 6 9.4 X 10- 6 7.2 X 10- 6 9.6 X 10-6 a 6.6 X 10- 6 a 6.9 X 10-6 a 10.3 X 10-6 b
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft 602 511 457 481 493 499 463
Magnetic permeability (H = 100 Oe) 81 101 1.4-3.5 80-99 75-87 1.003 c
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 26,900 27,800 29,300 29,000 29,000 29,000 29,000
Density,lb/in. 3 0.28 0.28 0.286 0.281 0.282 0.276 0.276 0.284
·70 to 800 F. '80 to 1000 F. 'H = 2000 •.
....,..
UI
146 Chapter 7
Physical Properties
Physical properties of representative alloys in each of the three groups
are given in Table 7_10. 9 • 10 Data are presented in both the solution annealed
and aged condition for several of the materials. The conditions shown in the
table, such as SeT for example, indicate the heat treatment which has been
performed. These heat treatments are given as footnotes to Table 7-11.
As shown in the table, aging has little effect on most of the physical
properties of the martensitic steels, as represented by Stainless W. The excep-
tion is the electrical resistivity, which is considerably lower in the aged
condition than in the solution-annealed condition. These steels are magnetic
even in the annealed condition.
The semi austenitic steels, represented by AM-355 and 17-7PH, show
definite effects of aging. The coefficients of thermal expansion are much
lower in the aged condition than in the solution-annealed condition and
approach those of the martensitic steels, such as Stainless W. The electrical
resistivities show moderate increases as a result of aging and, in the aged
condition, approach those of the standard steels, Types 309 and 310. However
the most pronounced effects occur in the magnetic properties. In the solu-
tion-annealed condition, these steels are only faintly magnetic but, after
aging, they become quite strongly magnetic.
The austenitic steels, as represented by HNM, do not differ greatly from
steels of the 300 series in their physical properties. The electrical resistivity
is quite close to that of Type 310. Even in the aged condition, alloys of this
type are no more magnetic than the standard chromium-nickel stainless steels
in the annealed condition.
The compositions of the precipitation harden able steels are adjusted to
permit hardening by various heat treatments. A comprehensive discussion
of the effects of various thermal theatments on the properties of steels of the
types under discussion is given by Slunder, Hoenie, and Hall. 12
Tensile Properties. Representative tensile properties of a number of

the precipitation hardenable stainless steels, in various conditions, are given
in Table 7_11. 9 • 10 The aging treatments are among those recommended by
the producers. Other aging treatments have also been suggested to develop
different combinations of properties and some are given in reference 10.
Both the martensitic and semiaustenitic steels can be aged to achieve
tensile strengths in excess of 200 ksi. They differ somewhat in ductility,
Ii:lUI~ I - I I. I yplCi:l1 IVleCnamCal t"ropenles OT :some t'reclpltatlon Hardenable Stainless SteelsY,lU
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Reduction Izod z
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), of area, Rockwell impact, ,..n
Alloy Condition* ksi ksi % % hardness ft-Ib !.,
0
Stainless W Sol. treated 95 135 14 16 C26 60 0
:::J
Aged 105 210 10 25 C44 14 .....
17-4 PH Sol. treated 110 150 12 45 5'
Aged 185 200 14 50 C44 20 :::J
IC
AM-350 Condo H 60 145 40 C20
Condo SCT 173 206 13.5 C45 14<' ....en
AM-355 Condo H 57 160 26 5'
Condo SCT 182 216 19 38 17" iD
<II
17-7 PH Cond.A <II
40 130 35 B85
Condo TH-I050 190 205 9 C43 ...en
CD
Condo RH-950 210 225 6 C47 CD
PH 15-7 Mo Condo A 55 130 35 B88 iii
Condo TH-I050 205 215 7 C44
Condo RH-950 215 235 6 C48
HNM Sol. treated 50 116 58 60
Aged 79 135 26 40 C38 11"
17-10 P Sol. treated 38 89 70 76 CI0
Aged 88 137 25 39 C30
17-14 CuMo Sol. treated
Aged 41 89 45 59
A 286 Sol. treated
Aged 146 25 37 64"
aCharpy impact, V-notch.
"'Notes on heat treatments:
Stainless W Solution treated 1900 F, 2-4 hr, air cooled, aged 950 F.
17-4 PH Solution treated 1900 F, oil quenched, aged 900 F.
AM-350 and AM 355
Condition H Solution treated at 1850-1950 F
Condition SCT Solution treated 1850-1950 F; condition anneal 1710 F; refrigerate at -100 F, 3 hr; age at 850 F, 3 hr.
17-7 PH and PH 15-7 Mo
Condition A Solution treated at 1950 F.
Condition TH-l050 Condition at 1400 F, 1.5 hr; cool to 60 F max witjlin 1 hr; age 1050 F, 1.5 hr.
Condition RH-950 Condition at 1750 F, 10 min, air cool; cool to -100 F, hold 8 hr, air warm to room temperature; age at 950 F, I hr.
HNM and 17-IOP Solution treated 2050 F, 0.5 hr, water quench; age 1300 F, 16 hr for HNM, 24 hr for 17-IOP. ...........
17-14CuMo Solution treated at 2050 F, 0.5 hr, age 1350 F, 5 hr.
A 286 Solution treated at 1800 F, aged at 1325 F.
148 Chapter 7
however. The elongation of Stainless W, for example, is slightly lower in the

aged than in the annealed condition but that of 17-7 PH is markedly lower.
Elongation in Condition A is four times higher than that in Condition TH-
1050. (The designations for condition are explained in the footnotes to Table
7-11).
Aging of the austenitic alloys does not result in so great an improvement
in tensile strength, the maximum reaching approximately the 140 ksi level.
In these materials, also, although the ductility as measured by the elongation
and reduction of area is reduced by aging, the effect is less drastic than it is
in the other two series of alloys.
Hardness. Rockwell hardness values for a number of the alloys are

included also in Table 7-11. The hardness values range from B85 to C48,
but most ofthese alloys are considerably harder even in the solution-annealed
condition than the standard chromium-nickel steels in the annealed condition
As an example of the improvement resulting from aging, PH 15-7Mo had a
Rockwell hardness of B88 in Condition A and one of C48 after aging to Con-
dition RH-950.
Impact Properties. Limited data on impact resistance are included also

in Table 7-11. They indicate that the martensitic and semiaustenitic steels
are not particularly tough in the aged condition. On the other hand, the
austenitic alloys show excellent toughness in the aged condition. Additional
impact data are given under low-temperature properties.

Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of several of the steels
are plotted in Fig. 7_6. 10 It is noteworthy that these steels retain their strengths
quite well at moderately elevated temperatures and they are used for applica-
tions in the range 600 to 1000 F, for example. Since this service range extends
into the precipitation hardening range, additional aging may occur in service.
This effect is indicated by the increase in tensile strength of one of the steels
in the 750 to 800 F range.
The steels have good creep and stress-rupture properties at moderately
elevated temperatures. Data on several compositions are included in Table
7-12.10 There is considerable variation in the materials. For example, at
1000 F the stress for rupture in 100 hours ranges from 31.5 ksi for Stainless
W, a martensitic steel, to 70 ksi for AM-355, a semiaustenitic steel and to
86 ksi for HNM, an austenitic steel, all three materials being tested in the
aged condition. At 1200 F, the stress for rupture in 100 hours of HNM is
four times that of Stainless W.
Temperature, K
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
250 ~~--r---~--~--~--~---n
200
en
~
~
0. 150
c:
<I.l
"-
(jj
~
100
"Vi
c:
~
50
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Temperature, F
Fig. 7-6. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile strengths of some
precipitation hardenable stainless steels.! 0 (1) AM 350, condition
SCf; (2) 17-7PH, condition TH 1050; (3) Stainless W, aged; (4)
HNM, solution annealed 2050 F, oil quenched, aged 1350 F,16 hr.
Table 7-12. Creep and Stress-Rupture Properties of Some

Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steels!O

Alloy Condition'" F 0.00001 %/hr 0.0001 %/hr in lOOhr
Stainless W Aged 1000 31.5

1200 12.5
17-4 PH Aged 800 45 60 140
900 23 95
AM-350 SCT 800 28 107 190
1000 70
AM-355 SCT 800 30 97 190
1000 75
17-7 PH TH-I050 800 45 60 110
900 78
HNM Ageda 1000 86
1200 49
'See notes to Table 7-11.

-Solution treated 2000 F, 0.5 hr, oil quenched, aged 1400 F, 16 hr air cooled.
150 Chapter 7

The strengths of the precipitation harden able stainless steels, like those
of the standard austenitic stainless steels, increase markedly with falling
temperatures. However, ductility, as measured by the elongation, is more
seriously affected than it is in the standard steels. The temperature at which
a significant decrease in elongation occurs depends on the alloy and on the
aging conditions. Figure 7-7, showing the tensile properties of 17-7PH,
Condition TH-I050, at low temperatures is a typical example of the improve-
ment in strength and loss in elongation. I I
The precipitation hardenable steels of the martensitic and semiaustenitic
types are martensitic after heat treatment. They become less tough as the
testing temperature is reduced but the percentage loss in impact resistance
depends on the alloy and its condition. Some indication of this effect is
apparent from the data included in Table 7_13.7,10.12 This is particularly
indicated by the data for 17-4PH under several aging conditions. The tough-
ness is significantly improved at least to temperatures down to -110 F by
aging at higher temperatures.
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
280
260
240
en
..x:
~- 220
~
en
c
200 20 N
c
o
g,
'';:::
180 10
c
o
160 L..-....L...-_--L.._ _I.-_....1-_~_ ____I 0 W
-400 -300 -200 100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 7-7. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of 17-7PH, con-
dition TH 1050. 11
Table 7-13. Impact Properties of Some Precipitation

Hardenable Stainless Steels at Subzero Temperatures 7 ,10,12
Charpy impact (V-notch), ft-Ib,

at temperature indicated
Alloy Condition* -230F -llOF Room
17-4 PH Condo H-925 3.5 5.5 30

Condo H-I025 4.5 15 75
Condo H-1l50 6.5 48 95
AM-350 SCT 4 9 14
17-7 PH TH 1050 2 4 6
HNM Aged 5 10
A 286 Aged 57 68 64
'See notes to Table 7-11.
Even in an austenitic steel, such as HNM, the resistance to impact at

low temperatures is significantly lower than that of the standard steels. Again
pointing to the differences resulting from composition, another austenitic
steel, A 286, retains excellent resistance to impact at temperatures at least
as low as -320 F.
CAST STAINLESS STEELS
Quite a number of stainless and heat resisting steels are produced in cast
form. All contain chromium and some also contain nickel. The designations
and compositions of modern American cast chromium-nickel stainless steels
have been standardized by the Alloy Casting Institute, which prefers to call
these materials "High Alloy Castings." The ACI divides the alloys into two
groups: those intended primarily for corrosion resisting applications are
identified by the letter C, those intended for heat resistant service above 1200
F, by the letter H. There are approximately 26 compositions in the two
series which contain nickel in addition to chromium.
The American Society for Testing and Materials uses the ACI designa-
tions in its standards, and some of the compositions of these alloys are given
in Table 7_14.13.14 For reference purposes, the nearest applicable wrought
alloy composition, as designated by the AISI, is also indicated in Table 7-14.
It should be noted that the chemical compositions of the wrought and
cast types differ and, therefore, the alloys are not strictly comparable. How-
ever, the purposes for which modifications of the original 18 % chromium-
8 % nickel composition were made are similar in the cast types to those
mentioned previously for the wrought types. On the other hand, Types HW
152 Chapter 7
Table 7-14. Compositions of Some Cast Stainless Steels!3,!4
Nearest Composition, %
ACI wrought
type type C Mn Si Cr Ni Other
Corrosion·resistant castings
CE·30 0.30 1.5 2 26-30 8-11
CF·3 304L 0.03 1.5 2 17-21 8-12
CF·8 304 0.08 1.5 2 18-21 8-11
CF·20 302 0.20 1.5 2 18-21 8-11
CF·3M 316L 0.03 1.5 1.5 17-21 9-13 2-3 Mo
CF·8M 316 0.08 1.5 1.5 18-21 9-12 2-3 Mo
CF·8C 347 0.08 1.5 2 18-21 9-12 8xCminCb
CF·16F 303 0.16 1.5 2 18-21 9-12 1.5 max Mo;
0.20--0.35 Se;
0.17maxP
CG·8M 317 0.08 1.5 1.5 18-21 9-13 3-4 Mo
CG·12 0.12 1.5 2 20-23 10-13
CH~20 309 0.20 1.5 2 22-26 12-15
CK·20 310 0.20 1.5 2 23-27 19-22
CN·7M 0.07 1.5 1.5 18-22 27-31 1.75-2.5 Mo;
3 minCu
Heat·resistant castings
HE 0.2-0.5 2 2 26-30 8-11
HF 302B 0.2-0.4 2 2 18-23 8-12
HH 309 0.2-0.5 2 2 24--28 11-14
HI 0.2-0.5 2 2 26-30 14--18
HK 310 0.2-0.6 2 2 24--28 18-22
HL 0.2-0.6 2 2 28-32 18-22
HN 0.2-0.6 2 2 19-23 23-27
HT 330 0.35-0.75 2 2.5 13-17 33-37
HU 0.35-0.75 2 2.5 17-21 37-41
HW 0.35-0.75 2 2.5 10-14 58-62
HX 0.35-0.75 2 2.5 15-19 64--68
Note: Single values indicate maximum.
and HX are actually high nickel alloys rather than stainless steels, and their
properties have been discussed in Chapter 4.
Physical Properties
A number of the physical properties of the cast stainless steels are, for
practical purposes, similar to those of the wrought types. These include the
specific heats, coefficients of expansion, and moduli of elasticity. The elec-
trical resistivities of the cast types, however, are somewhat higher than those
of corresponding wrought types. Probably the most important difference lies

in the magnetic permeability. The cast types may contain small quantities of
ferrite and, as a result, may be slightly magnetic.
The physical properties of a number of representative cast stainless
steels are given in Table 7_15. 15 ,16
The cast stainless steels are generally used in the "as cast" condition or
are solution-annealed at temperatures of the order of 2000 F and water
quenched to improve the corrosion resistance.
Tensile Properties. Typical tensile properties of a group of represen-

tative cast steels are given in Table 7_16. 15 ,16 The corrosion resistant types
(C series) have tensile properties, including ductility, that compare reasonably
well with those of the wrought alloys, of approximately the same composi-
tion, in the annealed condition. The heat-resistant types (H series) have
strengths similar to those of the corrosion-resistant types but, probably re-
flecting the higher carbon content, they are markedly less ductile than the
latter.
Hardness. Brinell hardness values are included also in Table 7-16. The
hardness ranges from a low of 130 for CN-7M in the solution-annealed and
quenched condition to 190 for Type CH-20 in the same condition.
Impact Properties. Notched-bar impact data are included in Table 7-16

for a few of the alloys. They indicate that these alloys are quite tough after
solution annealing and quenching, Additional impact data are included under
low-temperature properties.
The compositions of the heat resistant cast stainless steels of the H
series have been adjusted especially for high-temperature service and these
alloys have good strength properties up to 2200 F combined with surface
stability. Short-time tensile properties of several of these alloys, determined
at elevated temperatures, are given in Table 7_17. 16 These cast steels show no
particular advantage over the corresponding wrought compositions at
moderate temperatures; data for the wrought alloys are not available at high
temperatures in most cases. The strengths of the cast alloys decrease progres-
sively at about the same rate as those of the wrought alloys as the tempera-
ture is increased and this is accompanied by an increase in elongation.
Table 7-15. Physical Properties of Some Cast Stainless Steels ls ,'6 ...
~
CF-8 CF-8M CH-20 CK-20 HH HK
Melting point, F 2600 2550 2600 2600 2500 2550

Specific heat, Btujlbj"F 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
Thermal conductivity (212 F), Btujhrjft 2 j"Fjft 9.0 9.4 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1000 F), per OF 10 x 10- 6 9.7 X 10- 6 9.6 X 10- 6 9.2 X 10- 6 10.5 X 10- 6 lOx 10- 6 -
Electrical resistivity, ohmsjcir mil ft 458 493 505 541 481 541
Magnetic permeability 1.0-1.3 1.5-2.5 1.71 1.02 1.0-1.9 1.02
Modulus of elasticity ksi, 28,000 28,000 28,000 29,000 27,000 29,000
Density,lbjin. 3 0.280 0.280 0.280 0.280 0.279 0.280
"70 to 1800 F.
Table 7-16. Mechanical Properties of Some Cast Stainless Steels l5 ,16
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Charpy impact

ACI (0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), Brinell (keyhole notch),
type Heat treatment ksi ksi % hardness ft-lb
CE-30 1950-2050 F, water quenched 63 97 18 170

CF-8 1950-2050 F, water quenched 37 77 55 140 74
CF-8M 1950-2100 F, water quenched 42 80 50 170 70
CG-8M As cast 40 83 50
CH-20 2000 F, water quenched 50 88 38 190 30
CK-20 2100 F, water quenched 38 76 37 144 50-
CN-7M 1950-2050 F, water quenched 32 69 48 130 70
HF As cast 45 85 35 165
HH As cast, partially ferritic 50 80 25 185 ("")
HH As cast, austenitic 40 85 15 180 III
=
HK "C
As cast 50 75 17 170 r+
CD
"Izod V-notch. ..,...

Table 7-17. Elevated-Temperature Properties of Some

Cast Stainless Steels 16
Long-time properties
Tensile properties
Stress (ksi) Stress
Test Yield strength Tensile Elongation for creep (ksi) for
ACI temperature, (0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), rate of rupture in
type F ksi ksi % 0.0001 %/hr l00hr
HF 1200 57 16 13 30
1400 21 35 20 6 14
1600 22 22 3.2 6
HHa 1400 17 33 18 3.0 14
1600 14 18 30 1.7 6.4
1800 6.3 9 45
2000 0.3 1.5
HHb 1400 18 35 12 7.0 14
1600 14 22 16 4.0 7.5
1800 7 II 30
2000 0.8 1.8
HK 1400 6.8 14.5
1600 23 21 4.2 7.8
2000 1.0 2.5
apartially ferritic. b Austenitic.
Creep and stress-rupture properties are included also in Table 7-17.

In long-time properties, the cast steels have an advantage over their wrought
counterparts. For example, the stress for a creep rate of 0.0001 %/hr of Type
HK at 1600 F is 1.5 times that of Type 310 at 1500 F.

Limited data indicate that the strengths of the cast stainless steels, like
those of the wrought types, increase at subzero temperatures, but the duc-
tilities, as measured by the elongation, decrease. The effect of low tempera-
ture on the tensile properties of Type CF-8 in the annealed condition is
shown in Fig. 7_8. 11 The tensile strength is approximately twice as high at
-320 F as it is at room temperature although the yield strength shows a
more moderate increase. The elongation, however, falls from 60% at room
temperature to 30% at -320 F.
The toughness, as measured by the notched-bar test, also decreases at
low temperatures, the relative loss apparently depending on the composition.
Type CF-8, for example, has an impact resistance, as measured by the Charpy
keyhole impact test, of 57 ft-lb at -320 F compared with 75 ft-lb at room
156 Chapter 7
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
200
160
(J)
1. 120
vi
(J) ~
Cl>
en 80
~
"-
80 c
C\J
60 c
0
40 40 '"0'>
5
c
20 0
W
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 7-8. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of cast CF-8 stainless

steel in the annealed condition.!!
Table 7-18. Impact Properties of Some Cast Stainless

Steels at Subzero Temperatures!!
Charpy impact (keyhole notch), ft-lb, at temperature indicated

ACI
type -320F -200F -100F Room
CF-8 57 63 67 75
CF-8M 44 50 58 63
CF-8C 19 21 28 38
CH-20 10 14 20 30
CK-20 15 17 24 30
temperature. On the other hand, Type CH-20 has an impact resistance of 10

ft-lb at -320 F compared with 30 ft-lb at room temperature. Data on a
number of cast steels are given in Table 7-18.!!
STAINLESS STEEL PIM PARTS
Chromium-nickel stainless steel P/M (powder metallurgy) parts are

produced from powders which have compositions similar to those of the
AISI standard types. They can be produced by atomization of prealloyed
material. After being compacted to the desired density, which depends on the
application, they are sintered, for example, at 2050 F in dry hydrogen or in
dissociated ammonia, with a low dew point of perhaps -40 F.
Stainless steel PjM parts, ranging in density from 6.0 to 6.8 gjcm 3 or
higher, are used for structural applications in which resistance to corrosion
is required in the pharmaceutical, chemical, food processing, and similar
industries, particularly for instrumentation. They are also used in low-
density parts as filters for various corrosive solutions.! 7
The Metal Powder Industries Federation has established standards for
two types of chromium-nickel stainless steels in two ranges of density. They
are:
Type MPIF designation Sintered density, gjcm 3

303* SS-303-P 6.0-6.4
SS-303-R 6.4-6.8
316 SS-316-P 6.0-6.4
SS-316-R 6.4-6.8
*Composition within AISI limits, except nickel content, which is higher to improve com-
pressibility and strength.
Properties
Typical properties of P jM parts meeting the requirements of the MPIF
Standards are given in Table 7-19.!8 As would be expected ofPjM parts, the
strength and elongation improve with increasing density. The st~engths and
elongations of the Type 316 parts are somewhat superior to those of the
Type 303 parts. The ductility, as measured by the elongation, however, is
closer to that expected in a cast than in a wrought part.
Porous parts produced from stainless steel powders by compacting to
low densities may have tensile strengths of the order of 20 ksi.
Table 7-19. Typical Properties of Some Stainless Steel

P/M Parts!8

Density, (0.2 % offset), strength, (in 1 in.),
Type Condition g/cm 3 ksi ksi %
303 As sintered 6.0-6.4 32 35 1.0
6.4-6.8 35 52 2.0
316 As sintered 6.0-6.4 32 38 2.0
6.4-6.8 40 54 4.0
158 Chapter 7
It should be noted that the corrosion resistance of stainless steel P1M

parts is not necessarily equivalent to that of the corresponding wrought
material. 1 8
REFERENCES
1. Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels, American Iron and Steel Institute (1953), with
1969 supplement.
2. Private Communication, Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation, Jan. 1970.
3. Mechanical and Physical Properties of Austentic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels,
The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1963).
4. Mechanical and Physical Properties of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels at
Elevated Temperatures, ibid.
5. Mechanical and Physical Properties of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steels at
Subzero Temperatures, ibid.
6. "Wrought austenitic stainless steels," Materials in Design Engineering, October 1964,
p.115.
7. F. R. Schwartzberg, S. H. Osgood, R. D. Keys, and T. F. Kiefer Cryogenic Materials
(1968).
9. High-Temperature High-Strength Alloys, American Iron and Steel Institute (1963).
10. Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steels, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1963).
11. R. M. McClintock and H. P. Gibbons, Mechanical Properties of Selected Materials at
Low Temperatures, Monograph 13, National Bureau of Standards (1960).
12. C. J. Slunder, A. F. Hoenie, and A. M. Hall, Thermal and Mechanical Treatments for
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels, AD668900, Battelle Memorial Institute, n.d.
13. "Corrosion resistant iron~hromium and iron~hromium-nickel alloy castings for
general applications," Designation A 296 ASTM Standards, Part 2, 1969.
14. "Heat resistant iron~hromium and iron~hromium-nickel alloy castings for general
applications," Designation A 297 ASTM Standards, Part 2,1969.
15. Cast Stainless Steels, The International Nickel Co., Inc. (1963).
16. "Heat resistant alloys-cast," Materials in Design Engineering, Mid-October 1966,
p.91.
17. J. L. Everhart, "Designing for metal powder structural parts," Materials in Design
Engineering, April 1959, p. 113.
18. PjM Materials Standards and Specifications, Metal Powder Industries Federation
(1969).
Chapter 8
Electrical Resistance
and Thermocouple Alloys
Although materials for specialized electrical resistance applications range

across the field from commercially pure nickel to some alloys which have a
very low nickel content, certain groups are used most widely and these are
the materials which will be discussed in this chapter. Some of the materials
also serve other purposes, for example, the nickel-chromium alloys which
are used in structural applications. Similarly, the 55 % copper-45 % nickel
alloy is used not only as a resistance material in instrumentation but also as
a thermocouple alloy which, of course, is a specialized resistance appli-
cation.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE ALLOYS
A number of nickel-containing alloys are used primarily because of

their electrical characteristics. These alloys serve as resistances in instrumen-
tation and as heating elements in various applications ranging from house-
hold appliances, operating intermittently at moderate temperatures, to
industrial furnaces, operating continuously at temperatures of 2000 F or
higher.
According to Starr and Gottleib,l the basic parameters for resistance
applications are resistivity and the temperature coefficient of resistance.
They classifiy the commercial alloys into the following five categories:
1. Low resistivity, high TCR (temperature coefficient of resistance)
2. Low resistivity, moderate TCR
3. Moderate resistivity, low TCR
159
160 Chapter 8
4. High resistivity, low TCR

5. High resistivity, moderate TCR
There are at least 20 alloys in the five groups. They cover a wide range
of properties and most of them contain nickel. Among the materials in
Group 1 is nickel. Its properties have been discussed in Chapter 2 and they
will not be repeated. The nominal compositions of selected alloys in the other
four groups are given in Table 8-1.
Table 8-1. Compositions of Some Electrical Resistance Alloys
Nominal composition, %
Alloy Type Ni Si Cu Cr Fe Al
Ni-Si Low resistivity, moderate TCR 97 3

55-45 Moderate resistivity, low TCR 45 55
75-20 High resistivity, low TCR 75 3 20 3
80---20 High resistivity, moderate TCR 79 1 20
60---16 High resistivity, moderate TCR 60 1 16 Bal.
35-20 High resistivity, moderate TCR 35 2 20 Bal.
Group 2 is represented by a 97 %nickel-3 %silicon alloy. This alloy has

excellent exidation resistance and can be used for instrumentation at tempera-
tures up to 2000 F.l
Group 3 is represented by one of the oldest resistance alloys, 55 % cop-
per-45 % nickel, often called constantan but marketed under a variety of
trade names. The alloy is frequently modified by the addition of other ele-
ments, such as manganese, to alter its characteristics. It can be used as a
resistance element up to temperatures of about 930 F.2
Because of its low temperature coefficient of resistance, the 55 %copper-
45 %nickel alloy is widely used for resistance banks which control the voltage
applied to various types of machines. It is also used in the form of cable in
floor and panel heating for homes and offices, wrap-around cables for warm-
ing pipes handling various industrial fluids, etc. Its low thermal conductivity
combined with an approximately constant electrical resistivity at low tempera-
tures lead to quite extensive use of this alloy in cryogenic apparatus.
Group 4 is represented by a heat treatable nickel-chromium-copper-
aluminum alloy which can be used to temperatures up to 580 F. It is a solid-
solution alloy whose electrical properties are developed by heat treatment at
elevated temperatures. This alloy is used primarily in the form of very fine
wire for stable precision resistors. l
Group 5 is represented by three alloys because of the importance of the
group not only in instrumentation but also in general heating applications.
Electrical Resistance and Thermocouple Alloys 161
The 80 % nickel-20 % chromium composition, oldest of the resistance alloys,

can be used to temperatures of about 2000 F, the others to somewhat lower
temperatures. 2
Alloys in this group are used for power resistors, elevated-temperature
control coils, high-ohm resistors, and potentiometers, for example. The 80 %
nickel-20 % chromium and the 35 % nickel-20 % chromium-balance iron
alloys are also used extensively for heating elements in industrial furnaces,
whereas the 60 % nickel-16 % chromium-balance iron alloy is used primarily
for heating elements in appliances.
The 80 % nickel-20 % chromium alloy is highly resistant to oxidation
and corrosion at temperatures up to 2150 F. However, it is subject to selec-
tive oxidation in partially reducing atmospheres in the temperature range of
1500 to 1800 F. As a result, ductility is reduced, local hot spots can develop,
and premature failure may occur. This effect can be prevented by maintaining
an oxidizing atmosphere or by using an alloy having a lower nickel content.
The 35 % nickel-20 % chromium-balance iron alloy was developed for ser-
vice in the 1500 to 1800 F temperature range because it is not subject to the
form of internal oxidation mentioned.
Physical Properties
The physical properties of the resistance alloys mentioned above are
given in Table 8_2. 1 ,3,4,5 The electrical resistivity ranges from a low of 138
ohms/cir mil ft for the nickel-silicon alloy to a high of 800 ohms/cir mil ft
for the nickel-chromium-copper-aluminum alloy. It should be noted that
the resistivity given for the latter alloy is developed by heat treatment at
elevated temperatures; the fully annealed alloy has a resistivity of 730 ohms/
cir mil f1. 6
In instrumentation, it is advantageous to have a temperature coefficient
of resistance as close to zero as possible in order that variations in the ambi-
ent temperature will not significantly change the overall resistance of the
system. In the materials under consideration, the temperature coefficient of
resistance ranges from a low of 3 microhmsfohmtF for the nickel-chromium-
copper-aluminum alloy, again achieved by heat treatment, to a high of 1330
for the nickel-silicon alloy. Incidently, the coefficient of annealed nickel-
chromium-copper-aluminum is 28 microhms/ohmtF.
The 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy maintains its low temperature coef-
ficient of resistance over the range -70 to 225 F. It has the highest electrical
resistivity and the lowest coefficient of resistance of the copper-nickel alloy
system. 2 In addition to having the highest electrical resistivity of the alloys
under consideration, the nickel-chromium-copper-aluminum alloy main-
...
en
II.)
Table 8-2. Physical Properties of Some Electrical Resistance All oys l,3,4,5
Ni-Si Cu-Ni Ni-Cr-Cu-AI Ni-Cr Ni-Cr-Fe Ni-Cr-Fe

55-45 80-20 60-16 35-20
Melting point, F 2355 2550 2550 2560 2515

Specific heat (32-212 F), Btu/lb;oF 0.094 0.104 0.104 0.112 0.098
Thermal conductivity (32-212 F), Btu/hr/ft2;oF/ft 13 7.3 8.7 7.8 12.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion (32-212 F), per OF 7.0 x 10- 6 8.3 X 10- 6 7.4 X 10- 6 7.3 X 10- 6 7.6 X 10- 6 8.8 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity (68 F), ohms/cir mil ft 138 300 800 650 675 610
microhms/ohm;oF 1330 ±11 ±3 47 85 222
Thermal emf vs copper (68-212 F), microvolts/F -11.5 -23.5 -0.05 2.1 0.5 0.5
Density,lb/in. 3 0.321 0.293 0.304 0.298 0.287
n
::r
III
CD
"......
co
tains its minimum coefficient of resistance over a wider range than that cov-
ered by the 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy.
The three alloys of group 5 have resistivities ranging from 610 to 675
ohms/cir mil ft and their temperature coefficients of resistance increase with
decreasing nickel content. In each of these alloys, the specific electrical resist-
ance increases with rising temperature. The greatest increase occurs in the
35 % nickel-20 % chromium-balance iron composition and the least in the
80 % nickel-20 % chromium composition. Fabricating procedure influences
the resistance. After cold working, if annealing is followed by slow cooling,
the resistance will be near the maximum, but rapid cooling will lower the
resistance. An indication of the effect of temperature on the resistance of these
three alloys is given in Fig. 8-1.7
In instrumentation, the resistance elements are often connected to cop-
per leads and It is advantageous to have a low thermal emf versus copper.
For the materials under discussion, the thermal emf versus copper ranges
from -23.5 to 2.1 microvoltsrF.
The coefficients of thermal expansion of the alloys in Table 8-2 range
from 7.0 X 10- 6 to 8.8 X 10- 6 per OF over the range 32 to 212 F, and are
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
24
20
~
a.l
u
c
16
0
1i'i
"V;
OJ
0:: 12
!;
OJ
8
If)
...
0
OJ
u
.s
4
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 8-1. Effect of temperature on the electrical resist-
ance of several resistance alloys. 5
...
~
Table 8-3. Nominal Tensile Properties and Hardness Values of Some Electrical
Resistance All oys 3,s
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Reduction Hardness

(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), of area,
Form and condition ksi ksi Rockwell Brinell
% %
55Cu-45Ni
Rod
Annealed at 1400 F 27· 67 46 78 B54
Hot rolled 35· 69 42 76 B62
Cold rolled 103 15 70 159
Ni-Cr-Cu-AI
Annealed 65 140 35
80Ni-20Cr
60Ni-16Cr-Fe
Annealed 50 105 30 200
35Ni-20Cr-Fe
aYield point.
o
::T
I»
'tI
CD
.....
00
relatively close to that of commercial nickel over the same range. In the
alloys of Group 5, the coefficient increases with decreasing nickel content.
Since the 80 % nickel-20 % chromium is used at high temperatures, its coef-
ficient over a broader temperature range may be of interest; it is 9.6 X 10- 6
over the range 68 to 1832 F.
The 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy has the highest modulus of elasticity
of the copper-base alloys. The moduli of the three alloys in Group 5 decrease
with decreasing nickel content from 31,000 ksi for the 80% nickel-20%
chromium alloy to 27,000 ksi for the 35% nickel-20% chromium-balance
iron alloy.
One of the essential requirements of electrical resistance alloys is that
they be readily fabricated into strip and wire since these are the forms most
widely used. All of the materials under discussion meet this requirement
although some are more readily worked than others.
Tensile Properties. Nominal tensile properties of several of the alloys

are given in Table 8_3. 3 ,s In the annealed condition, the tensile strength
ranges from a low of 67 ksi for the 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy to 140 ksi
for the nickel-chromium-copper-aluminum alloy. The alloys have relatively
good ductilities as measured by the elongation, ranging from 30 to 46 %.
Cold working increases the tensile strength of the 55 % copper-45 %
nickel alloy to more than 100 ksi with a corresponding decrease in the
elongation from 46 to 15 %, although the reduction of area is reduced only
slightly.
Hardness. The effect of cold work on the hardness of the 97 % nickel-

3 % silicon alloy is indicated in Fig. 8-2.9 The alloy work hardens rapidly up
to a reduction of about 40 % after which there is little increase in hardness
with additional working.
Limited hardness data for the other alloys are given in Table 8-3.
Fatigue Properties. Fatigue strengths for two resistance alloys are given
in Table 8-4. They indicate good resistance to fatigue. The endurance ratio
of the 55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy is 0.39 for annealed, 0.50 for hot rolled,
and 0.41 for cold rolled material. That of the 80% nickel-20% chromium
alloy is 0.30 in the annealed condition.
The copper-nickel alloy has excellent resistance to corrosion by sea
166 Chapter 8
240
"-
Q)
.D
E200
:::J
z
U1
U1
Q)
c
160
"D
"-
0
I
"D
120
E
0
"-
~ 80
"D
C
0
E 40
0
6
o 40 60 80 Fig. 8-2. Effect of cold work on the

hardness of a nickel-silicon resistance
Cold Work, % alloy.9
Table 8-4. Fatigue Properties of Two Electrical

Resistance Alloys

strength,
Form and condition ksi 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 Ref.
55Cu-45Ni
Rod, 1 in., hot rolled 70.5 37 36 35 10
Bar
Annealed 69.4 34 30 28 8
Cold rolled 103.3 50 43 8
Cold drawn, stress-relieved 38 32 31 11
80Ni-20Cr
Annealed 112 33.6 5
water. Ellinghausen I I reported that the fatigue strength of this alloy after
10 8 cycles (390 days) in sea water was 18 ksi as compared with 31 ksi in air.

Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of 55 % copper-45 %
nickel wire in the annealed condition are given in Fig. 8-3. 5 Strength falls
gradually up to about 600 F and then the rate accelerates. The elongation
Temperature, K
120 300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100
80
60
~
40 40 C
0
'"6
0>
20 c
20 0
W
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
55 % copper-45 % nickel annealed wire. s
passes through a minimum in the range 500 to 700 F and rises with increasing
temperatures.
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of the 80 % nickel-
20 % chromium alloy are given in Fig. 8-4. S There is little loss of strength
up to about 800 F but above that temperature strength falls rapidly. As
indicated in the graph, the ductility passes through a minimum in the range
800 to 1100 F, rises to a maximum at about 1400 F, and then decreases at
higher temperatures. This alloy is used to some extent as a material of con-
struction for high-temperature service. It is, however, subject to plastic flow
at relatively light loads and thus its usefulness is limited. 2
Stress-rupture properties of the three alloys of Group 5 are given in
Table 8-5.7,12 These materials have rather low rupture strengths in the range
for which properties were obtained, 1500 to 1900 F. Since the 80% nickel-
20 % chromium is the base from which quite a number of the superalloys
were developed, it may be interesting to make a comparison. At 1800 F, for
example, this alloy has a 100 hour rupture stress that is only about two-
thirds that of Inconel alloy X-750 and only one-eighth that of Nimonic
115.
168 Chapter 8
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
120
100
80
(f)
x
en 60
(f) 60
....
(j)
~
ifi
40 40 C-
o
E ."§
CJl
c
20 20 w .Q
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
80% nickel-20% chromium annealed rod. s
Table 8-5. Stress Rupture Properties of Some Electrical

Resistance Alloys
Stress (ksi) for rupture in 100 hr at

Alloy 1500F 1700F 1800F 1900 F Ref.
80Ni-20Cr (2350 F, water quenched) 6.5 2.2 12
80Ni-20Cr 5.0 3.6 2.7 7
60Ni-16Cr-Fe 5.0 4.2 2.2 7
35Ni-20Cr-Fe 5.5 2.8 2.05 7
Limited data on the low-temperature properties of two of the resistance
alloys are given in Table 8_6. s ,8 As indicated in the table, the strength of the
55 % copper-45 % nickel alloy increases with falling temperatures, the tensile
strength at -292 F being about 1.5 times that at room temperature. The
elongation also increases but there is a slight drop in the reduction of area.
In addition, the toughness as measured by a notched-bar test remains high.
Table 8-6. Mechanical Properties of Two Electrical Resistance

Alloys at Low Temperatures S ,8
Test Yield Tensile Elongation Reduction Izod

temperature, point, strength, (2 in.), of area, impact,
Condition F ksi ksi % % ft-lb
55Cu-45Ni
Annealed Room 20 60 49 77 80
-292 54 90 60 74 88
80Ni-20Cr
Annealed at 1850 F Room 103 133 28 a 52
-423 139 188 34a 50
"In 10 diameters.
The tensile strength of the 80% nickel-20% chromium alloy also in-
creases at low temperatures; tensile strength at -423 F is 188 ksi compared
with 133 ksi at room temperature. The elongation also increases and, in this
alloy, the reduction of area shows only a very slight decrease.
THERMOCOUPLE ALLOYS
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals which, when exposed

to two different temperatures, produce an electromotive force approximately
proportional to the temperature difference between their hot and cold junc-
tions. The thermocouples that have been used for fifty years or more are still
predominant although some special purpose thermocouples have appeared
from time to time.!3 The materials used in these thermocouples are copper,
iron, constantan, Chromel, Alumel, platinum, and platinum-rhodium alloys.
The various combinations have been designated by letter symbols and
those of interest in this publication are: 14
[SA code symbol Couple materials
T Copper and constantan
J Iron and constantan
K Chromel P and Alumel*
E Chromel P and constantan
The iron-constantan couple was apparently the first base-metal ther-
mocouple accepted on a large scale and continues to be used extensively.
*This is the original combination-there are various proprietary alloys which now fit into
this classification. This is true also for alternates for Chromel P in the Type E thermo-
couple.
170 Chapter 8
The copper-constantan couple has been used for many years. Its elec-
tromotive force-temperature coefficient is more linear than that of tho
iron-constantan couple, particularly below 400 F. It is the best available
base-metal couple for service from -300 to 200 F.13
According to Caldwell,13 the Chromel-Alumel and other Type K
couples are probably the most widely used base-metal couples in industrial
applications.
The Chromel-constantan couple has excellent thermocouple properties
and has the advantage that both elements are resistant to corrosion. It is
sometimes used as a replacement for Type K couples in industrial appli-
cations.
Representative values of the electromotive force developed by these
thermocouples at a series of temperatures are given in Table 8-7. These data
were extracted from the complete tables published by the National Bureau
of Standards. I S
The table indicates the considerable differences in electromotive force
developed by the various couples. Thus, the Chromel-constantan couple
produces much higher emf at any temperature than the other couples, the
Table 8-7. Representative Temperature-Electromotive Force

(emf) Tables for Thermocouples"
Emf in absolute millivolts, reference junction at 32 F

Copper- Iron- Chromel P- Chromel P-
Temp., constantan constantan Alumel constantan
F (Type T) (Type J) (Type K) (Type E)
-300 -5.284 -7.52 -5.51 -8.30

-200 -4.111 -5.76 -4.29 -6.40
-100 -2.559 -3.49 -2.65 -3.94
0 -0.670 -0.89 -0.68 -1.02
100 1.517 1.94 1.52 2.27
200 3.967 4.91 3.82 5.87
400 9.525 11.03 8.31 13.75
600 15.773 17.18 12.86 22.25
800 23.32 17.53 31.09
1000 29.52 22.26 40.00
1200 36.01 26.98 49.04
1400 42.96 31.65 57.92
1600 50.05 36.19 66.68
1800 40.62 75.12
2000 44.91
2200 49.05
2400 53.01
next highest being the iron-constantan couple. The table also indicates the
highest temperature at which the various couples should be used, as discussed
in the following paragraph.
There are limitations on the temperatures at which these couples should
be used and they are indicated in Table 8_8. 14 Propected couples can be used
at considerably higher temperatures than bare couples and wire size must be
considered in selecting an operating temperature. The maximum service
temperature decreases as the wire diameter is reduced. The copper-constan-
tan couple should be used only up to 700 F, the iron-constantan couple to
1400 F, and the Chromel-constantan couple to 1600 F. The Chrome1-
Alumel couple can be used to 2300 F if it is protected from the atmosphere.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of Chromel P and Alumel are given in
Table 8-9.13 Data on constantan (55 % copper-45 % nickel) were included in
Table 8-2.
Table 8-8. Temperature Limits for Thermocouples l4
Temperature limit (F)

for wire size (AWG)
Couple
ISA code Thermocouple materials condition 8 14 16 20 24 30.
T Copper---<:onstantan Bare 600 500 400 400 400
Protected 700 600 500 400 400
J Iron---<:onstantan Bare 1200 900 900 800 650 600
Protected 1400 1100 1100 900 700 700
K Chromel-Alumel Bare 2000 1700 1700 1600 1400 1300
Protected 2300 2000 2000 1800 1600 1500
E Chromel---<:onstantan Bare 1400 1100 1100 900 700 700
Protected 1600 1200 1200 1000 800 800
Chromel P has a much higher electrical resistivity than Alumel but

also has a much lower temperature coefficient of resistance. The increase in
resistance with temperature for the two alloys is indicated in Fig. 8_5. 13
Both the thermal conductivity and the specific heat of Alumel are some-
what higher than those of Chromel P, but the coefficient of thermal expansion
of the latter is the higher. The thermal conductivities of both alloys are rela-
tively close to that of constantan and the thermal expansion of Chromel P is
similar to that of the 80% nickel-20% chromium alloy. Chromel P is non-
magnetic and Alumel is strongly magnetic. 1 3
172 Chapter 8
Table 8-9. Nominal Physical Properties of Two Thermocouple

Alloys13,16
Alumel*
(Ni 95, Al 2, Chromel-P*
Nominal composition, % Mn 2, Si 1) (Ni 90, Cr 10)
Melting point, F 2550 2600

Specific heat (68 F), Btu/lb/"F 0.125 0.107
Thermal conductivity (212 F), Btu/ft2/hr/"F/ft 17 11
Coefficient of thermal expansion (68-212 F), per OF 6.6 X 10- 6 7.3 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity (68 F), ohms/cir mil ft 177 425
microhms/ohm/"F 1670 300
Density,lb/in. 3 0.311 0.315
*See appendix.
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 ,.....,..----r------r--r---~--r-.
~ 80
(l)
u
c
o
Vi 60
Ui
(l)
0:::
c 40
(l)
<f)
o
~
~ 20
o UE~~ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ ~_ _ _ _ ~ _ _~
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Temperature, F
Fig. 8-5. Effect of temperature on the electrical resistance

of two thermocouple alloys. 13
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100 1300
100 r-r------r----,--,....--..,..--..,.......,
80
60
(j)
(j)
~ c
i7i 40 40Q
c
.Q
20 20 -0
0>
C
o
W
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature, F

annealed Alumel wire. 1 6
Only limited data were found on mechanical properties. According to
Caldwell,13 Chromel P has a tensile strength of 95 ksi in the annealed condi-
tion and can be work hardened to a strength of 165 ksi. Alumel has an
annealed tensile strength of 85 ksi and this can be increased to 170 ksi by
cold work.
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of Alumel in the form
of 18 gage annealed wire are given in Fig. 8-6. 16 The tensile strength falls
regularly from 85 ksi at room temperature to 9 ksi at 2000 F. The elongation
has a minimum at about 1000 F. Chromel P has similar properties, although
it is slightly stronger over the entire range and its elongation is somewhat
lower.
REFERENCES
1. C. D. Starr and A. J. Gottleib, "How to select electrical resistance alloys," Materials

Engineering, Nov. 1967, p. 44.
(1968).
174 Chapter 8
4. "Drawn or rolled nickel---chromium and nickel---chromium-iron alloys for electrical
heating elements," Designation B 344, ASTM Standards, Part 8,1969.
5. J. L. Everhart, W. E. Lindlief, J. Kenegis, P. G. Weissler, and F. Siegel, Mechanical
Properties of Metals and Alloys, Circular C447, National Bureau of Standards (1943).
6. C. D. Starr, "Properties of wires for resistors," Materials Research and Standards 6,
435 (1966).
7. Nickel Alloys for Resistance Heating Elements, The International Nickel Co. Inc.
(1969).
8. R. P. Reed and R. P. Mikesell, Low-Temperature Mechanical Properties of Copper and
Selected Copper Alloys, Monograph 101, National Bureau of Standards (1967).
9. J. F. Potts and D. L. McElroy, "The effects of cold working, heat treatment, and
oxidation on the thermal emf of nickel-base thermoelements," Temperature-Its
Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Part 2, 1962, p. 243.
11. R. C. Ellinghausen, Endurance and Stressless Corrosion Fatigue Tests of Ni-Cu Alloys
and Tobin Bronze in Sea Water, PB 168687, U. S. Naval Exp. Station, Annapolis
(1967).
12. R. Widmer and N. J. Grant, "The creep rupture properties of 80Ni-2OCr alloys,"
Trans. ASME J. Basic Engineering 82, 829 (1960).
13. F. R. Caldwell, Thermocouple Materials, Monograph 40, National Bureau of Stand-
ards (1962).
14. "Calibrating and checking thermocouples in plant and laboratory," Metal Treating
17, 3 (Feb.-Mar. 1966).
15. H. Shenker, J.1. Lauritzen, Jr., R. J. Corruccini, and S. T. Louberger, Reference Tables
for Thermocouples, Circular 561, National Bureau of Standards (1955).
16. Private Communication from Hoskins Manufacturing Company, May 28, 1970.
Chapter 9
Controlled-Expansion and
Controlled-Modulus Alloys
LOW-EXPANSION ALLOYS
In the late 19th century, discovery of deviations from the expected values
of the coefficients of expansion in the nickel-iron system led to a study of the
system by Guillaume. He found that the minimum coefficient of expansion
occurred in the alloy containing approximately 36 % nickel and called the
alloy "Invar." He found also that the addition of 12 %chromium produced an
alloy having an invariable modulus of elasticity over a considerable tempera-
ture range and called this alloy "Elinvar." Both of these alloys are atill in
use. Elinvar will be discussed later.
In a sense, Invar is a misnomer because the low value of coefficient of
expansion occurs only over a limited temperature range. It is often regarded
as resulting from a combination of a normal dilatational effect and an in-
crease in volume on cooling caused by magnetic effects (magnetostriction).
In the nonmagnetic state above the Curie point, the alloy has a normal coef-
ficient of expansion, similar to that of iron or nickel. As the alloy cools, and
passes the Curie point, a range is entered where the coefficient is low, but on
additional reduction of temperature the coefficient again increases. These
phenomena are characteristic also of iron-nickel alloys ranging from about 30
to 70% nickel, although the abnormality becomes less marked with increas-
ing nickel content. 1
The coefficient of expansion ofInvar is influenced by a number offactors.
Impurities generally increase the minimum. Annealing tends to increase the
expansion coefficient and quenching has the opposite effect. Cold work also
has a tendency to lower the value and, in a pure 36 % nickel alloy, can cause
the alloy to have a negative expansion coefficient.
175
176 Chapter 9
The 36 % nickel-iron alloy has a coefficient of expansion approximately

one-tenth that of carbon steel at temperatures up to 400 F. It is used where
dimensional changes resulting from variations in temperature must be mini-
mized and also as the low-expansion side of bimetallic thermoelements.
Because of its excellent low-temperature characteristics it is used also as a
structural material in cryogenic applications. A free-machining modifica-
tion, containing about 0.2 % selenium, is used for parts requiring extensive
machining. The properties of this alloy approximate those of the normal
36% alloy.
Sands 2 reported that cobalt may be substituted for nickel in the 36 %
nickel alloy with no effect on the inflection temperature but a beneficial effect
on both the minimum and mean coefficients of expansion. For an inflection
temperature of 932 F, for example, he noted that the substitution of 28 %
cobalt for a like percentage of nickel will lower the minimum coefficient of
expansion from 5.2 X 10- 6 to 2.9 X 10- 6 per OF; the mean coefficient will be
lowered from 5.5 X 10- 6 to 3.5 X 10- 6 per OF.
Increasing the temperature above room temperature shifts the minimum
coefficient toward higher nickel contents. This is advantageous in selecting
a low-expansion alloy for service at temperatures above those at which the
36 % alloy is effective. For example, the 42 %nickel-iron alloy has a virtually
constant low rate of thermal expansion at temperatures up to about 650 F
and the 49 % nickel-iron alloy has a low rate, much lower than that of car-
bon steel, up to temperatures of about 1100 F.
The wide range of expansion coefficients available in the nickel-iron
alloys and in modified alloys based on the nickel-iron system leads to their
use as glass-sealing materials. Rosenberg 3 notes that alloys containing 42 %
nickel, 5.5 % chromium, balance iron are suitable for seals in many soft
glasses. Alloys containing 29 % nickel, 17 % cobalt, balance iron and 52 %
nickel, balance iron are suitable for sealing hard, heat resistant glasses.
The 36 % nickel alloy is the most widely used material for applications
requiring low expansivity at temperatures up to about 400 F; the 42 % alloy
for applications from 400 to 650 F; and the 49 % alloy for applications at
temperatures from 650 to 1000 F.3 There are a number of other low-expan-
sion alloys which are modifications of the simple nickel-iron alloys, includ-
ing some which are age hardenable. However, the 36 %, 42 %, and 49 %
nickel-iron alloys will be used to indicate the properties to be expected of
low-expansion alloys.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the three alloys are given in Table 9-1.4
As indicated in the table, a number of the properties show a progressive
Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys 177
Table 9-1. Physical Properties of Some Low-

Expansion Alloys4
36 % Ni-Bal Fe 42 % Ni-Bal Fe 49 % Ni-Bal Fe

Melting point, F 2600 2600 2600
Specific heat (70-212 F), BtujlbrF 0.123 0.121 0.120
Thermal conductivity (68- 212 F),
Btujhrjft2rFjft 6.0 6.2 7.5
Coefficient of thermal expansion,
per OF
77-212 F 0.655 x 10- 6 2.57 X 10- 6 4.8 X 10- 6
77-292F 0.956 x 10- 6 2.54 X 10- 6 5.2 X 10- 6
77-572F 2.73 x 10- 6 2.71 X 10- 6 5.17 X 10- 6
77-752 F 4.34 x 10- 6 3.14 X 10- 6 5.07 X 10- 6
77-1292 F 6.31 x 10- 6 5.50 X 10- 6 6.00 X 10- 6
77-1652 F 7.70 x 10- 6 7.10 X 10- 6 7.38 X 10- 6
Temperature coefficient
resistance (70-212 F), per OF 0.00067 0.0019
Curie temperature, F 535 715 930
Density,lbjin. 3 0.291 0.29 0.298
increase with increasing nickel content. These include the thermal conduc-
tivity, the density, the elastic constants, and the Curie temperature. The
electrical resistivity decreases with increasing nickel content.
The most important property of these materials for their practical
application is, of course, the coefficient of thermal expansion. As mentioned
previously, it is influenced by impurity content, heat treatment, and cold
work. According to McCain and Maringer,4 even dropping a sample of
quenched and annealed Invar on a hard surface may change its dimensions
by as much as 100 microns per meter, which is more than would be expected
for a temperature change of 122 F.
The alloys can be stabilized by suitable heat treatments. The following,
for example, has been suggested for the 36 % nickel alloy: heat to 1500 F
for ~ hour per inch of thickness, water quench, reheat to 600 F for 1 hour,
air cool. S
Because of these variables, it is necessary to use the data given in Table
9-1 for the coefficients of thermal expansion with care. However, they can be
used to compare the characteristics of the three alloys. As indicated in the
table, both the 42 % and 49 % alloys expand at greater rates than the 36 %
alloy but their rates are more uniform at the higher temperatures. This effect
178 Chapter 9
Table 9-2. Thermal Expansion of Low-Expansion Alloys4
36% Ni 42%Ni 49-50% Ni
Coefficient of thermal expansion, per of

-200--0 F 1.10 x 10- 6 3.42 X 10- 6 5.37 X 10- 6
0-200 F 0.70 3.18 5.55
200-400 F 1.50 2.97 5.55
400-600 F 6.35 3.15 5.55
600-800F 8.61 5.50 5.60
800-1000 F 9.48 8.55 7.26
Temperature, K
300 400 500 600 700 800
7
u
c
~ 6
~
o
-£
Q) 5
0.
c -
o
g;
o
3
0.
x
W
02
<5
I-
o 200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature, F
Fig. 9-1. Total expansion of 36%Ni-Fe, 42% Ni-Fe,

48% Ni-Fe and carbon steel with increasing tempera-
tures. 1
is indicated more clearly by the data included in Table 9-2 which gives the
expansion characteristics over progressively higher 200 F temperature
ranges.
The total expansion of the three alloys is compared with that of carbon
steel in Fig. 9-1. 1 This graph shows that the total expansion of the 36 %
alloy reaches that of the 42 % alloy at about 560 F and exceeds it above that
temperature. Also indicated is that the total expansion of the 36 % alloy and
the 48 % alloy are equal at about 800 F. Although all three alloys expand at
a lower rate than low-carbon steel at moderately low temperatures, the 36 %
nickel alloy expands at approximately the same rate as the steel at tempera-
tures above 400 F.

All three of these alloys have austenitic structures and they cannot be
hardened by heat treatment. Improvement in strength can be achieved only
by cold work.
Tensile Properties. Typical tensile properties of the three alloys are

given in Table 9-3. 4 The tensile strengths of the annealed alloys increase
with the nickel content but the yield strengths do not show a similar trend.
As indicated in the table, cold work with a reduction of 30 % more than
Table 9-3. Tensile Properties and Hardness Values of Some

Low-Expansion Alloys4
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Reduction Hardness

(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), of area,
Condition ksi ksi Rockwell Brinell
% %
36 % Ni-Bal Fe
Annealed 40 71 41 72 131
Cold worked, 15 % 65 93 14 64 187
Cold worked, 25 % 90 100 9 62 207
Cold worked, 30% 95 106 8 59 217
42 % Ni-Bal Fe
Annealed 28 76
Cold worked 120 Bloo
49 % Ni-Bal Fe
Annealed 31 82 41 72 170
Cold worked 140 B103
180 Chapter 9
doubled the yield strength of the 36 % nickel alloy and increased the tensile
strength from 71 to 106 ksi. Under the same conditions, the elongation
was reduced from 41 to 8 % but the reduction of area dropped only from 71
to 59%.
Hardness. The hardness of the 36 % nickel alloy increased progressively

with cold work from Brinell 131 for annealed material to 217 after 30 %
cold work. The effect of cold work on the hardness of this alloy is indicated
also in Fig. 9-2.4 As a basis of comparison, mild steel and Type 304 chro-
mium-nickel steel are also included in this graph. The data indicate that the
36 % nickel alloy hardens at approximately the same rate as mild steel but
at a much lower rate than Type 304 stainless steel.
Other Properties. McGain and Maringer4 also reported the following

properties for the 36 %nickel alloy after cold drawing to a Rockwell hardness
of B90:
Izod impact, ft-Ib 90
Shear strength, ksi 45
Endurance ratio (approximate) 0.40
400 r----r-----r----,.----,
350
w300
.0
E
~
z
(,/)250
(,/)
(1)
c
"0
~200
~
(1)
.><:
.~ 150
>
50 L - - _ - I . - _ - - - ' -_ _. . l - _ - J
o 20 40 60 80
Fig. 9-2. Effect of cold work on the
hardness of stainless steel, Invar, and
Cold Reduction, % mild steel. 4

The short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of the 36 %
nickel alloy in the annealed condition are indicated in Fig. 9-3. 4 There is
little loss in strength up to the temperature range 400-500 F but the elon-
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100
100 r-r----r----r----r--~
80
]1 60
IJ)
IJ)
(l)
~ 40 80 ~
E
60 §
20
~ 40
20
g,c
L3
o 400 800 1200 1600
Temperature, F
Fig. 9-3. Short-time elevated-temperature tensile
properties of annealed 36 % Ni-Fe. 4
400r---~--~----~--~--~
to
'0
~ 300
c
...
"0
(j) 200
Q.
c:.>
...
(l) 25 ksi
u 100
o
;§ 15 ksi
o 100 200 300 400 500

Time, hours
Fig. 9-4. Creep of Invar at 200 F.6
182 Chapter 9
gation increases. At higher temperatures, both strength and elongation fall

at quite uniform rates up to 1200 F, the highest testing temperature re-
ported.
Maringer 6 presented total creep curves for the 36 % nickel alloy at
room temperature, 150 F and 200 F. The tests were made under a series of
stresses for a duration of 500 hours. His data for the 200 F series are given
in Fig. 9-4. With a stress of 15 ksi, the creep rate appears to become constant
within less than 100 hours. At higher stresses, however, uniform rates do
not appear to be reached in 500 hours.

The effect of subzero temperatures on the tensile properties of the 36 %
nickel alloy in the annealed and cold worked (12-15 % reduction) conditions
are indicated in Fig. 9-5. 4 • 7 The strength increases regularly to a value that
at -400 F is about twice that at room temperature. Although there is some
reduction in elongation, good ductility is retained at low temperatures.
According to Eash,8 the toughness as reflected by the notchfunnotched
tensile strength decreases as the temperature falls into the subzero range. This
effect is evident also in the notched bar impact test, as shown in Fig. 9-6. 9
Although there is a gradual reduction in toughness, there is no indication of
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
200
160
'Vi
x 120
ul
Ul
(l)
'-
en 80 80 ~
-
E Ann. e0
40 - LlO '0
0'
~ E Cw.
c
0
w
-400 -300 -200 100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 9-5. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of 36% Ni-Fe in the
annealed and 12-15 % cold worked conditions. 4 • 7
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250 300
100
80
,-
.D
---
U
60
0
a.
E
>.
40
a.
'-
0
-
.c
U 20
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100

Temperature, F
Fig. 9-6. Subzero-temperature impact properties of 36 % Ni-Fe

in the annealed and 12-15 % cold worked conditions. 9
a transition from ductile to brittle behavior. Even at -400 F, reasonably

good toughness is indicated for this alloy.
HIGH-EXPANSION ALLOYS
In the nickel-iron alloy system, expansion characteristics vary widely

depending on the composition. As the nickel content is reduced below the
composition at which minimum expansion occurs, the rate of expansion
increases.
Taking advantage of this phenomenon, the developers of a series of
materials, which they have designated "Ni-Span" alloys, formulated a com-
position called Ni-Span Hi that has high expansivity. This alloy is used
primarily for thermostat controls usually as the high-expansion member of
a bimetallic element.
The nominal composition of this alloy is:
Ni Cr Ti Si Al Fe
29 3.5 2.4 0.5 0.6 Bal
The inclusion of aluminum and titanium in the composition makes
184 Chapter 9
Table 9-4. Properties of a High-Expansion AlloylO
Physical properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion (70-1000 F), per of ................ 10.5 X 10- 6
Modulus of elasticity, ksi ........................................ 25,000
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), Brinell
Condition ksi ksi % hardness
Soln.-annealeda 35 80 30 140
Soln.-annealed and agedb 95 150 20 305
Cold reduced, 50 % 120 140 4 250
Cold reduced, 50 %, agedb 130 180 8 370
01700 to 1850 F, water quenched.
"Aged 1100--1350 F, 3-24 hr depending on condition and prior cold work.
the alloy precipitation hardenable by the precipitation of an intermetallic

compound, NilAI, Ti), the same compound that is employed for strength-
ening many of the nickel-base superalloys. The alloy is austenitic and is
nonmagnetic at all temperatures.
Physical Properties
Limited physical properties of Ni-Span Hi are given in Table 9_4. 10
The alloy has a coefficient of expansion that is among the highest that can
be achieved in an iron-base alloy. The mean coefficient is about 10.5 X 10- 6
per OF between room temperature and 1000 F but it is not constant in this
range. At the lower end, it is about 10.0 X 10- 6 per OF and at the high end of
the range may reach 11 X 10- 6 •
As mentioned previously, the alloy is precipitation hardenable. Heat
treatment consists of solution annealing at 1700 to 1850 F, water quenching,
and aging at 1100 to 1350 F for periods ranging from 3 to 24 hr depending on
such factors as the amount of cold work performed.
The tensile properties and hardness values of Ni-Span Hi in various
conditions are given also in Table 9-4. The strength can be almost doubled
by age hardening from the solution-annealed condition and the elongation
is reduced only moderately by this treatment.
Cold working has almost as much strengthening effect as aging from the
solution-annealed condition but has the disadvantage of drastically reducing
the ductility as measured by the elongation. Aging after cold working results
in a marked improvement in tensile strength accompanied by some improve-
ment in the elongation.
The Brinell hardness ranges from 140 for material in the solution-
annealed condition to 370 for material that has been cold worked and aged.
CONSTANT-MODULUS ALLOYS
As mentioned previously, the discoverer of Invar also discovered that the

replacement of 12 % iron by an equal quantity of chromium resulted in a
material which had a constant modulus of elasticity over a considerable range
of temperature. He called the alloy Elinvar and its first application was in
watch springs, an application for which it is still used. However, various modi-
fications have been made of the original alloy to obtain or to intensify secon-
dary properties or to increase the ease of fabrication. These modifications
are proprietary and no single composition now typifies Elinvar. The modified
alloys contain varying percentages of such elements as tungsten, manganese,
chromium, etc. as indicated in Table 9-5. 4
Iso-Elastic is an alloy of the Elinvar type which has been modified by the
addition of molybdenum. The alloy is austenitic and is hardenable only by
cold work. It is used for precision springs.
In an investigation of the temperature dependence of the modulus of
elasticity in nickel-iron alloys having compositions between 36 and 50 %
nickel, Fine and Ellis!! found that the composition most nearly isoelastic
throughout the -40 to 175 F temperature range was the 42.7 % nickel alloy
after it had been cold swaged with a reduction of 78 %and annealed 1 hour at
750 F.
Ni-Span C is a modification of the 42 %nickel alloy in which part of the
iron has been replaced by chromium and titanium. This alloy is precipitation
hardenable. It was developed specifically as a constant-modulus alloy and its
Table 9-5. Compositions of Some Constant-Modulus Alloys4
Composition, %
Alloy Ni Cr Ti Mo Fe Other
Elinvara 36 12 Bal.
Iso-Elastic 36 8 0.5 Bal.
Ni-Span C 42 5.2 2.4 Bal. 0.5 AI; 0.06 C max
"Original composition, now varies over the following ranges: 33-35% Ni, 61-53% Fe, 21-5 % Cr, 1-3 % W,
0.5-2 % Mn, 0.5-2 % Si, 0.5-2 % C.
186 Chapter 9
modulus of elasticity is practically constant over the range -50 to 150 F.

It is used extensively for helical and flat springs, diaphragms, and bellows.
All three of these materials have characteristics which are highly desir-
able in precision devices. They are resistant to oxidation and corrosion at
the temperatures at which they are used and have low coefficients of expan-
sion, low hysteresis, and low creep rates. Their compositions are given in
Table 9-5. 4
Physical Properties
Physical properties of the three constant-modulus alloys mentioned are

given in Table 9-6. 4 Very few data are available for Elinvar, possibly because
of the wide variation in compositions of the modern modifications of this
alloy.
The moduli of Iso-Elastic and Ni-Span C approach those of the 49 %
nickel-iron alloy and are considerably higher than those of the 36 % nickel
alloy. All three materials have very low temperature coefficients of the mod-
ulus of elasticity although they vary: both Elinvar and Ni-Span C have nega-
tive coefficients whereas Iso-Elastic has a range from negative to positive.
The effects of subzero temperatures on the modulus of elasticity of Ni-
Span C are shown in Fig. 9-7. 12 The modulus is practically constant down
Temperature, K
50 100
150 200 250 300
30,000 r---r---,.---,.----,----,.--M
Mod E
25,000
~ 20,000
vJ
~
:5
15 15,000
~
Mod R
10,000
-400 -300 -200 -100

Temperature, F ° 100
Fig. 9-7. Subzero-temperature moduli of elasticity (E) and rigidity

(R) of Ni-Span C, solution treated and aged at 1200 F, 5 hr.12
oo
j
0+
2.
CD
9-
m
><
'C
III
j
III
o·
j
Table 9-6. Physical Properties of Some Annealed Constant-Modulus All oys 4
III
j
Co
Elinvar Iso-Elastic Ni-Span C
o
oj
Melting range, F 2650-2700 0+
Specific heat, Btu/lb;oF 0.12 2.
Thermal conductivity (32-212 F), Btu/hr/ft 2 ;oF/ft 7.5 CD
Coefficient of thermal expansion (-50 to 150 F), per of 3.3 X 10- 6 4 X 10- 6 4.5 x 10- 6 9-
Electrical resistivity (68 F), ohms/cir mil ft 528· 738
s:
o
Co
Temperature coefficient of resistance, per of 0.00025 c
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 26,000 24,000 C
III
Temperature coefficient of modulus of elasticity, per OF -36 X 10- 6 -20 to +15 x 10- 6 -35 to -15 x 10- 6 ~
Modulus of rigidity, ksi 9,200 9,400 o
Temperature coefficient of modulus of rigidity, per OF -40 X 10- 6 ~
Density,lb/in. 3 0.292 0.294
"Given as ohms/mil ft.
01)
......,
188 Chapter 9
to about -150 F but below that temperature there is a gradual decrease. The
modulus of rigidity, also shown in this graph, appears to be less affected by
low temperatures than the modulus of elasticity.
All three materials have low coefficients of thermal expansion over the
temperature range in which they are normally used. The electrical resistivity
of Ni-Span C is considerably higher than the resistivities of the nickel-
iron alloys previously discussed but its temperature coefficient of resistance
approaches that of the 36 % nickel-iron alloy.
Elinvar and Iso-Elastic are austenitic alloys and are hardenable only by
cold work. Ni-Span C is precipitation hardenable.
Tensile Properties. Tensile properties of Iso-Elastic and Ni-Span C in

various conditions are given in Table 9_7. 4 ,13,14 As shown in the table, Iso-
Elastic can be cold worked with large reductions to achieve a yield strength
of more than 100 ksi while retaining adequate ductility. According to McCain
and Maringer 4 the alloy is usually given a stress-relief heat treatment at about
750 F after cold working.
The effects of aging from the solution-annealed condition and after cold
work on the properties of Ni-Span C are indicated also in Table 9-7. Aging
Table 9-7. Tensile Properties and Hardness Values of Some

Constant-Modulus All oys 4,13,14
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Hardness

(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.),
Condition ksi ksi % Brinell Rockwell
Iso-Elastic
Annealed 35 85 30 135
Cold worked 135 155 10 305
Ni-Span C
Solution-annealed 35 90 40 125 B70
. Soln.-annealed, aged 1250 F 115 180 18 305 C33
Cold worked, 50 % 130 135 6 270 C28
Cold worked, 50 %, aged
1250 F 180 200 7 395 C42
Tubing
Cold reduced, 10% 113 18 C26
Cold reduced, 25 % 128 7 C30
alone is sufficient to produce a threefold increase in the yield strength and

to double the tensile strength while retaining good ductility. Aging after cold
work increases the yield strength markedly above that achieved by aging alone
but the tensile strength shows only a moderate improvement. The ductility
is markedly reduced by cold work and little improvement is achieved by
aging in the cold worked condition.
Table 9-4 also contains data on Ni-Span C tubing that had been cold
reduced by 10 % and 25 % after a final anneal. The strength increases mo-
derately but the ductility is reduced markedly by a reduction of only 25 %.
This work was performed by Duff et al. 14 in an investigation of air-melted
and vacuum-melted material to determine the differences in fatigue proper-
ties of helical Bourdon elements. They concluded that vacuum melting made
no significant improvement in the fatigue properties which were reported as
the number of cycles to failure.
Hardness. Hardness values for Iso-Elastic and Ni-Span C are included

also in Table 9-7. Cold working increased the Brinell hardness ofIso-Elastic
form 135 to 305. Depending on the condition of the alloy, the Brinell hard-
ness of Ni-Span C ranged from 125 to 395.
Temperature, K
200 300 400 500 600
220 r-..,.---r---,----r-----r---.,
200
180
"iii
~
en 160
30
-
<II ~
....
Q)
U5 c
(l5
140 20 ~
c
0
+=
0
Ol
120 10 c
0
[jJ
100 0
-200 0 200 400 600 800
Temperature, F
Ni-Span C wire. 4
190 Chapter 9
Fatigue Properties. Gideon et al. ls reported limited data on the fatigue

strength of Ni-Span C sheet material. After aging at 1200 F for 5 hours, the
material had a fatigue strength of 82 ksi at 10 6 cycles. Since the tensile strength
was 152 ksi, these values indicate an endurance ratio of better than 0.5 for
the alloy.
Other Properties. Both Iso-Elastic and Ni-Span C are reported to have
hysteresis errors of less than 0.05 %of deflection and creep errors of not more
than 0.02 % of deflection in five minutes. Iso-Elastic has a practical working
stress in bending of 90 to 100 ksi and in torsion of 40 to 60 ksi. Safe working
stresses for compression springs of Ni-Span Care 62 ksi for light service, 54
ksi for average service, and 44 ksi for severe service. 4
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of Ni-Span Care
given in Fig. 9-8. The alloy retains much of its strength up to 800 F but the
ductility falls rather rapidly above 200 F.
Temperature, K
50 100 150 200 250
280
240
200
'ifi
oX 160
(/)-
(/)
Q)
'-
(j) 120 60
~
80 40 C
E o
40 - 20 §
"§
CJl
GJ
~~--~----~--~----~--~O
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 9-9. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of Ni-Span C bar,
solution treated and aged at 1200 F, 5 hr. 12
The relaxation of Ni-Span C under a steady load of 50 ksi is reported

as 2% at 600 F, 3% at 700 F, and 9% at 800 F.4
The tensile properties of Ni-Span C bars at subzero temperatures are
given in Fig. 9-9 for material that had been solution treated and aged at
1200 F for 5 hours. The strength increases as the temperature falls and at
-420 F is approximately 1.5 times its room-temperature value. The yield
strength shows a more moderate improvement. There is only a moderate
reduction in ductility as the temperature falls.
Notched bar impact tests on Ni-Span C, after aging at 1250 F for 5
hours, showed practically no change in the energy absorbed as the tempera-
ture was reduced from room temperature to -320 F.12
REFERENCES
1. The Physical Properties of the Nickel-Iron Alloys, The Mond Nickel Co., Ltd., n.d.
2. J. W. Sands, "Invar, Elinvar, and related iron-nickel alloys," Metals and Alloys, June
1932, p. 131.
(1968).
4. W. J. McCain and R. E. Maringer, Mechanical and Physical Properties of Invar and
Invar-Type Alloys, DMIC Memo 207, Battelle Memorial Institute (1965).
5. Carpenter Invar "36", Carpenter Steel Company (1966).
6. R. E. Maringer, Review of Dimensional Instability in Metals, DMIC Memo 213,
Battelle Memorial Institute (1966).
7. K. A. Warren and R. P. Reed, Tensile and Impact Properties of Selected Materials
from 20 to 300 K, Monograph 13, National Bureau of Standards (1963).
8. D. T. Eash, Tensile Properties of Invar at Low Temperatures, Report LA-3192-MS
AEC, Los Alamos Scientific Lab. (1965).
9. Invar . .. 36% Nickel Alloy for Low-Temperature Service, The International Nickel
Co., Inc. (1967).
10. W. A. Mudge and A. M. Talbot, "Ni-Span," Iron Age, 157, 66 (April 1946).
11. M. E. Fine and W. C. Ellis, "Young's modulus and its temperature dependence in 36
to 50 percent nickel-iron alloys," Trans. AI ME 188, 1120 (1950).
Data Handbook, AD609562 The Martin Co. (1964).
14. T. A. Duff, M. W. Keenan, L. E. Smith, and R. H. Moeller, "Elastic and fatigue prop-
erties of vacuum remelted versus air melted Ni-Span C alloy 902," Trans. ASME J.
Basic Engineering 89, 561 (1967).
15. D. N. Gideon, R. J. Favor, H. J. Grover, and G. M. McClure, '''The fatigue behavior
of certain alloys in the temperature range from room temperature to - 423 F," Advances
in Cryogenic Engineering 7, 503 (1961).
Chapter 10
Magnetic Materials
Commercial magnet materials can be classified as nonretentive or magnet-

ically soft materials and retentive or magnetically hard materials.
The nonretentive materials become magnetized in the presence of a
magnetic field but are virtually demagnetized when the field is removed.
fncluded in this group are some nickel-iron alloys. These will be discussed
in this chapter.
The retentive or hard magnetic materials are those which remain per-
manently magnetized after a magnetic field is applied. fncluded in this group
are a number of nickel-containing alloys which will also be discussed in this
chapter.
First, however, it seems desirable to consider some of the terms used to
define the properties of magnetic materials. The following discussion is based
on that of Bouwman.!
Figure 10-1 is a representation of a major hysteresis loop. rt is obtained
by applying an alternating field of sufficient amplitude to produce saturation
and plotting the magnetic induction, B, as a function of the field strength,
H.
As indicated on the curve, B is not zero when H is. This means that the
material retains its magnetization in the absence of an applied field. The
value of B when H is zero is called the residual induction, or remanence, and
is symbolized as B r • rt is generally smaller than the maximum induction,
Bmw unless the loop is square.
The value of H when B is zero is called the coercive force and is sym-
bolized by He' rt measures the field strength required to reverse the magnet-
ization. A large value of He is typical of hard magnetic materials; on the other
hand, soft magnetic materials have a small value of He"
192
Magnetic Materials 193
+8
+H
-8
Fig. 10-1. Hysteresis loop.!
Magnetic materials are also characterized by their permeability, sym-

bolized by fl, which is the ratio of B to H at any point on the curve. If a
material has a small coercive force and a high maximum permeability, for
example, a small applied field will produce a high value of B.
The area included within the loop measures the hysteresis loss in the
material when it passes through a full cycle from Hmax to -Hmax and returns.
This is one of the major losses in magnetic materials, but eddy currents
generated in the material also cause losses. The eddy current losses can be
reduced by using a material having high electrical resistivity.
The portion of the hysteresis loop lying in the upper left portion of the
diagram is involved in the properties desired of a permanent magnet material.
It will be discussed under that portion of the chapter dealing with permanent
magnets.
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The most important soft magnetic materials are iron, nickel, and cobalt
and alloys of iron and silicon, iron and nickel, and iron and cobalt. Only
the nickel-iron alloys will be considered in this chapter. The desired prop-
erties of soft magnetic materials are high initial permeability, high maximum
induction, low coercive force, low residual induction, and low hysteresis and
eddy current losses. 2
Many years ago it was discovered that nickel-iron alloys containing
from 78 to 80 % nickel and those containing from 45 to 50 %nickel developed
excellent magnetic properties if they were subjected to suitable heat treatments.
194 Chapter 10
At about 80 % nickel-20 % iron, extremely high permeabilities were found;

another peak occurred at about 50 % nickel. The latter had the higher flux
density and magnetic saturation but both had low hysteresis and eddy current
losses.
Based on these materials, quite a large number of proprietary alloys
have been developed for use as soft magnet materials. Most of them have
been modifications containing additions of molybdenum, chromium, cop-
per, or vanadium to reduce the sensitivity of the nickel-iron alloys to vari-
ables occurring during heat treatment, thus simplifying the control of cooling
rates to achieve high permeabilities. 3 The following materials have been se-
lected to indicate the properties that can be expected of soft magnetic alloys:
Alloy Composition, %
Ni Cu Cr Mo Fe
79Ni-4Mo 79 4 Bal.
Mu-Metal 76 5 1.5 Bal.
49Ni 49 Bal.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the three soft magnetic materials men-
tioned above are given in Table 10_1.3,4,5 It should be noted that the 49%
nickel alloy was also included in the discussion of controlled-expansion alloys
Table 10-1. Physical Properties of Several Soft

Magnetic Materials 3 ,4,5
79Ni-4Mo Mu-Metal 49Ni
Melting point, F 2650 2600

Specific heat, Btu/lbrF 0.118 0.12
Thermal conductivity, Btu/hr/ftzrF/ft 20 7.5
Coefficient of thermal expansion ( -90 to
400 F), per of 7.2 x 10- 6 7.0 X 10- 6 • 3.2 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity (68 F), ohms/cir mil ft 350 337 270
Curie temperature, Fb 790--860 805 840--930
Initial permeabilityb 20,000 20,000 2,500
Maximum permeabilityb 150,000 150,000 25,000
Coercive force, Oe b 0.05 0.03 0.30
Saturation induction, gauss b 8,700 7,200 16,000
Density,lb/in. 3 0.316 0.307 0.298
-68 to 212 F.
"Hydrogen heat treatment, properties vary with heat treatment.
in Chapter 9 but the magnetic properties were not stressed. To achieve

optimum magnetic properties all three of the alloys must be annealed in dry
hydrogen at high temperatures under closely controlled conditions.
The Curie temperatures are relatively high, a desirable feature in magnet-
ic materials, and they do not differ markedly. As noted previously, the initial
and maximum permeabilities of the 49Ni alloy are much lower than those of
the 79Ni-4Mo and Mu-Metal compositions. However, the saturation induc-
tion of the 49Ni alloy is roughly twice that of the two higher nickel alloys
and its coercive force is markedly higher.
According to Smith,6 the magnetic saturation values of these nickel-
iron alloys are never as high as those of pure iron and the difference is par-
ticularly apparent in the region of highest permeability. For this reason, the
nickel-iron alloys are unsuitable for power plant operations where high flux
densities are required. Therefore, they cannot compete with the silicon-iron
alloys in applications of this kind. At low flux densities, however, the nickel-
iron alloys are outstanding and they have important applications in com-
munication engineering and related fields.
F or example, the nickel-iron alloys in the 79 % nickel range have a com-
bination of high initial and maximum permeabilities and minimum hys-
teresis loss in low-level, low-frequency, or rapidly changing magnetic fields.
As a result, these alloys are used to shield sensitive devices from weak magnet-
ic fields. The 49 % nickel alloys have high permeabilities in stronger fields
and their initial permeabilities are approximately twice those of the iron-
silicon alloys. In addition, these nickel-iron alloys have substantially greater
resistance to atmospheric corrosion than the iron-silicon alloys. 7
The electrical resistivities of the 79Ni-4Mo and Mu-Metal alloys are
considerably higher than that of the 49Ni alloy, but the thermal conductivity
does not follow the same trend. The thermal conductivity of the 79Ni-4Mo
alloy is higher than that of the 49Ni alloy.
The modulus of elasticity of the 79Ni-4Mo alloy is about 10,000 ksi
higher than that of the 49Ni alloy but the modulus of rigidity is about 1000
ksi lower. There seems to be a rather unusual relationship between the two
moduli of the 79Ni-4Mo alloy.
Typical tensile properties and hardness values for the three alloys are
given in Table 10_2.4,5 The tensile strength of the 79Ni-4Mo alloy ranges
from 79 ksi in the hydrogen-annealed condition to 97 ksi after cold drawing,
and the cold drawn material retains good ductility. Mu-Metal has con-
siderably lower strength in the hydrogen-annealed condition than 79Ni-
4Mo and the ductility is also somewhat lower. The 49Ni alloy has tensile
196 Chapter 10
Table 10-2. Tensile Properties and Hardness Values

of Some Soft Magnetic Materials 4 ,s

79Ni--4Mo
Bar
Hydrogen annealed
at 2050 F 22 79 64 70 B62
Cold drawn 69 97 37 71 B97
Mu-Metal
Strip
Mill annealed 38 90 35
Hydrogen annealed 38 64 27 B60
49Ni
Bar
Hydrogen annealed
at 2050 F 22 70 45 68 B62
Cold drawn 80 95 25 62 B98
properties roughly equivalent to those of the 79Ni-4Mo alloy although the

ductility is somewhat lower. AlI three of the alloys have approximately the
same Rockwell hardness after hydrogen annealing.
Both the 79Ni-4Mo and the 49Ni compositions are tough as measured
by notched bar testing. The former had an Izod impact resistance of 120
ft-Ib in the cold rolled condition and 85 ft-Ib after hydrogen annealing; the
latter, an Izod impact of 93-95 ft-Ib in the cold rolled condition and 93-98
ft-Ib after hydrogen annealing. 4
According to Eberly,4 the 79Ni-4Mo alloy is produced either by vacuum
or air melting but the air melted alloy is used to a greater extent although its
magnetic properties are somewhat inferior to those of the vacuum-melted
material. The air-melted alloy can withstand severe deep drawing and can
be rolled to foil.
Eberly also notes that the 49Ni alloy is available in the form of regular
and precision castings, forgings, bars, heavy strip, and light gage strip less
than 1 mil thick. Magnetic properties vary with the form and, generally, the
heavier the section, the poorer the magnetic properties.
PERMANENT MAGNET MATERIALS
The magnetic properties sought in a permanent magnet material are

directly opposed to those desired for soft magnetic materials. According to
Stearley,2 permanent magnet materials are characterized by a severely
strained lattice, a fine grain structure, high hardness, and high alloy content.
For optimum properties, the hysteresis loop must be large and the material
requires high values of residual induction and coercive force.
Referring to Fig. 10-1, only that portion of the hysteresis loop which lies
in the upper left quadrant is of interest. This is the demagnetization curve.
The product of B X H along the demagnetization curve is plotted against
B and this value is designated BdHa. The subscript d (for demagnetization)
indicates a fixed point on the demagnetization curve. The maximum value of
this product is designated (BdHd)max and represents the maximum magnetic
energy that a unit volume of the material can produce in an air gap. Maxi-
mum efficiency is achieved by employing a magnet at a flux density corre-
sponding to (BaHd)max-
Maynard 8 noted that the relative efficiency of a permanent magnet,
based on the volume of material required, is indicated by the maximum en-
ergy product (BdHd)max. According to him, this point indicates the energy that
a unit volume of the magnetic material will produce in a magnet designed to
take advantage of its optimum characteristics. He notes that if this condition
can be achieved, residual induction and coercive force are of little real benefit
to the designer of the magnet.
Barta 9 notes that the permeance coefficient (also called the slope line,
shear line, or air-gap line) is the ratio of the total external permeance to the
permeance of the space occupied by the magnet. The slope of this line is
determined by the geometry of the magnetic circuit which includes the pole
pieces, air gaps, and magnet dimensions. The point of intersection with the
demagnetization curve gives thc operating point, a very important point in
setting magnet specifications.
There are quite a number of metallic and nonmetallic permanent magnet
materials. However, those of interest here are the Alnico series and several
copper-base materials.
The Alnicos are a series of dispersion harden able alloys based on alu-
minum, nickel, and iron. Many of them also contain cobalt, copper, and/or
titanium. These alloys are hard and brittle and are not machinable. They
are fabricated by casting and grinding or by the use of powder metallurgy
techniques. The latter procedure is particularly applicable to small magnets.
Within the limits of the process, intricate shapes can be produced as P/M
parts.
The Alnico alloys must be heat treated to develop their magnetic prop-
erties and the treatment has a very significant influence on the properties
which are developed. Certain of these materials are isotropic, others are
anisotropic. The isotropic materials can be heat treated, for example, by
heating in the 2100-2200 F range, air cooling, and tempering at 1000-1200 F.
The anisotropic alloys are cooled from a high temperature in a magnetic
field to temperatures of the order of 1500-1550 F and are tempered at
198 Chapter 10
Table 10-3. Nominal Compositions of Some Permanent

Magnet Alloyss, II
Composition, %
Alloy Al Ni Co Cu Ti Fe Remarks
Alnico I 12 20 5 Bal. Low cost; isotropic

Alnico II 10 17.5 12.5 6 Bal. Isotropic; higher energy product than I,
III, and IV
Alnico III 12 25 Bal. Isotropic; low cost; used for small
magnets
Alnico IV 12 28 5 Bal. Isotropic
Alnico V 8 14 24 3 Bal. Anisotropic; most widely used
Alnico VI 8 15 24 3 Bal. Anisotropic
Alnico VII 8.5 18 24 3 5 Bal. Either anisotropic or isotropic
Alnico VIII 7.5 14 38 3 8 Bal. High energy product
Alnico IX 7 15 35 4 5 Bal. Highest energy product
Alnico XII 6 18 35 8 Bal.
Cunife I 20 60 20 Anisotropic; magnetic properties similar
to Alnico III
Cunico I 21 29 50 Anisotropic; similar to Cunife I
1100 F. To produce special properties, or to improve the magnetic charac-

teristics, special casting techniques are employed before heat treatment. I 0
Nominal compositions and certain characteristics of the Alnico alloys are
given in Table 10-3. s, II
Copper-base alloys, known as Cunife and Cunico, are also used as
permanent magnet materials, They have the advantage over the Alnicos that
they are ductile and can be readily cold worked, In addition, they are precipi-
tation hardenable. Nominal compositions and characteristics are included
also in Table 10-3.
Cunife can be easily fabricated by drawing, punching, and swaging,
even in the precipitation hardened condition, and is also machinable in this
condition. It is used most widely in wire form but can be cold rolled to strip.
The maximum magnetic properties are developed by a heat treatment which
may consist of slow cooling from 1900 F and aging at 1200 F or by quench-
ing from 1825 F and aging at 1100 F. The heat treatment is followed by
drastic cold working with a reduction of 70 to 90 % to develop preferred
orientation of the grain. 12
Cooter and Mundy l3 investigated the use of Cunife for the production
of wire magnets. They found that permanent magnets as small as 0.005
inch in diameter could be cold drawn from commercial Cunife wire and the
magnetic properties could be improved by a simple heat treatment after
drawing, which consisted of heating the wire to 1130 F for 1 hour and slow
cooling to room temperature.
Physical Properties
Nominal physical properties of a number of representative permanent
magnet materials are given in Table 10_4. 5 ,11 It should be noted that the
magnetic properties are influenced by such factors as the rate of cooling from
the heat treatment temperatures, etc.
The maximum energy product ranges from 800,000 gauss-Oe for Cunico
to 5,500,000 gauss-Oe for Alnico VIII. The residual induction ranges from
3400 gauss for Cunico to 12,500 for Alnico V and the coercive force from
500 Oe for Cunife to 2000 for Alnico VIII. The permeance ratio ranges
from 3.5 for Alnico VIII to 20 for Alnico V. These alloys, therefore, offer a
considerable range of magnetic properties.
The magnetic properties of a single composition can be varied by
different methods of preparation. According to Fabian, 11 Alnico V produced
by powder metallurgy techniques has a residual induction of 10,500 gauss,
a coercive force of 600 Oe, and a maximum energy product of 3,500,000
gauss-Oe as contrasted with 12,500 gauss, 600 Oe, and 5,250,000 gauss-Oe,
respectively, for cast Alnico V.
Casting methods can also influence the magnetic properties. Alnico V
has a directionally oriented structure and a high maximum energy product.
Casting against a chill plate produces a structure having partially columnar
grains. This product, caIIed Alnico V-DG, has a maximum energy product
approximately 20 % higher than that of Alnico V. Going a step further, and
casting to produce a product having a fully columnar structure yields a
product, called Alnico V-7, which has the highest maximum energy product
obtainable in the Alnico V composition. Cooling from a high temperature in
a magnetic field is required to develop the optimum magnetic properties in
these modified alloys, just as it is for Alnico V.
The electrical resistivities of the Alnico alloys are much higher than
those of the copper-base alloy permanent magnets. Values range from 108
ohms/cir mil ft for Cunife to 450 for Alnico IV. The coefficients of expansion
of the Alnicos are quite close to those of many of the other nickel alloys.
Roberts 15 investigated the performance of Alnico V and Alnico VI
at elevated temperatures. He concluded that both materials could be used
up to temperatures of 900 F with no detriment to their magnetic prop-
erties.
Clegg 16 investigated the effects of low temperatures on the stability of
Alnico II, using magnets which were ellipsoids of revolution. He found that
N
8
Table 10-4. Physical Properties of Some Permanent Magnet All oys S,ll
Alnico IV Alnico V Alnico VI Alnico VIII Cunife I Cunico I

cast cast cast cast wrought wrought
Coefficient thermal expansion (68-572 F), per of 7.3 x 10- 6 6.3 X 10-6 6.3 X 10- 6 7.0X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity (77 F), ohms/cir mil ft 450 282 300 300 108 144
Residual induction (Bd), gauss 5,500 12,500 10,100 7,100 5,400 3,400
Coercive force (He), Oe 700 600 750 2,000 500 700
Max. energy product (BdHd)max, gauss-Oe 1.3 x 10 6 5.25 X 10 6 3.8 X 10 6 5.5 X 10 6 1.3 X 10 6 0.8 X 10 6
Bd at (BdHd)max, gauss 3,000 10,200 7,000 4,000 2,000
Permeance coefficient, B/H at (BdHd)max 20 12.5 3.5 12.3 5
Density, Ib/in. 3 0.253 0.265 0.268 0.265 0.311 0.300
(")
::T
10
"C
~
...
...o
there is a reversible change in magnetization on cooling from room tempera-

ture to -75 F. Magnetized ellipsoids with working points on the upper por-
tion of the demagnetization curve increase in strength on cooling and decrease
in strength on reheating with no change in domain orientation.
Limited mechanical properties of some permanent magnet materials
are given in Table 10_5. 5 ,11 Although the hardness values of the cast and
sintered powder metallurgy materials are quite close together, the tensile
strengths and transverse rupture strengths differ markedly. For example, the
tensile strength of sintered Alnico V is about ] 0 times that of the cast
product although they differ by only 6 points on the Rockwell C hardness
scale.
The copper alloys have excellent strength in the cold worked condition
and they are much softer than the Alnicos.
Table 10-5. Mechanical Properties of Some Permanent

Magnet All oys 5,11
Transverse
Tensile modulus of
strength, rupture, Rockwell
Form and condition ksi ksi hardness
Alnico IV
Cast, annealed 9.1 24 C45
Sintered 60 85 C42
Alnico V
Cast, annealed 5.5 10.5 C50
Sintered 50 C44
Alnico VI
Cast, annealed 23 45 C56
Sintered C44
Alnico VIII
Cast C57
Cunife I
Cold worked 100 B95
Cunico I
Cold worked 85 B73
202 Chapter 10
REFERENCES
1. S. Bouwman, "Magnetic materials," International Science and Technology, Dec. 1962,

p.20.
2. G. A. Stearley, "Magnetic materials," Materials & Methods, April 1953, p. 115.
(1968).
4. W. S. Eberly, "A guide to high-permeability nickel-iron alloys," Materials in Design
Engineering, July 1963, p. 76.
6. C. G. Smith, "Nickel alloys with special properties," Metal Industry 91, 145 (1957).
7. "Nickel-iron alloys effectively shield electronic devices," Nickel Topics 21 (6),1 (1968).
8. C. A. Maynard, "Factors in the selection of permanent magnet materials," Applied
Magnetics 1, (3), 2 (1953).
9. G. T. Barta, "Magnetic testing," Applied Mangetics 4(4),2 (1956).
10. Nickel-Containing Mangetic Materials, The International Nickel Co. Inc. (1961).
11. R. J. Fabian, "Permanent magnet materials," Materials in Design Engineering 50,
108 (July 1959).
12. Copper in Instrumentation, Publication No. 48, Copper Development Association,
London (1957).
13. J. L. Cooter and R. E. Mundy, "Cunife wire magnets of small size," J. Res. Nat. Bur.
Std. 59, 379 (1957).
14. "Printed circuit motors simplify servo devices," Nickel Topics 21(3), 12 (1968).
15. W. H. Roberts, "Performance of permanent magnets at elevated temperatures," J.
App\. Phys. 29, 405 (1958).
16. A. C. Clegg, "Effect of low temperature on the stability of permanent magnets," Brit.
J. App\. Phys. 6, 120 (1955).
Chapter 11
Other Nickel Alloys
The materials included in this chapter do not appear to fit logically into any
of the groups discussed in the preceding chapters. They consist of several
age hardenable nickel alloys, an intermetallic compound, and a PjM prod-
uct.
AGE-HARDENABLE NICKEL ALLOYS
These materials will be arbitrarily defined as nickel alloys containing

more than 90 % nickel to which additions have been made to confer age
hardening properties on the materials. Among these alloys are the following
which are called by their originators Permanickel alloy 300, Duranickel alloy
301, and Berylco Nickel 440.
Permanickel alloy 300, because of its carbon and magnesium content,
has mechanical properties that are considerably higher than those of com-
mercial nickel. Because of its relatively low alloy content, however, it retains
many of the general characteristics of nickel. !
Duranickel alloy 301 contains aluminum and titanium which make the
alloy age hardenable. It has excellent corrosion resistance, strength and
hardness, and good spring properties up to 600 F.!
Berylco Nickel 440, which is age hardenable as a result of its beryllium
and titanium content, has high strength and hardness and retains these prop-
erties up to 800 F. 2
Nominal compositions of these three alloys are:
Alloy Ni Ti Al Be Mg C
Permanickel alloy 300 97 min 0.2-0.6 0.2-0.5 0.40 max
Duranickel alloy 301 93 min 0.25-1.0 4.0-4.75
Berylco Nickel 440 Bal. 0.50 1.95
203
204 Chapter 11
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of the three alloys are given in Table 11_1. 1 ,2,3
Some of the physical properties of Permanickel alloy 300 are similar
to those of commercial nickel but others, which are more sensitive to impurity
content, are markedly different. Those approximating the properties of com-
mercial nickel are the specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, Curie
temperature, and the elastic properties. Reflecting the higher alloy content,
the electrical resistivity is considerably higher and the thermal conductivity
lower than those of commercial nickel. Precipitation of the constituents
which age harden the alloy results in some reduction in the resistivity of this
and the other two alloys under discussion, although the sources from which
the data in Table 11-1 were obtained did not indicate whether the resistivities
were given for annealed or aged material.
Duranickel alloy 301 has an electrical resistivity almost three times that
of alloy 300 and a correspondingly low thermal conductivity. The age
hardening of a solution-annealed specimen reduced the resistivity from 273
to 259 ohms/cir mil ft.4 This alloy also has a Curie temperature in the room-
temperature range as contrasted with 600 F for alloy 300. The other physical
properties are approximately the same as those of alloy 300.
Bery1co Nickel 440 has an electrical resistivity somewhat higher than
that of alloy 300 but much lower than that of alloy 301. Similarly, the ther-
Table 11-1. Physical Properties of Some Age- Hardenable

Nickel All oys l,2
Permanickel Duranickel Berylco

alloy 300 alloy 301 Nickel 440
Melting point, F 2620 2500-2620

Specific heat (70-212 F), BtujlbtF 0.106 0.104
Thermal conductivity (70 F), Btujhrjft2tFjft 33.3 13.8 18.3
per OF 8.4 x 10- 6 8.2 X 10- 6 8.0 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohmsjcir mil ft 95 259 144
Curie temperature, F 6()()a 60-12()a
Permeability (H = 2000e) 4.28-
Modulus of elasticity, ksi 30,000 30,000 27,000-30,000
Density,lbjin. 3 0.316 0.298 0.302
"Annealed.
Other Nickel Alloys 205
mal conductivity lies between those ofthe other two alloys. Limited additional
data on the physical properties indicate that the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion and the elastic properties are close to those of the other two alloys.
All three of the alloys can be aged hardened either from the annealed or
cold worked condition.
Tensile Properties. Ranges of tensile properties that can be expected

with these alloys in various conditions, with or without age hardening, are
given in Table 11_2.1,2 In the annealed or hot finished conditions, all three
materials have comparable strengths and ductilities.
If the data on Permanickel alloy 300 are compared with those of com-
mercial nickel, given in Chapter 2, it is apparent that even the relatively
small alloy additions have considerably increased the strength of alloy
300 with only a moderate effect on the ductility as measured by the elon-
gation.
By age hardening the hot finished bar of alloy 300, strength can be
increased from approximately 100 ksi to 180 ksi. Age hardening after cold
work is also effective in increasing the strength. Age' hardening reduces
the elongation but, even in the aged condition, the alloy retains adequate
ductility.
Duranickel alloy 301 has approximately the same tensile properties as
alloy 300 in the hot finished condition and also after age hardening. A sug-
gested heat treatment procedure for this material is: solution annealing at
1800 F for 1 hour, water quenching, aging at 1100 F for 16 hours, furnace
cooling to 1000 F, holding at that temperature for 6 hours, air cooling. The
effect of cold working on the tensile strength of alloy 301 is indicated in
Fig. 11-1.4 The strength is increased by approximately 50% by a cold reduc-
tion of 60 %and is more than doubled if the cold working is followed by age
hardening.
Berylco Nickel 440 is somewhat stronger and less ductile than the other
two materials in the solution-annealed condition although all three are quite
close together in this condition. In the aged condition, alloy 440 appears to be
considerably stronger and much less ductile than the other materials. The
producer supplies the alloy in four heat treatable tempers: solution annealed,
1/4 hard, 1/2 hard, and full hard. 2 The suggested age hardening treatments
and their designations are:
206 Chapter 11
240
220
200
'in
.::.c.
180
£
CJl
c
CI>
.....
(/j 160
~
in
c 140
~
120
100
80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cold Reduction, %
Fig. 11-1. Effect of cold work and age hardening of the tensile
strength of alloy 301. 4
Initial temper Aging cycle Aged temper

A Ii hours at 950 F AT
1/4H I~ hours at 950 F 1/4HT
1/2H Ii hours at 925 F 1/2HT
H Ii hours at 925 F HT
If intermediate solution anneals are required to permit further working,
the producer suggests that they be made at 1825 F.
Cold rolling of alloy 440, followed by age hardening, yields much higher
strengths than are achieved in the other two alloys by aging after cold work.
However, the ductility is reduced by this treatment.
Hardness. Hardness values for the three alloys are included also in
Table 11-2. In Permanickel alloy 300, the Brinell hardness ranges from 140
in the hot finished condition to 360 after aging from that condition. Aging
Table 11-2. Tensile Properties and Hardness Values of Some Age-Hardenable Nickel Alloys\,2,4 0
::r
CD
....
Yield strength Tensile Elongation Hardness
(0.2 % offset), strength, (2 in.), z
Cj'
Form and condition ksi ksi Brinell Rockwell ;I<'
% !!.
Permanickel alloy 300 ~
Hot finished 35-65 90-120 40-25 140-230 0'
<1/1
Hot finished, age hardened 120-150 160-200 20-10 285-360
Cold drawn 50-130 90-150 35-15 185-300
Cold drawn, age hardened 120-150 150-190 20-10 300-380
Duranickel alloy 301
Rod and bar
Hot finished 35-90 90-130 55-30 140-240 B75-C22
Hot finished, age hardened 115-150 160-200 30-15 300-375 C32-42
Cold drawn 60-130 110-150 35-15 185-300 B9O-C40
Cold drawn, age hardened 125-175 170-210 25-15 300-380 C32-42
Strip
Annealed 35-60 90-120 50-30 B90 max.
Annealed, age hardened 160-190 25-10 C30-40
Half hard 130-155 15-3 C25-34
Half hard, age hardened 170-210 20-7 C33-42
Spring temper 155-190 10-2 C30-40
Spring temper, age hardened 180-230 15-5 C36-46
Berylco Nickel 440
Solution-annealed (cond. A) 40-70 95-130 30 min. B70-95
Solution-annealed, age hardened (AT)a 150 min. 215 min. 12 min. C47 min.
Half hard (lH) 115--170 130-175 4 min. C22-32
Half hard, age hardened (~HT)a 200 min. 245 min. 9 min. C49min.
Hard (H) 150-190 155-195 1 min. C30-40
Hard, age hardened (HT)b 230 min. 270 min. 8 min. C51 min. N
C)
....
"Age hardened 1.5 hr at 950.F. bAge hardened 1.5 hr at 925 F.
208 Chapter 11
after cold drawing increases the maximum hardness to a limited degree.

Duranickel alloy 301 has similar hardness properties. Here again, Berylco
Nickel 440 can be aged to considerably higher hardness values from either the
solution-annealed or cold worked conditions.
Fatigue Properties. Limited fatigue properties for two of the alloys are
given in Table 11_3. 2 ,4 The endurance ratio of Duranickel alloy 301 is con-
siderably lower in the age hardened condition than in the unaged condition,
Table 11-3. Fatigue Properties of Some Age- Hardenable

Nickel All oys 2,4
Tensile Fatigue strength Endurance

strength, (ksi) at ratio
Condition ksi 10 8 cycles ratio
Duranickel alloy 301

Cold drawn 120 46.2 0.38
Cold drawn, age hardened· 184 55.4 0.30
Hot rolled, annealed b 101 45 0.45
Hot rolled, annealed, age hardened c 162 48.5 0.30
Bery\co Nickel 440
Solution-annealed, age hardened (AT)d 230 95 e 0.41
aAged 1100 F, 16 hr, furnace cooled to 1000 F, 6 hr, air cooled.

"Annealed 1725 F, 1/4 hr, water quenched.
'Annealed 1725 F, 1/4 hr, water quenched, aged 1100 F, 16 hr, furnace cooled to 1000 F, 6 hr, air cooled.
dAged 1.5 hr, 950 F.
el07 cycles.
regardless of whether the material was aged after hot rolling or after cold
drawing. No data were available for Berylco Nickel 440 in the unaged con-
dition. The ratios for both alloys are in line with those of other nickel-base
alloys.
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of Duranickel alloy
301 and Berylco Nickel 440 are given in Fig. 11-2 and 11_3. 2 ,4 Both alloys
retain much of their room-temperature strength up to temperatures of about
800 F but above that temperature strength decreases rapidly. In both alloys,
the elongation decreases initially to a minimum at about 900 F for alloy 301
and at about 1100 F for alloy 440. Above these temperatures there is a sharp
increase within a relatively short temperature range.
The fatigue strength of Berylco Nickel 440 is reported to be .65 ksi at 10 7
cycles at 800 F compared with 95 ksi at room temperature. 2
All three of these alloys are used extensively as spring materials for
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100
200 r-r----r----r----r-~
160
'U5 120
-""
If)
If)
Q)
c::
~ 80 80N
40 E
o 400 800 1200 1600

Temperature, F

properties of alloy 301 in the hot rolled and aged
condition. 4
Temperature, K
300 500 700 900 1100
240r-r----r--r--r--n
200
160 Y.S.
'U5
-""
~
lil20
Q)
60
...... ~
(iJ c::
N
80 40 c::
.Q
"0
40 20 go
W
o 0
o 400 800 1200 1600
Temperature, F
properties of Nickel 440 strip in the annealed and aged
(AT) condition. 2
210 Chapter 11
elevated-temperature service. They are reported to have excellent fatigue

properties and corrosion resistance and can be used as follows: Permanickel
alloy 300 to 600 F, Duranickel alloy 301 to 650 F, and Berylco Nickel 440 to
700 F.6
The proportional limit, moduli of elasticity and rigidity, and resistance
to relaxation are the properties which influence the selection of materials for
the design of springs for elevated-temperature service, according to Moeller. 6
Although he gave no specific data, he suggested that design stresses based
on the stress required to produce 5 % relaxation in 7 days in coil springs
be 70 ksi for metal temperatures up to 600 F for alloys 300 and 301 in spring
temper, up to 1/2 inch in diameter, cold coiled and aged after coiling. For
similar material and sizes, hot rolled and hot coiled before aging, the design
stress would be 70 ksi for temperatures up to 550 F and 60 ksi from 550 to
650 F.

Martin and MilIer 7 reported the effects of subzero temperatures on the
tensile properties of Berylco Nickel 440 in both the un aged and aged condi-
tions. Some of their data on the aged condition are given in Fig. 11-4. The
tensile strength increases moderately as the temperature is reduced. Similar
effects were found regardless of whether the material was in the solution
250 300
360
320
-
·Vi
.:£
£ T. S. (A T)
0.
c::: 280
a.>
"-
(j)
- 60
~
c:::-
0
a.> 240 40 +-
0
0'
Vi c:::
c::: 0
a.>
-
200 E (AT) w
I-'- 20
~ E(1/2HT)
160 L...-.l.-_-!......_-I...._-I..._--'-_---' 0
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-4. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of Nickel 440.7
Temperature, K
120 50 100 150 200
100
.c- 80
u
"0
c
2: 60
ti
o
0..
1; 40
>.
0..
o"-
<5 20
O'----J.....----'---I...-_-'-_.....J
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-5. Subzero-temperature impact properties of
nickel 440 plate (overaged, 1300 F, 8 hr; aged 950 F,
1.5 hr).2
annealed (A) or annealed and age hardened (AT) condition. Material in the
Icold worked (-~H) and cold worked and age hardened (~HT) conditions also
showed similar strengthening effects. There was no significant change in the
elongation at temperatures down to -400 F in these materials regardless of
condition.
The limited data available on the low-temperature impact properties
indicate that Berylco Nickel 440 shows no change from ductile to brittle
behavior at temperatures as low as -300 F even in the age hardened condi-
tion. Figure 11-5 gives the expected range of Charpy V-notch impact values
for this material as aged for maximum strength (condition AT, tensile strength
225 ksi) and as overaged to attain the maximum impact properties. 2 In the
latter condition, the tensile strength is 151 ksi.
CAST BERYLLIUM-NICKEL ALLOYS
The addition of 2 to 3 % beryllium to nickel yields alloys that can be

cast readily and age hardened to high strengths. The alloys have good casting
212 Chapter 11
characteristics and can be poured into sand or permanent molds, but the most
effective method is investment casting. 8
Castings can be produced to close tolerances and machined by con-
ventional techniques. In the solution-annealed condition, the 2.3 % beryl-
lium alloy has a machinability rating of 65 (that of cast iron is 100).
According to Wikle,8 beryllium-nickel alloys can be melted in induc-
tion, indirect arc, and gas-fired furnaces using magnesia or zirconia as the
refractory. Pouring temperatures range from 2500 to 2600 F, depending on
the size of the casting, the detail, and the mold temperature. Details of a
recommended casting procedure are included in Wikle's article.
The alloys are used as hot work tool materials in such applications as
compression molds for plastics and glass mold components.
There are a number of beryllium-nickel casting alloys but two will be
used to indicate the properties to be expected. These are Type 220C contain-
ing 2.0 to 2.3 % beryllium-balance nickel and Type 260C, with 2.55 to 2.8 %
beryllium-balance nickel.
Physical Properties
Limited physical properties of the two alloys are given in Table 11_4. 8,9
The thermal conductivities and coefficients of thermal expansion are quite
close to those of the wrought beryllium-nickel alloy discussed previously.
Table 11-4. Properties of Two Beryllium-Nickel All oys 8,9
Type 220C Type 260C

Physical properties
Melting range, F 2100-2300
Thermal conductivity, Btu/hr/ft 2 /oF/ft
at 100 F 22 19.6
at 1200 F 33 30.S
Coefficient of thermal expansion, per OF
6S-200F 7.5 X 10- 6
6S-S00F S.2 X 10- 6
6S-1200F 9.2 X 10- 6
Density,lb/in. 3 0.292
Mechanical propertiesa
Yield strength (0.2 % offset), ksi 170 224
Tensile strength, ksi ISO 242
Elongation (2 in.), % 1.5 1
Rockwell hardness C50 C56
·Solution annealed 1950 F, 1 hr, water quenched, aged 950 F, 3 hr.

The alloys are hardened by solution annealing at 1950 F and aging at
950 F. Properties of the two beryllium-nickel alloys in the age hardened
condition are given also in Table 11-4. The effect of increasing the beryllium
content on the tensile properties is apparent. Type 260C has a tensile strength
of 242 ksi compared with 180 ksi for Type 220C. These properties are rela-
tively close to those of the wrought alloy after aging from the solution-
annealed condition. The ductility, as measured by the elongation, however,
is much lower in the castings than in the wrought products. The hardness
achieved by aging the castings is practically the same as that of the wrought
alloy after aging from the solution-annealed condition.
NITINOL
An investigation into the properties of intermetallic compounds at the

United States Naval Ordinance Laboratory disclosed that the compound
containing 50 atomic per cent nickel and 50 atomic per cent titanium, cor-
responding approximately to 55 weight per cent nickel, had unusual proper-
ties. This compound was given the name Nitinol and, according to Buehler
and Wiley, 1 0 had a single-phase body-centered cubic structure with good
room-temperature ductility. Later work has shown that Nitinol undergoes a
martensitic phase transformation near room temperature. 11
One result of this transformation is the fact that this material has an
"elastic memory," a property usually associated with certain plastics and,
as far as is known at present, unique among metallic materials. According to
Wagner and Jackson 12 this "memory" or shape recovery results from a rever-
sible stress-induced martensitic transformation. Below the transformation
temperature the material is ductile and can be deformed plastically under
relatively low stresses. If the strain is limited to about 8 %, highly efficient
recovery is possible.
For example, a section of a mill form of Nitinol (wire, tube, sheet, etc.)
can be formed to the desired shape, clamped to prevent movement, and given
a memory heat treatment, for example, at 900 F. After cooling, under
restraint, the shape can be changed as desired. Then a restorative heat treat-
ment can be given in the range -60 to 300 F, the exact temperature depend-
ing on the processing history. Upon cooling to ambient temperature, the
original shape will be restored. 12
According to Rozner and Wasilewski 13 Nitinol can be hot worked read-
ily by extrusion, rolling, or swaging at temperatures in the range llOO to
214 Chapter 11
1650 F. Subsequent rolling to strip and wire drawing can be carried out at
about 750 F.
Physical Properties
Typical physical properties of Nitinol below the transformation tempera-
ture for all properties except thermal expansion are given in Table 11_5. 10 ,13
Some interesting comparisons can be made with more familiar materials.
Thus, the elastic properties are similar to those of aluminum alloys whereas
the coefficient of thermal expansion is about 60 % of that of the 80 % nickel-
20 % chromium alloy over the same range. The electrical resistivity is quite
close to that of the 36% nickel-balance iron alloy.
Table 11-5. Physical Properties of Nitinopo,I3
Melting range, F ................................................ 2265-2390

Coefficient of thermal expansion (75-1050 F), per of ................ 5.8 X 10- 6
Electrical resistivity, ohms/cir mil ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Magnetic permeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <1.002
Modulus of elasticity, ksi ........................................ 10,100
Modulus of rigidity, ksi .......................................... 3,800
Poisson's ratio .................................................. 0.31
Density, Ib/in. 3 •••••••• •••• •••••••••••••••••• .••.•••••• •••••. •••• 0.233
According to Hanlon et a/. II the electrical resistivity of the high-tem-

perature modification is 493 ohms/cir mil ft whereas that of the low-tem-
perature modification is 457. For comparison, these resistivities had been
converted to a constant temperature.
The compound is paramagnetic, having a very low and constant per-
meability in the range - 320 to 1000 F.I °
Some room temperature mechanical properties of Nitinol are given in
Table 11_6. 10 ,12 The form of the material was not stated and no indication
of whether the materials were in the low- or high-temperature modification
was included. Since transformation occurs close to room temperature, these
data are merely indicative of the properties that can be expected of this
compound.
The data indicate, however, that Nitinol has good strength properties
and fair ductility as measured by the elongation. The type of impact test was
not specified. The fatigue strength appears to be very good in relation to
the tensile properties.
Table 11-6. Mechanical Properties of Nitinol'°,12
Yield strength (0.2 % offset), ksi ........................ 33-81

Tensile strength, ksi .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 82-140
Elongation (2 in.), % .................................. 10
Rockwell hardness .................................... A65-68
Impact resistance, ft-Ib a ••••••••.••••.•..•...•.•......•. 24
Fatigue strength (25 X 10 6 cycles), ksi .................. 70
"Type of test not given.
The short-time elevated-temperature tensile properties of Nitinol in the

normalized condition are given in Fig. 11-6. 13 The tensile strength falls
regularly as the temperature increases, but the yield strength passes through
a maximum at about 400 F. The ductility, as measured by the elongation,
increases at a relatively low rate up to about 700 F but above this tempera-
ture the rate increases abruptly.
The low-temperature tensile properties of the material are indicated in
Fig. 11-7,13 Both tensile and yield strength increase uniformly as the tem-
~
.iii
..:<: c-
vl 0
en
(j)
~
'"6
Ol
(f) C
0
W
o 1600
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-6. Short-time elevated temperature tensile
properties of Nitinol. l 3
216 Chapter 11
Temperature,K
50 100 150 200 250 300
160
140
120
100
Ul
.¥.
80 80
ul
Ul
~
(jj E
60 60
~
c~
0
40 40 B
0>
C
0
20 20 w
0 0
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100
Temperature, F
Fig. 11-7. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of Ni-
tinol. 13
perature is reduced. The elongation remains fairly constant down to about

-150 F but below that temperature decreases rather rapidly.
According to Buehler and Wiley,! 0 the impact resistance of Nitinol is
about 25 % greater at -112 F than it is at room temperature.
In reviewing the effects of temperature on the mechanical properties,
Rozner and Tydings!3 note that at temperatures above about 1100 F, the
compound is highly ductile, has a low yield strength, low work hardening rate,
and high strain rate sensitivity. At temperatures between 70 and 1100 F the
yield strength is temperature dependent and work hardening increases rapidly
with falling temperatures. At temperatures below 70 F, Nitinol shows con-
siderable ductility which they ascribe to a martensitic transformation oc-
curring at a temperature of about 150 F.
TUNGSTEN-NICKEL P/M PRODUCTS
Powder metallurgy procedures are used in the production of tungsten-

base compositions, which have been called Heavy Metal because of their high
densities. In the production of these P 1M parts, tungsten, nickel, and copper
powders were used in the early stages of development.
Tungsten is insoluble in liquid copper but nickel can dissolve about
45 % by weight at 2725 F.15 The solubility decreases as the temperature is
reduced. According to Green et al. 16 , copper can be used to reduce the solu-
bility of tungsten in nickel. For example, by the use of a ratio of 3 parts nickel
to 1 part copper, the solubility can be reduced to about 27 % at 2590 F.
Taking advantage of this relationship, the original commercial alloys
contained about 90 % tungsten, 7.5 % nickel, and 2.5 % copper. Many modi-
fications have been made of this composition. These are usually proprietary
and the actual composition is seldom given.
Although there are various techniques which can be used in the produc-
tion of Heavy Metal, the following is representative. A mixture of metal
powders such as tungsten, nickel, copper, and iron with a paraffin wax binder
is compacted into the desired form and presintered at about 1525 F in a
hydrogen atmosphere for periods up to 16 hours. During presintering, the
wax melts and the part becomes sufficiently hard to be machinable although
it is still in the "green state." The compact is then sintered at 2650 F in a
hydrogen atmosphere for periods of 12 to 14 hours. During sintering, the
nickel, copper, and iron melt and alloy with the tungsten and, at the same
time, the part shrinks by as much as 20 % with a corresponding increase in
density.17
Tungsten-base alloys of the type under discussion are machinable and
can be readily drilled, tapped and threaded, milled and turned. They can be
joined by soft soldering or brazing. I 8
These alloys are used as counterweights for aircraft control surfaces,
balancing of flywheels and crankshafts, gyroscope parts, vibration damping,
electrical contacts, radiation shielding, and containers for radioactive mate-
rials.
Physical Properties
Limited physical properties of severa' Heavy .rvH~tal compositions are
given in Table 11_7.16,17,18,19 With densities of the order of 17 g/cm3, these
alloys have almost twice the density of nickel. They can be produced in
a range of densities by modification of the processing variables. They have
low coefficients of expansion and the modulus of elasticity is much higher
218 Chapter 11
Table 11-7. Properties of Some Tungsten-Nickel

P/M Products
90W, 90W, 90W, W, Ni,

6 Ni, Ni, 7 Ni, Cu,
Composition 4Cu Cu 3 Fe Fe
Physical properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion, per of 3.3 x 10- 6 3.0 X 10- 6 •
Electrical conductivity, % lACS 14 15
Density, g/cm 3 17 16.85 17 17
Yield strength (0.2% offset), ksi 75 95 85 b
Tensile strength, ksi 110 94 min. 125 93
Elongation (2 in.), % 6 2 12
Rockwell hardness C30 C32 290 c
°68 to 790 F. .Yield point. cBrineli.
than those of the other nickel alloys discussed previously. Their electrical
conductivities are quite low.
Tensile properties and hardness values for these materials are included
also in Table 11-7. They are quite strong and hard but the ductility is rather
low.
According to Green et al. 16 one of the disadvantages of the tungsten-
nickel-copper system is its sensitivity to cooling rate. They note that the 90 %
tungsten-7.5% nickel-2.5% copper alloy after slow cooling has a tensile
strength of 56 ksi and an elongation of less than I %, whereas rapid cooling
yields a tensile strength of 90 ksi with an elongation of 1 to 2 %. They mention
that the purpose of modifying the alloy by replacing part of the nickel and
copper by other elements is to overcome this sensitivity to cooling rate. The
90 % tungsten-7 % nickel-3 % iron alloy which they developed has a tensile
strength of 59 ksi with an elongation of 19 % after slow cooling and a tensile
strength of 54 ksi with an elongation of 7 % after rapid cooling.
REFERENCES
1. Handbook of Huntington Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The Interna-

tional Nickel Co., Inc. (1968).
2. Berylco Nickel 440 Strip, Tech. Bull. 1105-C, Beryllium Corporation, n.d.
4. Huntington Nickel Alloys, Huntington Alloy Products Division, The International

5. R. W. Carson, "Flat spring materials" Product Engineering March 1, 1965, p. 68.
6. R. H. Moeller, "High nickel alloys for high-temperature springs," Springs Magazine,
October 1965, p. 12.
7. H. L. Martin and P. C. Miller, Effects of Low Temperatures on the Mechanical Prop-
erties of Structural Materials, NASA SP-5012 (01), 1968.
8. K. C. Wikle, "Characteristics and properties of beryllium-nickel alloys," Foundry
90,50 (Dec. 1962).
9. "Beryllium-nickel alloy extends life of glass mold components," Nickel Topics 18(2),
5 (1965).
10. W. J. Buehler and R. C. Wiley, The Properties of TiNi and Associated Phases, U. S.
Naval Ordinance Lab. Tech. Report 61-75, 1961.
11. J. L. Hanlon, S. R. Butler, and R. J. Wasilewski, "Effect of martensitic transformation
on the electrical and magnetic properties of TiNi," Trans. Met. Soc. AIME 239, 1323
(1967).
12. H. J. Wagner and C. M. Jackson, "What you can do with that 'memory' alloy,"
Materials Engineering, October 1969, p. 28.
13. A. G. Rozner and R. J. Wasilewski, "Tensile properties of NiAI and NiTi," J. Inst.
Met. 94, 169 (1966).
14. S. Spinner and A. G. Rozner, "Elastic properties of NiTi as a function of tempera-
ture," J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 40, 1009 (1966).
15. M. Hansen, Constitution of Binary Alloys, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1958).
16. E. C. Green, D. S. Jones, and W. R. Pitkin, "Development of high-density alloys,"
Symposium on Powder Metallurgy, 1954, Iron and Steel Institute (1956), p. 253.
17. "Heavy alloy in full production," Engineering 177, 670 (1954).
18. Heavy Alloy, Tech. Information Bull. Sylvania Electric Products, Inc. (1969).
19. K. Rose, "High-density alloys for heavy-weight applications," Materials and Methods,
April 1953, p. 86.
Appendix I
Trademarks
A number of alloys discussed in this publication are marketed under

trademarks.
Trademark Owner
Alumel Hoskins Manufacturing Company
AM 350 Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation
AM 355 Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation
Chromel Hoskins Manufacturing Company
Duranickel The International Nickel Company, Inc
Hastelloy Union Carbide Corporation
HNM Carpenter Steel Company
Illium Stainless Foundry and Engineering, Inc.
Incoloy The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Inconel The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Invar Soc. Anon. de Commentry-Fourchambault et Decaziville
(Acieries d'Imphy)
Iso-Elastic John Chatillon & Sons
Mar-M200 The Martin Company
MAR-M246 The Martin Company
Monel The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Nimonic The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Ni-Span C The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Ni-Span Hi The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Permanickel The International Nickel Company, Inc.
Rene 41 Allvac Metals Corporation (Division of Teledyne)
PHI5-7Mo Armco Steel Corporation
17-4PH Armco Steel Corporation
221
222 Appendix I
17-7PH Armco Steel Corporation

17-lOP Armco Steel Corporation
17-14CuMo Armco Steel Corporation
Stainless W United States Steel Corporation
Udimet 500 Special Metals Corporation
Waspaloy United Aircraft Corporation
Appendix II
Conversion Factors and Symbols
The use of the International System of Units (SI), a modernized version of

the metric system, is being advocated both in the United States and abroad.
Although use of the system is just starting in the United States, some of the
new units are appearing, particularly in European publications, and there-
fore units most applicable to this book are included in the conversion fac-
tors which follow. A full discussion of the SI system can be found in "Metric
Practice Guide," Designation E 380, ASTM Standards, Part 30 or in ASTM
Metric Practice Guide, Handbook 102, National Bureau of Standards, which
is available from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
For readers of this publication, the principal change from the more
familiar cgs system is the use of the newton as a unit of force, replacing the
kilogram (force). In the SI system, for example, the tensile strength is express-
ed in meganewtons per square meter, MNjm2. In addition, temperatures are
expressed in degrees Kelvin rather than in degrees Celsius (formerly centi-
grade). The Kelvin and Celsius temperature intervals are identical and a
Kelvin temperature can be obtained by adding 273.15 to the Celsius tempera-
ture.
Conversion Factors
Multiply by to obtain
Specific heat
BtujlbtF caljgtK
Thermal conductivity
Btujhrjft2tFjft 0.00413 caljsecjcm 2 tKjcm
Btujhrjft2tFjft 0.0173 wattsjcmtK
Btujhrjft2tFjft 1.73 wattsjmtK*
223
224 Appendix II
Thermal expansion
Coefficient per of 1.8 coefficienWK
Electrical resistivity
ohms/cir mil ft 0.16624 microhm-cm
Density
Ib/in. 3 27.68
Stress units
ksi 6.8948 MN/mZ*
ksi 0.7031 kgf/mm2t
Temperature Conversion
Fahrenheit to Kelvin IK = (IF + 459.67)/1.8
Fahrenheit to Celsius te = (tF - 32)/1.8
Symbols
The following symbols have been used in the graphs:
Ann. Annealed
C.D. Cold drawn
C.W. Cold worked
E Elongation
H.R. Hot rolled
Mod E Modulus of elasticity
ModR Modulus of rigidity
RofA Reduction of area
T.S. Tensile strength
Y.S. Yield strength (unspecified)
Y.S.O.2% Yield strength (0.2 % offset)
Y.S.O.5% Yield strength (0.5 % extension under load)
* SI unit.
t SI unit. To distinguish between mass and force or load, the former is designated kg
(for example) and the latter kgf in the SI system.
Index
A-286 see Stainless steels Controlled-expansion alloys

Age-hardenable alloys 34, 44, 49, 61, 68, High expansion 183
71,82,112,143,183,185,197,203 Low expansion 175
AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) Controlled-expansion alloys (specific types)
32, 129 36% Ni-BaI. Fe 177,179,180,181,182
Alloy Casting Institute 71,151 42 % Ni-BaI. Fe 177, 179
Alloy 713C see Nickel-base superalloys 49% Ni-BaI. Fe 177, 179
Alnico see Magnetic materials Ni-Span Hi 183, 184
Alumel see Thermocouple alloys Constant-modulus alloys 185
AM 350 see Stainless steels Constant-modulus alloys (specific types)
AM 355 see Stainless steels Elinvar 185, 186
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Iso-Elastic 185, 186, 188, 189, 190
Materials) 14, 222 Ni-Span C 185,186,188,189,190,191
Conversion factors 222
Berylco nickel 440 see Beryllium-nickel Copper-base nickel alloys see Copper-
alloys . nickel alloys, Nickel silvers
Beryllium-copper-nickel see Copper-nick- Copper Development Association 100,
el alloy CA 966 112, 114
Beryllium-nickel alloys 203, 211 Copper-nickel alloys
Beryllium-nickel alloys (specific types) Cast III
Berylco Nickel 440 203, 204, 205, 206 Wrought 100
208,210, 21l Copper-nickel alloys (specific types)
220C 212,2l3 CA 706 101,102,103,105,108,111
260C 212,213 CA 710 101,102, 103, 105
Boiling point 10 CA 715 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 110
CA 962 112, 114
Chromel P see Thermocouple alloys CA 963 112, 114
Coefficient of thermal expansion 10, 26, CA 964 112, \14
28, 34, 45, 47, 54, 56, 60, 72, 74, CA 966 112, \14
86, 95, 102, 113, 116, 124, 126, Copper-Nickel, 10% 105, 109; see also
132, 145, 154, 162, 172, 177, 187, CA 706
194,200,204,212,214,218 Copper-Nickel,20% 105,110, Ill; see
Coercive force 194, 200 also CA 710
Conductivity see Electrical conductivity, Copper-Nickel,30% 104,105,106,107,
Thermal conductivity 108, 110, 111; see also CA 715
Constantan see Thermocouple alloys 90-10 Copper-Nickel see CA 962
225
226 Index
Copper-nickel alloys (cont.) HNM see Stainless steels

70-30 Copper-Nickel 114; see also CA
964
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys see Nickel IlIium alloys see Nickel---<:hromium-molyb-
silvers denum alloys
Creep properties 20, 41, 66, 77, 121, 139, Impact properties
148, 155, 182 Ambient temperature 18, 26, 27, 38,
Cunico see Magnetic materials 45,49, 55, 56, 65, 73, 77, 106, 124,
Cunife see Magnetic materials 127, 138, 148, 153, 180, 196, 214
Curie temperature 10, 34, 60, 74, 177, Low temperature 42,45, 53, 70, 71, 93,
194, 204 111, 121, 143, 150, 155, 169, 182,
191,210,216
Density 10, 28, 34, 45, 47, 54, 56, 60, 72, IN-l00 see Nickel-base superalloys
74, 86,95, 102, 113, 116, 124, 132, Incoloy alloys see Nickel-iron---<:hromium
145, 154, 162, 172, 177, 187,- 194, alloys
200,204,212,214, 218 Inconel alloys see Nickel---<:hromium alloys
Duranickel alloy 301 203, 204, 205, 206, International system of units 222
208,210 Irradiation, neutron 19
ISA (Instrument Society of America) code
Electrical conductivity 113, 124, 126, 218 symbols for thermocouples 169
Electrical resistance alloys 159 Iso-Elastic see Constant-modulus alloys
Electrical resistance alloys (specific types)
35-20 160, 161, 163, 165, 167 M-252 see Nickel-base superalloys
55-45 160, 161, 165, 166, 168 Magnetic materials
60-15 160, 161, 163, 165, 167 Definitions 192, 196
75-20 160, 161, 165 Permanent 196
80-20 160, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168 Soft 193
Nickel-silicon 160, 161, 165 Magnetic materials (specific types)
Electrical resistivity 10, 26, 28, 45, 47, 54, Alnico I 198
56,60,72, 86, 102, 116, 132, 145, Alnico II 198
154, 162, 172, 177, 187, 194, 200, Alnico III 198
204,214 Alnico IV 198, 199,201
Elinvar see Constant-modulus alloys Alnico V 198, 199, 201
Electromotive force versus copper 163 Alnico VI 198, 199, 201
Emissivity 13 Alnico VII 198
Energy product see Maximum energy Alnico VIII 198, 199, 201
product Alnico IX 198
Alnico XII 198
Fatigue properties Cunico I 198, 199, 201
Ambient temperature 18, 38, 64, 76, Cunife I 198, 199,201
105, 117, 124, 135, 165, 180, 208, 49Ni 194, 195, 196
214 Mu-Metal 194, 195
Elevated temperature 51, 208 79Ni-4Mo 194, 195, 196
Low temperature 24,42, 143 Magnetostriction 12
MAR-M200 see Nickel-base superalloys
GMR-235D see Nickel-base superalloys MAR-M246 see Nickel-base superalloys
Maximum energy product 200
Hardness 16,26,27,28,37,45,48,55, 56, Mechanical properties
64, 73, 76, 97, 103, 112, 117, 124, Beryllium-nickel alloys 206, 213
127, 135, 148, 153, 165, 180, 184, Constant-modulus alloys 188, 190, 191
188, 195, 201, 206, 212, 214, 217 Controlled-expansion alloys 179, 181,
Hastelloy alloys see Nickel-molybdenum 182, 184
alloys, Nickel-silicon alloys Copper-nickel alloys 102, 106, 109,
Heavy metal see Tungsten-nickel P/M 114
parts Duranickel alloy 301 205
Index 227
Mechanical properties (cont.) Nickel recovery 5

Electrical resistance alloys 165, 166, Nickel reserves 3
168 Nickel-base corrosion- and heat-resistant
Magnetic materials 205, 208, 210, 213, alloys 32, 58
214,218 Nickel-base superalloys
Nickel 13, 19, 23, 25, 29 Cast 94
Nickel-base superalloys 88, 89, 91, 96 Range of l00-hour rupture strength 83
Nickel--chromium alloys 61, 66, 70 Wrought 84
Nickel--chromium-molybdenum alloys Nickel-base superalloys (specific types)
54 Alloy 713C 94, 95, 97, 98
Nickel--copper alloys 48, 50, 51, 54 GMR-2350 94, 95, 97, 98
Nickel-iron--chromium alloys 75, 77,79 IN-loo 94,95,97, 98
Nickel-molybdenum alloys 48, 50, 51, M-252 84, 85, 88, 89, 91
54 MAR-M2oo 94, 95, 97, 98
Nickel-silicon alloys 57 MAR-M246 94, 95, 97, 98
Nickel silvers 117, 120, 121, 123, 125, Rene 41 84, 85, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93
127 TO Nickel 84,85,88,89,91,92,93
Nitinol 214 Udimet 500 84, 85, 88, 89, 91
Permanickel alloy 300 205 Waspaloy 84, 85, 88, 89, 91, 92
Stainless steels 133, 138, 141, 146, 148, Nickel--chromium alloys
150, 153, 155, 157 Cast 71
Thermocouple alloys 173 Wrought 58
Tungsten-nickel P/M parts 218 Nickel--chromium alloys (specific types)
Melting point 10, 26, 34, 45, 47, 56, 60, HW 71,72, 152
72,74,86,95, 102, 113, 116, 124, HX 71, 72, 152
132, 154, 162, 172, 177, 184, 187, Inconel alloy 600 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65,
194, 204, 212, 214 66, 67, 68, 69, 70
Metal Powder Industries Federation 125, Inconel alloy 601 59, 60, 61, 65
157 Inconel alloy 610 71, 72
Modulus of elasticity 10, 26, 28, 34, 45, Inconel alloy 625 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66,
47,54,56,60,72, 74, 86, 95, 102, 67,68
113, 116, 124, 126, 132, 145, 154, Inconel alloy 705 71,72
162,172,177,184,187,194,204, Inconel alloy 718 59,60, 61, 62, 65, 66,
214,218 67, 68, 69, 70
Modulus of rigidity 10, 34, 60, 74, 86, 102, Inconel alloy X750 59, 60, 61, 62, 65,
116, 132, 145, 162, 172, 177, 187, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70
194, 204, 214 Nickel--chromium-molybdenum alloys 53
Modulus of rupture 127,201 Nickel--chromium-molybdenum alloys
Monel alloys see Nickel--copper alloys (specific types)
Mu-Metal see Magnetic materials IIlium B 53, 55
Illium G 53, 54, 55
Neutron irradiation 19 Illium 98 53, 55
Nickel Nickel--copper alloys
Cast 24 Cast 44
Effect of impurities 8 Wrought 33
Mechanical properties 13, 19, 23, 25, Nickel--copper alloys (specific types)
27,29 Monel alloy 400 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40,
Physical properties 9,25,29 41,42,43
Powder 26 Monel alloy 404 33, 34, 35, 36
Wrought 8 Monel alloy R405 33, 35, 36, 38
Nickel deposits 2 Monel alloy 410 44,45
Nickel developments 4 Monel alloy K-5oo 33, 34, 35, 36, 39,
Nickel ores 2 40,41,43,44
Nickel producers 4 Monel alloy 505 44, 45
Nickel production 4 Nickel-iron--chromium alloys 73
228 Index
Nickel-iron---<:hromium alloys (specific types) Physical properties (cont.)

Incoloy alloy 800 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 Duranickel alloy 301 204
Incoloy alloy 804 74, 75, 77, 78 Electrical resistance alloys 161
Incoloy alloy 825 74, 75, 77, 79 Magnetic materials 194, 199
Nickel-molybdenum alloys Nickel 9, 25, 29
Cast 53 Nickel-base superalloys 85, 94
Wrought 47 Nickel---<:hromium alloys 61,71
Nickel-molybdenum alloys (specific types) Nickel---<:hromium-molybdenum alloys
Hastelloy alloy B 47,48,49, 50, 51, 52, 54
53, 55 Nickel---<:opper alloys 34, 44
Hastelloy alloy C 47,48,49, 50, 51, 53, Nickel-iron---<:hromium alloys 74
55 Nickel-molybdenum alloys 47
Hastelloy alloy N 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 55 Nickel-silicon alloys 56
Hastelloy alloy X 47,48,49,50,51,53, Nickel silvers 115, 123, 127
55 Nitinol 214
Nickel-silicon alloys 56, 160 Permanickel alloy 300 204
Hastelloy alloy D 56 Stainless steels 133, 146, 152
Nickel silvers Thermocouple alloys 171
Cast 122 Tungsten-nickel P/M parts 217
Powder 125 P/M parts see Powder metallurgy products
Wrought 114 Poisson's ratio 10,34,60,74,86, 145, 162,
Nickel silvers (specific types) 172,177,204,214
CA 745 115,117 Powder metallurgy (P/M) products
CA 752 115,117 Magnetic materials 197, 199
CA 757 115, 117 Nickel 26, 28, 29
CA 770 115, 117 Nickel silver 125
CA 973 123 Stainless steel 157
CA 974 123 Tungsten-Nickel 217
CA 976 123 Precipitation-hardenable alloys see Age-
CA 978 123 hardenable alloys
Nickel Silver 55-18 119, 129; see also
CA 770 Reflectivity 13
Nickel Silver 55-30 122 Rene 41 see Nickel-base superalloys
Nickel Silver 65-10 119, 120, 121; see Residual induction 10,200
also CA 745 Resistivity, electrical see Electrical resis-
Nickel Silver 65-12 see CA 757 tivity
Nickel Silver 65-18 see CA 752
Nickel Silver 74-20 121 Saturation induction 194
Nickel Silver Powder 125, 127 Shear strength 28, 180
Ni-Span C see Constant-modulus alloys 17-4PH see Stainless steels
Ni-Span Hi see Controlled-expansion 17-7PH see Stainless steels
alloys 17-10P see Stainless steels
Nitinol 213,214,215,216 17-14CuMo see Stainless steels
SI system 222
Ores 2 Specific heat 10,26,34,45,47,54, 56, 60,
72,74,86,95, 102, 113, 116, 124,
Permanickel alloy 300 203, 204, 205, 206, 132, 154, 162, 172, 184, 187, 194,
210 204, 212, 214
Permeability 10, 34, 60, 74, 86, 132, 145, Springs, design stresses 190, 210
154, 194, 204, 214 Stainless steels
Permeance 200 Cast, standard 151
PHI5-7Mo see Stainless steels Powder parts 157
Physical properties Precipitation-hardenable 143
Beryllium-nickel alloys 204, 212 Wrought, standard 129
Constant-modulus alloys 186 Stainless steels (specific types)
Controlled-expansion alloys 176, 184 A-286 144, 146, 148, 150
Index 229
Stainless steels (cont.) Stainless steels (cont.)

AM 350 144, 146, 148, 150 633 see AM 350
AM 355 144, 146, 148 634 see AM 355
CE-30 152, 153 635 see Stainless W
CF-3 152 653 see 17-14CuMo
CF-3M 152 660 see A-286
CF-8 152, 153, 155 Stainless W see Stainless steels
CF-8C 152, 156 Stress-rupture properties 20, 41, 50, 66,
CF-8M 152, 153, 155 77,89,98, 106, 139, 148, 155, 167
CF-16F 152 Superalloys see Nickel-base superalloys
CF-20 152 Symbols used in graphs 223
CO-8M 152, 153
CH-20 152, 153, 155 TD Nickel see Nickel-base superalloys
CK-20 152, 153, 155 Temperature coefficient
CN-7M 152, 153 Modulus of elasticity 187
HE 152 Modulus of rigidity 187
HF 152,153 Resistance 10, 162, 172, 177, 187
HH 152, 153 Thermal emf versus copper 162
HI 152 Thermocouples
HK 152, 153 Temperature-emf tables 170
HL 152 Temperature limits 171
HN 152 Tensile properties
HNM 144, 146, 148, 150 Ambient temperature 13, 26, 27, 28, 35,
HT 152 45, 48, 54, 56, 61, 73, 75, 88, 96,
HU 152 102, 112, 117, 123, 127, 133, 146,
PH15-7Mo 144, 146, 148 153, 157, 165, 173, 179, 184, 188,
17-4PH 144, 146, 148, 150 195,201,205,212,214,217
17-7PH 144, 146, 148, 150 Elevated temperature 19, 40, 50, 56, 66,
17-10P 144, 146, 148 77,89,98, 106, 120, 138, 148, 153,
17-14CuMo 144, 146 167, 173, 181, 190,208,214
Stainless W 144, 146, 148 Low temperature 41,45,51,70,91,109,
201 130, 133, 135, 136, 138 121, 141, 150, 155, 168, 182, 191,
202 130, 138, 140 210, 215
211 130, 133, 135, 136 Thermal conductivity 10,26,28,34,45,47
216 130, 133, 135, 137, 139 54,56,60,72,74,86,95,102,113,
301 DO, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 116, 124, 132, 145, 154, 162, 172,
141, 142 177, 187, 194,204,212
302 130,133 Thermal expansion coefficient see Coef-
304 130, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 ficient of thermal expansion
140, 141, 142 Thermocouple' alloys 169
304L 130, 133, 135, 138, 140, 141 Alumel 172, 173
305 130, 133, 135, 136 Chromel P 172, 173
309 130, 133, 135, 138 Chromel P-Alumel,170, 171
309s 130, 133, 135 Chromel P-<:onstantan 170, 171
310 130, 133, 135, 137, 138, 139, 142 Copper-<:onstantan 170, 171
310s 130, 133, 135 Iron-<:onstantan 170, 171
316 130, 133, 137, 139, 140 Trademarks 32, 220
316L 130 Transverse breaking strength 56
317 130 Tungsten-nickel P/M parts 217, 218
321 130, 137, 142
347 130, 133, 137, 139, 142 Udimet 500 see Nickel-base superalloys
384 130, 133, 135
385 130, 133, 135 Vapor pressure 10
630 see 17-4PH Velocity of sound 13
631 see 17-7PH
632 see PH15-7Mo Waspaloy see Nickel-base superalloys

Engineering Properties of Nickel and Nickel Alloys

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Engineering Properties of Nickel and Nickel Alloys

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ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF

NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

9? PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK - LONDON • 1971

ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1886-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1884-2

© 1971 Plenum Press, New York

United Kingdom edition published by Plenum Press, London

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form

The international System of Units (the SI System) is being advocated

Chapter 1. The Nickel Situation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Neutron Irradiation ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19

Chapter 3. Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant Alloys-I .. .... 32

Chapter 4. Nickel-Base Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant AIloys-ll .... 58

Nickel-Chromium Alloys ........................................ 58

Chapter 5. Nickel-Base SuperaIIoys .............................. 82

Wrought Alloys ................................................ 84

Chapter 6. Copper-Base Nickel Alloys ............................ 100

Chapter 7. Nickel-Containing Stainless Steels ...................... 129

Precipitation Hardenable Stainless Steels .......................... 143

Chapter 8. Electrical Resistance and Thermocouple Alloys ............ 159

Chapter 9. Controlled-Expansion and Controlled-Modulus Alloys ...... 175

Mechanical Properties ........................................ 179

Chapter 10. Magnetic Materials . ................................. 192

Chapter 11. Other Nickel Alloys . ................................. 203

Low-Temperature Properties .................................. 210

Appendix I. Trademarks ........................................ 221

The Nickel Situation

The commonest of the sulfide ores of nickel is pentlandite. It is a nickel-

The largest know potential reserve of nickel in the world is in the

EXPANSION OF PRODUCTION FACILITIES

Extensive exploration in Australia has led to the discovery of new depo-

There are a number of established processes for nickel recovery and

In New Caledonia, Le Nickel produces nickel matte and ferronickel

As has been mentioned in Chapter I, nickel is produced in various areas

Some of the physical properties, for example the electrical resistivity,

Table 2-1. Physical Properties of Nickep·2.3

"High purity" Commercial

Melting point, F 2650 2615-2635

perature and a reasonably high Curie point is essential if the material is to

The modulus of rigidity is approximately 12,000 ksi for "high purity"

Miscellaneous Physical Properties

The mechanical properties of nickel are influenced by purity and the

Nickel is a single-phase material with a face-centered cubic structure.

Table 2-2. Nominal Tensile and Hardness Properties

Yield strength Tensile Elongation

Rod and bar

o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

tion of area. Above this temperature, there is a gradual decrease in strength

Fig. 2-5. Effect of cold working on the hardness of commercial nickel.!

Fig. 2-6. Relationship between tensile properties and hardness of

Table 2-3. Fatigue Strength of Commercial Nickel

Fatigue strength (ksi)

E Ie va ted- Temperature Properties

o 400 800 1200 1600 2000

Test Stress (ksi) for creep rate of Stress (ksi)

99.85% Ni Annealed 700 20 26 14

in stress-rupture properties are less pronounced, they are significant. For

-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100

Like other face-centered cubic metals, nickel shows no transition from

-300 -200 -100 o 100

Fig. 2-10. Subzero-temperature tensile properties of commercial

Table 2-5. Physical and Mechanical Properties

Nickel powder can be produced by a number of methods. However,

Chemically Reduced Nickel Powder