FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,

P.M.B. 1526, OWERRI, IMO STATE

TERM PAPER

ON

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PESTS OF POTATO IN NIGERIA

BY

EKE, BETHEL A.

COURSE CODE: CST 738

COURSE TITLE: FIELD PESTS OF CROPS

SUBMITTED TO DR. F.O. OJIAKO

JANUARY, 2015

i
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction ………………………………………………………1

Potato production in Nigeria ………………………………….5

CHAPTER TWO

Pests of potato………………… …………………………………8

CHAPTER THREE

Nature of damages of different pests and control measures

………………………………………………..………………………14

CHAPTER FOUR

Storage of sweet potatoes ….……………………………………23

REFERENCES ……………………………………………………32

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Potato {Solanum tuberosum L.} belongs to the tuber crops and there
are two main types – Irish potato and sweet potato (Ipoema batata)
which is raised through vines, whereas the former are raised
through tubers.

In terms of global production, potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the

fourth most important food crop after corn, rice and wheat. This
crop is grown throughout the world. Present world production is
some 321 million tons fresh tubers from 19.5 million ha. (NAERS,
2001)

Asia and Europe are the world's major potato producing regions,
accounting for more than 80% of world production. China is now
the biggest potato producer, and almost a third of all potatoes are
harvested in China and India. North America was the clear leader in
productivity, at more than 40 tons per hectare. Asian consumption
represents almost half of the world's potato supply, but its huge
population means that yearly consumption per person was a
modest 25 kg in 2003. The heaviest potato eaters are Europeans. In
Latin America and Africa consumption per capita is lowest, but
increasing(FAO 2004).

The potato plays a strong role in developing countries with its

ability to provide nutritious food for the poor and hungry. The
demand for potato is growing as both a fresh and processed food.

1
The decreasing availability of land for area expansion means that
yields will have to be improved. Critical to achieving improved tuber
yields will be access to an adequate water supply, including more
efficient use of scarce water and costly fertilizer inputs(Baker,
1963).

Potato is grown in about 100 countries under temperate,

subtropical and tropical conditions. The potato is basically a crop of
temperate climates. Yields are affected significantly by temperature
and optimum mean daily temperatures are 18 to 20°C. In general a
night temperature of below 15°C is required for tuber initiation.
Optimum soil temperature for normal tuber growth is 15 to 18°C.
Tuber growth is sharply inhibited when below 10°C and above 30°C.
Cool conditions at planting lead to slow emergence which may
extend the growing period. Tuber yield decreases with reduced
sunshine hours per day. Potato varieties can be grouped into early
(90 to 120 days), medium (120 to 150 days) and late varieties (150
to 180 days). Improved varieties include Russet Burbank, Desiree,
Yukon Gold and Nicola, among others (Dung et al, 2002).

Potato requires a well-drained, well-aerated, porous soil with pH of

5 to 6. Compacted soils affect root penetration, water and nutrient
uptake and tuber enlargement. The crop is moderately sensitive to
soil salinity with yield decrease at different levels of ECe. ECe is the
electrical conductivity of a saturated soil paste extract. The plant
spacing is 0.75 m to 0.90 m between rows and 0.15 m to 0.3 m
between plants under irrigated conditions, while sowing depth is

2
generally 5 to 10 cm. Cultivation during the growing period must
avoid damage to roots and tubers, and in temperate climates ridges
are earthed-up to avoid greening of tubers (Abalu, 1975).

Adoption of drip irrigation and fertigation in potato has proved to be

technically feasible and economically viable and beneficial in many
ways both in developed and developing regions of the world. Drip
irrigation in many diverse agro-ecological situations registered
higher yields (40 to 72 tons/ha) apart from saving in water (30 to
40%), fertilizer (20 to 25%) and improving quality of tubers (grade
and composition) in comparison to conventional furrow, overhead
and centre pivot sprinkler irrigation methods(Agrawal, 1972).

Under Turkey and Indian conditions drip irrigated potato registered

50 and 42 tons tubers/ha with an Net Present Value (NPV) of 2085
USD/ha and 2692 USD/ha respectively and a payback period of
one year (Clayton, 1961).

For high yields, the seasonal crop water requirements for a 70 to

150-day crop were estimated to be 150 to 750 mm under a range of
climatic conditions and varying (70–180 days) length of growing
seasons with a daily evapotranspiration rate of 4 to 5 mm/day.
Irrigation scheduling using tensiometers enabled an efficient use of
water, fertilizer and energy inputs(Amaza, 1999).

Potato is a heavy feeder of nutrients. Its root system is shallow and

fibrous, hence fertigation is recommended for higher nutrient
availability and use efficiency. The aim of the fertigation program is

3
to cover the difference between crop demand and supply. The
nutrient requirements of drip irrigated potato are relatively high.
Other best management practices include earthing-up, protection of
crop from pests and diseases, need based weed management,
harvesting and post harvesting operations to minimize losses(Belete
et al, 1993).

POTATO PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA

Irish potato was first introduced in Nigeria in the late 19th Century,
through missionary activities (Ogungbile et al, 1991). The
production was encouraged by the British Colonial Government
during the Second World War as the tubers were needed to feed
their armed forces in West Africa. Since then, the importance of
potato has been widely realised such that it is now an important
commodity in both local and international trade. Although
production of potato has increased by over 120% in the last 10
years in Nigeria (CIP, 1984), it is still grossly below demand. Apart
from low quality seed and poor storage facilities, diseases are also a
limiting factor to potato production in Nigeria (Okoji and Obiechina,
1985).

The years 2001- 2003, saw dramatic increase in the world food
prices, creating a global crisis that led to political and economic
instability in both the developed and developing nations(Oke, 2003).
The initial causes of the late 2001 price increase were due to
draughts in grain producing nations and the rising oil prices. The
increase in oil price also caused general escalation in the cost of

4
fertilizers, food transportation, industrial and agriculture products.
These factors, coupled with the falling world food stockpiles
contributed to the global rise in food prices (Olayide and heady,
1982). In response to the severity of the food crisis and the need for
prompt action, the World Bank Group set up the Global Food Crisis
Response Program (GFRP) in May, 2008 to provide immediate relief
to countries hard hit by food high prices. The Bank’s response has
been articulated in collaboration with United Nations “High-Level
Task Force” (HLTF) on food security (CIP/FAO, 2009). Other
international organizations highlighted potato’s role in world food
production, in the face of developing economic problems. They cited
its enormous potentials for boosting food production, being a cheap
and abundant crop that grows in a wide variety of climates and
localities. Due to its perishability however, only about 5% of the
world potato production is traded internationally. This contributed
to its stable pricing during the 2007-2008 world food crises (Mollers
and Byers, 2009). To underscore the importance of potato in
addressing the world food crisis, the United Nations officially
declared 2008 as the “international year of the potato”, in order to
raise its profile in developing nations, calling the crop “hidden
Treasure” (Farrel, 2008). Although potato has been identified to be
the fourth most important root crop in Nigeria, after Cassava, Yam,
and Cocoyam (Okonkwo et al, 2009) with an efficient tuber crop in
the country in terms of tuber yield and days of maturity, not much
has been done towards promoting the industrial uses of the crop,
thus the need to study the entire value chain of potato. Efficient

5
processing and increased utilization of potato as an industrial raw
material will reduce the losses arising from the high rate of
perishability of the harvested product(Banmul, 2009). The value
chain approach which has been rediscovered recently by the
international cooperation community can be very helpful in this
regard. Although the value chain intervention is not very new,
practical guidelines, best practices or experiences are still largely
underdeveloped.

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 CHAPTER TWO

PESTS OF POTATO

Irish potatoes are attacked by most of the insects which infest

closely related solanaceous plants like tomato, eggplant, and
pepper. However, since potatoes are grown for their edible tubers,
they must receive greater protection from soil-inhabiting pests.
Wireworms, tuberworms, white grubs, and vegetable weevils are
pests for which growers should watch (Agrawal, 1968).

A. Pests that feed externally on the upper plant

1. Chewing pests that make holes in leaves

a) Blister beetles - Several species of slender, elongate beetles

up to 19 mm long; have prominent heads; bodies variously
colored but usually black, black with yellow margins, or black
and yellow striped (Fig. 1A to C); stringy black excrement on
heavily infested plants; foliage ragged; plants sometimes
stunted(Fabiyi and Idowu,1991)

FIG 1: Blister beetles

b) Colorado potato beetle - Yellowish-brown, oval, convex beetle
up to 14 mm long with 5 black longitudinal stripes on each
wing cover and several black spots on pronotum (area behind

7
 the head) (Fig. 2); feeds on leaves and terminal growth(Fabiyi
and Idowu,1991).

Fig. 2: Colorado potato beetles

c) Flea beetles - Various species of tiny, darkly colored beetles
2.5 to 4.5 mm long; solid-color body or dark with pale yellow
stripe on each wing cover (Fig.173); tiny round holes in
foliage(Fabiyi and Idowu,1991).

Fig 3: Flea beetles

2. Sap-sucking pests that cause discoloration, deformation, or

abscission

a) Aphids - Soft-bodied, pear-shaped insects with a pair of dark

cornicles and a cauda protruding from the abdomen; may be
winged or wingless - wingless forms most common; feed in
colonies; cause discoloration or mottling of the foliage; often
transmit virus diseases; excrete honeydew on which sooty
mold grows
1. Green peach aphid - Pale yellow to green, wingless adult
up to 2.4 mm long; winged adult with dark dorsal blotch
on yellowish-green abdomen; cornicles over twice as long

8
 as cauda and slightly swollen toward tip; yellow-green
nymphs with 3 dark lines on abdomen (Fig. 4A to C).

Fig 4: Green peach aphid

2. Potato aphid - Adult and nymph both solid pink, green
and pink mottled, or light green with dark stripe; adult
up to 3.5 mm long; long slender cornicles about twice as
long as cauda (Fig. 5)(Heady and candler, 1958)

Fig 5: Potato aphid

b) Potato leafhopper - Spindle-shaped pest, up to 3 mm long;
green body with yellowish to dark green spots (Fig. 6); usually
jumps instead of flies; extracts sap from underside of leaf
causing leaf to crinkle and curl upward; also causes yellowing
of leaf tips and margins (hopperburn) (Heady and candler,
1958).

Fig 6: Potato leafhopper

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B. Pests that feed on underground plant parts, bore into stems, or
mine in leaves and petioles

1. European corn borer - Cream to light pink caterpillar with

reddish-brown to black head; body up to 26 mm long with
several rows of dark spots; has 3 pairs of legs near head and 5
pairs of prolegs (Fig. 7); bores into stem; tangled frass and silk
near entrance hole; stem may break, plant may yellow or wilt
readily (Horton, 1987).

Fig 7: European corn borer

2. Potato tuber worm - Creamy white (young) or green to pink
(mature) caterpillar up to 19 mm long with dark brown head; 3
pairs of legs near head and 5 pairs of prolegs (Fig. 8); mines in
older lower leaves causing grayish papery blotches; tunnels in
exposed tubers or those close to soil surface, filling tunnels
with excrement; entrance holes usually near the eyes and
surrounded by a pink coloration (Horton, 1987).

Fig 8: Potato tuber worm

3. Vegetable weevil and larva - Adult - dull grayish-brown
weevil, about 6.4 mm long, with short, stout snout and light
V-shaped mark on wing covers (Fig. 9A); larva - pale green,
legless, up to 10 mm long, with dark mottled head (Fig. 9B);
both feed at night making large open holes in surface of

10
 potatoes. Feeds primarily at night on underground plant parts,
but sometimes consumes buds and foliage (Horton, 1987).

Fig 9: Vegetable weevil and larva

4. White grubs - Several species of creamy white grubs with a
distinct brown head capsule, three pairs of legs near the head,
and slightly enlarged abdomen; body C-shaped and up to 50
mm long (Fig. 10); sever roots and stems of potatoes; leave
large, shallow circular holes in tubers (Iheanacho, 2000).

Fig 10: White grubs

5. Wireworms - Several species of slender, wire-like larvae with
three pairs of short legs near the head and a pair of prolegs at the
tip of the abdomen; large shallow cavities in sweet potatoes -
evidence of early injury; deep ragged holes - later injury
a) Melanotus communis - Yellowish-brown with darker head;
body up to 25 mm long; last abdominal segment with
scalloped edges (Fig. 11A)(Bodlaender et al, 1964)

11
 Fig 11 A: Melanotus communis
b) Southern potato wireworm - Cream colored or yellowish-
gray with reddish-orange head; body up to 17 mm long; oval
notch in last abdominal segment (Fig. 11B) (Asumugha and
Okonkwo, 1992).

Fig 11 B: Southern potato wireworm

c) Tobacco wireworm - White with brown head; body up to
19 mm long; V-shaped notch in last abdominal segment (Fig.
11C) (Jeffrey et al, 1992)

Fig 11 C: Tobacco wireworm

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 CHAPTER THREE

NATURE OF DAMAGES OF DIFFERENT PESTS AND CONTROL

MEASURES

Blister Beetles

Damage - Some species of blister beetles feed on flowers but most

species are strictly foliage feeders. This latter group feeds
gregariously, occasionally damaging foliage and stunting plant
growth. Black stringy excrement often is found on heavily infested
plants. Blister beetles also have been known to transmit the disease
organism which causes southern bacterial wilt of potatoes. Larvae,
on the other hand, are considered beneficial insects because they
feed on grasshopper eggs (Ahmed, 1995).

Control: Blister beetles often appear suddenly and may cause

much damage before they are detected. Therefore, insecticides are
generally applied as an emergency measure after beetles are found
on a crop. Control failures usually are attributed to applying
insecticides too sparingly, too late. Spot treatment is usually
adequate.

Flea Beetles

Damage - Flea beetles attack the foliage leaving small round holes.
Most serious early in the growing season, this injury eventually kills
infested leaves. In addition, potato flea beetles may transmit early
blight. As a general rule, flea beetles are much less of a problem on
potato than on other solanaceous crops (Abubakar et al, 1991).
13
Control: Cultural methods are primary sources of defense against
flea beetle infestations. First, it is important to keep fields free of
weeds. Destruction of plant residues, especially piles of cull
potatoes and trash where beetles hibernate, prevents the buildup of
high populations. Late planting favors growth of the host plant over
establishment of flea beetles. Lastly, covering beds of seedlings with
a gauze-like material prevents beetle entry.

A number of insecticides (granular and foliar) are available to

control adult flea beetles. On potatoes, an in-furrow insecticide
application at planting can prevent flea beetle damage early in the
season. For control throughout the season on all vegetable crops,
spray plants when adults appear and repeat as needed (Baker,
1963).

Colorado Potato Beetle

Damage - Adult beetles and larvae feed on leaves and terminal

growth of their host plants. The loss of foliage hinders development
of tubers or fruit thereby reducing yield. In cases of heavy
infestation, entire plants may be killed. Colorado potato beetle
damage often occurs in isolated spots throughout the field
(Ogunfowora, 1970).

Control: Many cultural enemies help keep Colorado potato beetle

populations low. Birds feed upon adults and larvae while predatory
bugs attack eggs and larvae. These predatory bugs may be gray,

14
brown, or brightly colored and are often shield-shaped. Two kinds
of gray and black tachinid flies also parasitize larvae.

Katahdin potatoes show some resistance to Colorado potato beetles.

Early treatment of commercially grown potatoes with systemic
insecticides normally control overwintering beetles and early
hatching larvae. However, some insect activity may persist around
the field. The application of a foliar insecticide is not recommended
until the first eggs have hatched. As soon as damage is noticed,
treatment should begin. Chemical control is directed toward the
first generation since the buildup of subsequent generations may
cause severe damage and defoliation. In some cases, spot
treatments may be effective (Agrawal, 1968).

Melanotus communis

Damage - This wireworm creates holes in potato and sweet potato

roots similar to those caused by the tobacco and southern potato
wireworms. However, due to the size of this species, the holes are
noticeably larger and deeper than those of other species. Damaged
roots and tubers are downgraded and discarded. M. Communis is
the most damaging wireworm in the more northern sweet potato-
growing areas (Ogunfowora, 1970).

Control: Control consists of avoiding land previously in sod or out

of production. The preplant use of fumigants for nematode control
will also provide some control of this soil inhabitant. Traditional
applications of a granular insecticide over the row in late July are

15
thought to be of little value against this wireworm species
(Ogunfowora, 1970).

Potato Leafhopper

Damage - Potato leafhopper nymphs and adults feed on the

undersides of leaves. By extracting sap, they cause stunting of
plants, curling of leaf margins, and crinkling of the upper surfaces
of leaves. While feeding, leafhoppers also inject a toxic substance
into plants which, in most vegetable hosts, causes a condition
known as "hopper-burn." This disease is characterized by a
yellowing of the tissue at tips and margins of leaves which increases
until the leaves die. Symptoms of leafhopper damage are sometimes
confused with drought stress (Ahmed, 1995).

Control: The potato variety Delus is highly resistant to potato

leafhoppers. The use of systemic insecticides at planting or contact
insecticides as necessary throughout the season will adequately
control these pests (Ahmed, 1995).

Potato Tuberworm

Damage - Potato tuberworm larvae act as miners of leaves, petioles,

and stems of the above crops and as borers in potato tubers and,
occasionally, tomato fruits. Tuberworms feed and tunnel between
upper and lower surfaces of leaves causing grayish papery blotches
which become brownish and very brittle. Such injury is usually
concentrated on older, lower leaves.

16
The caterpillars enter tubers near the surface of the ground by
moving through cracks in the soil. Tubers covered with at least 5
cm of soil are not subject to infestation. Tubers exposed at harvest
often are infested soon afterwards by larvae moving from the foliage.
Therefore, infestations are likely to increase in areas where cull
potatoes are allowed to remain in the field following the harvesting
of the spring crop (Norman, 1972).

Larvae tunnel through potatoes, filling tunnels with excrement and

webbing on which disease-causing fungi grow. Such potatoes are
unsightly and of little food value. Larvae usually enter tubers near
eyes, covering the small entrance holes with webs and excrement.
Infestations are more evident a few days later when a pink
coloration develops in the flesh around entrance holes. More
excrement also is present. Larvae cut galleries 2.5 to 7.5 cm (1 to 3
in) long in the tubers, either just beneath the skin or deep in the
flesh (Norman, 1972).

Control: Preventive measures usually are effective in controlling the

potato tuberworm. Some important control practices include:

1) keeping potatoes well hilled so there are always at least 5 cm

of soil over the tubers,
2) cultivating or irrigating to prevent deep cracks in soil,
3) planting fall potatoes as far as possible from the location of
the spring crop,
4) destroying cull potatoes, perhaps by feeding them to
livestock,
17
 5) eradicating volunteer plants early in spring,
6) harvesting potatoes soon after maturity and removing them
from the field immediately after digging,
7) storing tubers, when possible, at temperatures below 10
degrees C(50 F),
8) screening storage area from egg-laying moths, and
9) fumigating or steam cleaning sacks before they are reused.

Practices to avoid include planting infested seed pieces, covering

newly dug potatoes with vines, and leaving piles of potatoes out
overnight when egg-laying moths are active.

Tuberworms are rarely a problem in fields where rigid pesticide

schedules are followed. Once an infestation develops in a field,
chemical treatment should begin at once and be repeated until the
pest is controlled (Beneke and Winterboer, 1973).

Southern Mole Cricket

Damage - The southern mole cricket is one of several species of

mole crickets which injury young plants by tunneling in the soil
and feeding on roots. Seedlings may be uprooted by the tunneling
activity of mole crickets. Heavily tunneled soil dries out quickly
causing further stress to plants.

Control: Mole crickets can be controlled by applying treatments

before planting (Borah and Milthrope, 1962).

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Southern Potato Wireworm

Damage - Wireworms chew ragged holes on the roots. Oftentimes a

single root may have 10 or more small holes. Early feeding appears
as shallow but large cavities. Late or most recent feeding appears as
ragged, deep holes. This wireworm usually attacks sweet potatoes
late in the season (Dung et al, 1999).

Control: No insect parasites or predators of this wireworm have

been discovered. Three disease-causing agents - a fungus, a
protozoan, and a parasitic nematode - have been isolated, but their
usefulness in the control of this wireworm has not been determined.

As a cultural control, susceptible crops should not be planted in

fields that were planted with a winter crop, those not plowed during
the fall and winter, or those not recently in row crops. No resistance
to this pest has been found in Irish potatoes. However, the sweet
potato varieties Nugget and All Gold do possess some resistance.

Insecticides for the control of wireworms can be applied in furrow at

planting, broadcast and incorporated into the soil, or broadcast
later over the top of sweet potato foliage. A problem has been this
wireworm's development of resistance to chlorinated hydrocarbons
and organophosphate insecticides (Dung et al, 1999).

Tobacco Wireworm

Damage - Damage occurs as ragged holes in the roots. Oftentimes a

single root may have 10 or more small holes. Early feeding appears

19
as shallow but large cavities. Late or most recent feeding appears as
ragged, deep holes. Damaged roots are downgraded or discarded
(Enweozor et al, 1990).

Control: Crop rotation is an effective management tool for control

and should be practiced where possible. Fields planted to a winter
cover crop, those not plowed during fall and winter, and those not
recently in row crops are not suitable sites to plant wireworm-
susceptible crops. Low soil moisture, high summer temperatures,
disease, predation and cannibalism are helpful in reducing
wireworm populations.

Insecticides for the control of wireworms can be applied in furrow at

planting, broadcast, and incorporated into the soil or broadcast
later over the top of sweet potato foliage (Enweozor et al, 1990).

White Grubs

Damage - White grubs are among the most destructive soil insects
in North America. In addition to severing roots and stems of
potatoes, white grubs feed on tubers, leaving large shallow circular
holes in them. The infested plants often do not show symptoms on
above-ground plant parts. As a result, considerable damage may be
done before the grub problem is discovered. In heavy infestations,
the soil may become soft and fluffy due to grub movement
(Enweozor et al, 1990).

Control: Several cultural practices help reduce white grub

populations. Late summer or early fall plowing may expose larvae,

20
pupae, or even adults to predaceous birds. Crop rotation, however,
is the most effective control method. Corn and potatoes should be
rotated with resistant or less susceptible crops like clovers or other
legumes. These crops should never follow grasses in a rotation,
especially in years following a heavy beetle flight. Chemical control
is rarely necessary for white grubs in vegetable crops (Enweozor et
al, 1990).

21
 CHAPTER FOUR

STORAGE OF SWEET POTATOES

Susceptibility to spoilage

Sweet potatoes are a highly perishable crop and difficult to store for
extended periods of time. This is mainly due to their high moisture
content, metabolic activity following harvesting and thin, permeable
skin. Following harvest, sweet potatoes are susceptible to spoilage
by physical, physiological, pathological, pests and environmental
means (Ministry of Agriculture, 1972).

Physical

Physical losses refer to sweet potatoes damaged by mechanical force

during harvest, handling, and transportation of the tubers. This
includes injury by way of cuts, bruising, and skinning. Delicate
skin and poor harvesting and handling techniques are the main
cause of these issues. Damage to tubers by physical means can be
minimized careful handling and storing in boxes and cartons
instead of cloth sacks (Etuk, 1979).

Physiological

Physiological processes within the plant can contribute highly to

spoilage. Natural transpiration causes water loss and results in an
unappealing pithy texture. Respiration also continues to occur after
harvesting and a buildup of CO2 around the crop can cause early
spoilage. Sprouting will also occur during long term storage, which

22
is useful for planting but will utilize nutrients in the tuber.
Sprouting can be inhibited by preharvest spraying with maleic
hydrazide, treatment of tubers with methyl ester of napthalene
acetic acid (MENA) in acetone on paper spread between tubers and
0.5–4.0% thiourea solution (Etuk, 1979).

Pathological and pests

Sweet potatoes are susceptible to a number of fungi, bacteria and

viruses. Infection can cause the production of toxins, pathogenic
bacteria, bitter flavours, tissue breakdown, and surface blemishes.
Two common sources of infection are from Rhizopus oryzae (soft rot)
and Botryodiplodia (Java black rot). These are responsible for 78%
of sweet potato infections in Bangladesh. The pest of greatest
concern for farmers is the sweet potato weevil (Cylas spp.). This can
enter the tuber prior to harvesting and proliferate in storage and
has been known to cause up to 50% loss in yields. Simple
techniques can be used to minimize the threat of the sweet potato
weevil. It has been shown that storage of the potatoes in
temperatures under 20 °C (68 °F) can kill up to 89.5% of weevils in
an infected crop. Dipping of tubers in hot water also been shown as
an effective intervention to control infestations. Damage to tuber by
physical and physiological means can increase chance of
pathological infection and pests (Mbonda, 1983).

23
Environmental

The length of time that sweet potatoes may be stored is highly

dependent on temperature and relative humidity. Storage in
temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F) will cause chill injury in sweet
potatoes. This is characterized by discoloration of the insides of the
tuber, which can range from brown to black instead of the usual
orange. Formation of hard areas also occurs that remain even after
cooking. Other signs of chill injury include production of off
flavours, internal cell structure breakdown and increased rotting
due to reduced skin formation, which allows fungal infection. On
the other end of the scale, temperatures above 16 °C (61 °F) will
cause a rise in the rates of respiration and sprouting in tubers as
well as increased activity by microorganisms. Relative humidity
under 80% will cause excessive water loss while RH above 90% will
cause condensation to form, which accelerates rotting (Mudahar,
1974).

Ideal storage conditions

To minimize potential spoilage, precise storage conditions should be

met. Sweet potatoes should be stored at between 12 and 16 °C (54
and 61 °F) with a RH of 85-90%. Proper ventilation of the storage
area is a key factor in maximizing potential storage time.
Respiration causes the production of CO2, which will act to increase
the rate of spoilage. Sweet potatoes can convert approximately
57dm3 of oxygen/ton/day to carbon dioxide and need ventilation to
compensate for this. The O2 in the storage environment should not

24
fall below 7% and CO2 must not exceed 10%. Due to lack of proper
equipment, maintaining adequate temperature conditions are the
largest hurdle that farmers in a developing nation will have to face.

Not all sweet potatoes are suitable for storage. Tubers that have
been mechanically damaged, infected with pests or pathogens, or
are rotten or sprouting should not be kept. These factors will
increase rate of spoilage and can increase losses in the rest of the
stored crop. Under these optimum conditions sweet potatoes have
been shown to keep for 5 months up to a max of about a year
(Norman, 1973).

Storage methods

In developed countries proper refrigeration technology is used to

keep sweet potatoes for long periods of time. Many poor farmers do
not have access to refrigeration or even electricity so must rely on
other storage methods. There are several methods of storage that
only require simple and cheap building materials. The most
commonly used are pit storage, clamp storage and indoor storage.
These techniques are used only sporadically however as most
farmers practice sequential harvesting in which tubers are left in-
ground until needed (Nweke et al, 1999).

In-ground

In subsistence farming, sweet potatoes are commonly left in the

ground and eaten or sold directly following harvest, this is called
piece-meal or sequential harvesting. Sweet potatoes are delicate and

25
easily damaged. In-ground storage is used to protect the tubers
while reducing the work required to set up storage facilities. In
areas with reliable rainfall patterns farmers are able to maintain a
supply of fresh sweet potatoes for most of the year by continuous
cultivation and harvesting. In drier places however, such as
northern Uganda, this is not a practical solution. This is not a long-
term option and the plants will degrade after a short period of time.
There are numerous disadvantages to this method as it takes up
field space that could otherwise be used for growing more crops
(Nweke et al, 1999).

Pit storage

This is a simple, cheap method that involves digging a hole in the

ground for storing the potatoes. Pit storage differs from in-ground
as tubers are collected and kept together and considerations are
made to control the storage environment.

Construction of the pit can vary according to what materials are

available but commonly used are; grass, soil, wood, lime, sawdust
and ash. Grass is typically used to line the bottom and sides of the
pit in order to insulate against temperature change and absorb
moisture. Before usage, grass should be flamed in order to destroy
any pests that may be hiding within. Soil is used to seal the roof of
the pit and as filler. Wood and plant material can be used to
strengthen walls as well as create a roof covering the pit. Roofs built
over the pit structure are beneficial in that they can help keep rain
out and provide shade to lower temperature. Lime may have some

26
effectiveness in absorbing CO2 and removing it form the
environment. Sawdust is used as a cushioning material and to help
control condensation on the tubers. Wood ash can applied to
potatoes prior to storage and has shown some effectiveness in
protecting against insect attacks and mould.

In order to prevent rotting the pit should ideally be dug into a slope
to promote drainage. It should also be situated at least 0.35 metres
(1.1 ft) above the water table during dry season and must remain
above during wet/rainy season and be approximately 0.5 metres
(1.6 ft) below the surface.

There can be ventilation problems with this storage method.

Commonly the pit will be sealed shut in order to maintain a good
RH. The draw back to this is that CO2 will collect and cause
spoilage. To help this, a sizable headspace should be maintained in
the pit to help promote airflow.

Pits can be reused but they should be cleaned, the soil turned over
and disinfected with fire or sulphur to rid the area of any
microorganisms.

Losses are still fairly high for this technique, though it has been
shown in some instances to keep roots for 2–4 months (Nweke et al,
1999).

Clamp and mound storage

Another simple and low cost method, clamp storage consists of

covered piles of sweet potatoes. After selecting for the tubers in the
27
best condition, they are stacked in a heap on a layer of grass and
covered in layers of grass and soil. As with pit storage ash, lime and
sawdust can be used for added effect. The piles may be made at
ground level or in shallow or deep trenches. Drainage should be
considered and ruts may be made in the ground to lead off water.
The clamps may be covered by a roof or kept in a building for added
protection. To minimize losses due to respiration a ventilation shaft
can be added. Results are fairly poor with this technique and
estimated storage time is 2–3 months (Nweke et al, 1999).

Indoor storage

Sweet potatoes may be harvested and stored in building. This could

include in the living area or in a granary built specifically to store
produce. In home storage is typically done in straw woven baskets,
cloth bags or wooden boxes. Baskets and boxes have been shown to
be more effective at minimizing mechanical damage. If possible
tubers should be kept off of the ground to keep them away from
rodents and other pests. This is an effective technique for
maintaining proper ventilation though depending on the type of
building maintaining proper storage temperature and RH may be
difficult.

Granaries or other storage buildings typically consist of a round hut

with walls made of straw, mud, clay and wood and a conical straw
roof. These are commonly supported above ground by a system of
legs to keep the crop dry and away from animals, rodents and pests
(Nweke et al, 1999).

28
Pretreatment of sweet potatoes

Typically sweet potatoes are stored and eaten fresh. However there
are some simple methods used to increase their storability that can
be used in conjunction with other storage methods. Drying and
curing of sweet potatoes are two common methods to prepare them
prior to storage.

Drying of tubers is done on those that are too damaged to be stored

fresh but still have edible material on them. This involves slicing
tubers to a thickness of approximately 2–4 mm and then laying
them out in the sun for four days or until they are rid of most of
their moisture. During drying the potatoes can be covered in prickly
bushes or thorns to ward off animals. Dried slices can be kept in-
doors or in raised silos until eaten. Drying removes moisture,
reduces bacterial growth, and inactivates metabolic processes and
enzymatic decomposition (Nweke et al, 1999).

Curing is a technique done to toughen up the outer layer of skin

(periderm). It is a measure that prevents against excessive moisture
loss, entry of microorganisms into the plant and even facilitates
healing of mechanically damaged tubers. Curing is done by
exposing the whole potatoes to a moderately high temperature for
several days immediately following harvest.; 30–32 °C (86–90 °F)
and 80–95% RH for 4–10 days has been found to be adequate
curing conditions . A common method to cure without use of
incubation equipment is to wrap tubers in black polythene sheets
and leave out in the sun for 5 days. The black sheet keeps moisture

29
in and collects heat to reach necessary conditions for curing.
Immediately following curing the temperature must be dropped
quickly in order to avoid sprouting damage (Nweke et al, 1999).

30
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