In an effort to energise the students in Social Problems, we have chosen to use Stanley

Eitzen, et al. (2009) Social Problems text. This text does not define and describe as
much as it attempts to “look behind” the typical expectations associated with social
problems. As the essentialists would contend, our text attempts to look past observable
society, the descriptive level, to the causal level, which is often abstract and difficult to
understand.

Students may find some of the material in Eitzen highly controversial. They may, in
fact, vehemently disagree with some of the points raised. This is GOOD! You don't
have to agree with the material. It is, after all, only a perspective – a way of looking at
the social world – and we all have perspectives. We would hope that, in the process,
students share their points of view. We would also hope that students will be open to
understanding the perspectives encountered. There are seldom right or wrong answers
in Sociology – only perspectives. The trick in a class like this is to be open to multiple
perspectives.

Some Initial Observations

Social issues

Social issues are political debates involving moral judgments about how people should
live.

Social movement

Social movements are an organized effort to encourage or discourage some dimension

of social change.

Social policy

Social policy is a formal strategy to shape some aspect of social life.

Social problems

Social problems are societal induced conditions that harm any segment of the
population. Social problems are also related to acts and conditions that violate the
norms and values found in society.

Review of General Theory

Functionalist Theory

Understanding society from a functionalist perspective is to visualise society as a system

where all the parts act together even though each part may be doing different things .
Associated with the system is structure. In society, institutions, such as family,
education, and religion are the parts of the social system. They are structures in society
that social activity is organized around. The overall goal of the various structures
(parts) is to maintain order in society. The structures in society promote integration ,
stability , consensus , and balance in society.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is a theoretical framework which sees society as divided by inequality

and conflict. Conflict theorists see society less as a cohesive system and more an arena
of conflict and power struggles . Instead of people working together to further the goals
of the "social system," people are seen achieving their will at the expense of others .

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

Symbolic interactionist theory is a theoretical framework that sees society as the

product of individuals interacting with one another . The scope of investigation for these
sociologists is very small. Interaction is generally face-to-face and addresses “
everyday” activities. They are interested in the way individuals act toward, respond to,
and influence one another in society. These kinds of sociologists are not interested in
nation-states. They don't consider social institutions like the economy or
government. Interactionists prefer to explore the interaction of individuals or groups of
individuals. Each communication produces new perspectives, expectations, and
boundaries that individuals use to assure continual interactions in the future . Society
occurs as a result of interaction between individuals and small groups of individuals.

History of Social Problems Theory

The Medical Model

Eitzen et al. (2009: 6-7) contends that early sociologists replied on the medical model to
understand society. They say "universal criteria for normality" and tended to assume
that social problems were linked to "bad people." They were viewed as "abnormal
because of mental deficiency, mental disorder, lack or education, or incomplete
socialization.

These pathologies were a problem because they threatened to disrupt the moral order
(Eitzen et al. 2009:7).

Absolutist Approach to Conditions in Society

In the 1920s and 1930's, using a variation on the above perspective, some sociologists
focused on condition in society that fostered social problems. They investigated the
process of migration, urbanization, and industrialization (Eitzen et al. 2009:7). They
looked for "pockets of social disorganization" (e.g., areas of the city that have high
rates of in and out migration also have high rates of crime).
 Modern Studies of Deviance

In the recent past, sociologists have returned to "the study of problem individuals"
(Eitzen et al. 2009:7). Eitzen et al (2009) point out two variations in the study of
modern deviance.

a. Merton – Social Strain Theory

Society provides goals and means to achieve those goals. Deviance occurs when there
people recognize the goals, but don't have sufficient means to achieve those goals.
b. Labeling Theory
Others explore the role of society in "creating and sustaining deviance through labeling
those people viewed as abnormal. Social reactions are viewed as the key in
determining what a social problem is and who is deviant" (Eitzen et al. 2009:7).

The Subjective Nature of Social Problems

Some argue that what is considered a social problems is dependent on time and
audience" (Eitzen et al. 2009:8). Unemployment is not a problem for everyone. Nor is
racism and sexism. Pollution is not viewed the same by everyone.

Social Problems or Social Issues?

This perspective explored how “phenomena come to be defined as a social problem”

(Eitzen et al. 2009:8). Who influences those decisions?

Toward a Definition of Social Problems

Objective Reality to Social Problems

Eitzen et al. (2009:8) argue that some social conditions are detrimental in any
situation. In this sense, they have an objective character. There are conditions in
society such as poverty, racism, sexism that cause material or psychological suffering
for parts of the population. They prevent members of society from developing and
using their full potential. This sort of suffering exists regardless of personal or cultural
opinion. Those conditions are, therefore, social problems in any social setting.

a. Subjectivity
A problem with this is that subjectivity is ever-present. The process of choosing a social
condition to study in the first place is subjective.
b. Bias
Bias is a preference or an inclination for something. Bias can inhibit impartial
judgment. Realizing that we have biases is important . We have feelings and values.
Such feelings and values determine what we study . However, once we have
acknowledged our biases, we cannot only report facts that we discover that support our
point of view.
 All Social Research is Political

Regarding the study of anything social, the research is either going to look at the
characteristics of the individual or the social system within which a "problem" occurs.
One approach accepts the definition of deviance and the other "undermines" that
accepted definition. In this case, both approaches are political, "yet there is a tendency
to label as political only the research that challenges the system" (Eitzen et al. 2009:9).
When research does point to systemic issues that harm the position of the poor, often
the charge of Bias is raised.

We hear the charge of bias when "research gives credence in any serious way, to the
perspective of subordinate groups in some hierarchical relationship" (Eitzen, 1986:7).

Seeing bias on these terms is peculiar because "it is easily ascertained that many more
studies are biased in the direction of the interests of responsible officials than the other
way around.

We must not automatically accept only those definitions that define social problems
from the point of view of those in power .

Official Definitions of Social Problems

One reason Eitzen et al. (2009:9) warns against accepting definitions of social problems
provided by those in power. "The powerful can define social reality in a way that
manipulates public opinion."

In the old south, slavery was not considered a problem, but slave revolts were.

In Salem, the persecution of witches was not a social problem, but witches were.

In the South prior to the Civil Rights era, Jim Crow laws were not a problem, but Rosa
Parks was a problem when she wanted to sit down on a bus in Montgomery, ALA.

Public Opinion and the Media

The mass-media is a primary source that defines social problems for many of us.

a. The powerful control the media

Powerful interests control the mass media and, therefore, control public opinion. Often
"relevant issues" are defined by those who wield power through the mass media.
The powerful, through the mass media, can set the agenda.
b. Conditions that affect the powerless are ignored
The media may overlook conditions that are detrimental to the relatively powerless
segments of society.
 Attention is diverted to specific social instances and away from the cause of many social
problems . There is a tendency to focus on the characteristics of individuals. As Skolnick
and Currie notes: “ conventional social problem writing invariable returns to the
symptoms of social ills rather than to the source ” of those ills (Eitzen, 2000: 7).

It diverts attention from problems with the existing social order (see Eitzen, 2000: 7).
By focusing on those who deviate, it often overlooks the role of society's powerful.

 We study the criminal instead of the law or the prison system that tends to perpetuate
crime.
 We scrutinize the mentally ill rather than the quality of life or social programs that
initially bring on a mental breakdown. We don't study the role of social institutions that
ultimately fail to accept responsibility by pushing the insane onto the street
(deinstitutionalization) to "save the budget."
 We explore the culture of the poor rather than characteristics of the rich.
 We investigate the pathologies of students and their families rather than the
inadequacies of higher education.
 We study the characteristics and consequences of poverty rather than the social
structure that creates conditions that allow problems like poverty to exist.

Characteristics of Social Problems

On the basis of the above definitions, we can identify the following characteristics of
social problems:

 All social problems are situations which have injurious consequences for society.
 All social problems are deviations from the “ideal” situation.
 All social problems have some common basis of origin.
 All social problems are social and political in origin .
 All social problems are caused by pathological social conditions.
 All social problems are interconnected .
 All social problems are social in their results – they affect all sections of society.
 The responsibility for social problems is social – they require a collective approach for
their solution.
 Social problems occur in all societies (Ahuja 2002: 5).

Types of Social Problems

Norm Violations

Norm violations assume that a standard of behaviour exists .

 People who study norm violations are interested in society's failures like the criminal,
the mentally ill, or the school dropout.

Eitzen et al. (2009:10) contend, however, that norm violations are symptoms of social
problems rather that the problem itself . Deviants, for example, are victims and should
not be blamed entirely.

The system in which they live is blamed as well.

Social Conditions

Eitzen et al. (2009: 11) suggest that a second type of social problem involves conditions
that cause psychic and material suffering for some category of people. The focus is on
how society operates and who benefits and who doesn't benefit under existing social
arrangements. “What is the bias of the system?”

 How are society's rewards distributed?

 Do some categories of people suffer due to the way schools are organized
 Are some groups of people put at a disadvantage because of the manner juries are
selected?
 Do some categories suffer because of the way health care is delivered?

Eitzen et al. (2009:12) cites Maslow when describing the basic needs of human beings.
They are the need for shelter, sustenance, security, group support, esteem, respect,
and self-actualization (the need for creative and constructive involvement in productive,
significant activity).

When these needs are not met, individuals will be hostile toward society and its norms.
The frustration will be expressed in "withdrawal, alcohol and other drugs, or the
violence of crime, terrorism, or aggression" (Eitzen et al. 2009:12).

As people withdraw from the system that fails to meet their needs, they will be defined
by that society as "bad people, but this is so because they live in bad societies” (Eitzen
et al. 2009:12).

Institutionalised Deviance

Often, when one attempts to understand deviance, they will look at characteristics of
the individual to explain deviance. Eitzen et al. (2009:12) suggests that t he source of
deviance is found within the social structure . Society plays a role in creating and
sustaining deviance by labeling those viewed as abnormal.
 Institutional deviance is a term Eitzen (2009:12) uses to describe a situation when the
institutions of society serves a selected few people who are generally powerful.

Institutional deviance exists when society and its formal organizations are not meeting
the needs of individuals.

Causes of Social Problems

The causes of social problems may be three-fold but cannot be treated in isolation :

i. Individual
ii. Cultural
iii. Structural

The social evils that are plaguing our society today could hardly be catalogued. They
are very uncountable in the true sense of the assertion. Prominent among them are:
juvenile delinquency ; child abuse ; escalating crime waves such as armed robbery;
arson; fraud; drug peddling; currency trafficking ; bribery and corruption;
embezzlement of public funds; student and youth unrest; cultural violence ; religious
intolerance; boundary disputes; stack dishonesty; election rigging; coups and counter
coups; lack of commitment to duty; examination malpractices; filthy and gross
indiscipline; result racketeering; disrespect for other species; gross economic inequality;
poverty; disease and hunger; widespread illiteracy; lack of gainful employment
opportunities; open injustice; ostentatious spending; abuse of authority; hoarding of
essential commodities; cheating and exploitation of the masses; discrimination and
ethnic jingoism; inordinate ambition; cultism; lack of realisation of human potential;
narrow education resulting in ill-informed citizens; civil wars; famine; drought and
unchecked desertification; human trafficking and child labour.

Reactions to Social Problems

Different people react differently to social problems. The differences may be explained
in terms of the following four factors :

i. An attitude of unconcern : Many people and the State at times remain indifferent to a
problem thinking that it does not affect them. At times their own individual problems
like family tensions and job pressures keep them so engaged that they do not find time
to be interested in what affects others. It is only when their own interests are involved
 that they become agitated and start taking interest in the problem. The indifference and
passivity of the State only add to the problem further.
ii. Fatalism : Some people are so fatalistic that they attribute everything to destiny. Issues
like poverty and unemployment are also explained in terms of misfortune and
past karma . They, therefore, suffer the misfortune quietly and wait for some miracle to
happen.
iii. Vested interests : Some people take no interest in the existing problems because they
stand to gain so long as the problem exists. Motivated by self-interest, they describe
the problem as insoluble and talk about its eradication as a waste of time.
iv. Absence of expert knowledge : Some people, though deeply concerned about the
problem, do not take much interest in it believing that its solution is impossible unless
people change their attitudes and values. As the changes must be initiated by a change
in outlook they remain unconcerned about finding alternative possibilities of treatment.
Dowry is one such problem in our society.

The Sociological Imagination

The sociological imagination refers to the ability to see the relationship between
individual experiences and the larger society (Kendall, 1998:7).

As opposed to looking at isolated events (like slavery or drug abuse) by themselves, the
student of social problems is encouraged to look at social problems in relation to other
aspects of society like the economy, culture or religion .

According to Mills (in Eitzen et al, 2009:14) "the task of sociology is to realize that
individual circumstances are inextricably linked to the structure of society."

To paraphrase C. Wright Mills (1959), people do not usually define their personal
problems in terms of historical change and institutional contradictions. People do not
usually think of the connection between the patterns of their own lives and the course
of world history.

People live out biographies in the context of world events that are in turn determined
by historically specified conditions. Both the lives of individuals and the course of world
history is understood simultaneously.

 The sociological imagination is stimulated by a willingness to view the social world from
the perspective of others.
 It involves moving from thinking about the individual and his problems and focusing on
social, economic, and historical circumstances that produce the problem

The Cause of Homelessness: Individual pathology or public policy

 The sociological imagination requires a detachment from the taken-for-granted
assumptions about social life.

 Casteism
 The Indian social system is caste-bound. Though the forms of caste oppression
have undergone changes, the content of caste domination, subordination,
oppression and exploitation remains the same. A number of castes are placed in
subordination and superordination to each other in relation to the status of
Brahmins. Stratification based on caste system not simply implies division of
labour in Hindu society but this pattern of division in Hindu society solidified its
base and members of a particular caste identified themselves only with their own
caste. Thus narrow caste loyalties developed the feeling of superiority /
inferiority among the members of a particular caste and simultaneously
undermined the interests of other castes and ultimately led to the ignorance of
human values and social welfare. This partial or extreme one-sided loyalty may
be termed as casteism. Casteism has led to many problems in Hindu society and
has become a major threat to national integration because of its divisive
tendencies.
 According to N. Prasad, ‘Casteism is the loyalty to the caste translated into
politics.'
 K. M. Pannikar holds, ‘Casteism is the loyalty to the subcaste translated into
political. This is unavoidable as long as the conception of subcaste exists, for that
is the one permanent loyalty that the Hindu has inherited. In fact, no
organization of society on the basis of equality is possible so long as the
subcaste exists.'
 Kaka Kalelkar considers casteism ‘an overriding, blind and supreme group loyalty
that ignores the healthy social standards of justice, fair play, equity and universal
brotherhood.

Characteristics of casteism

The following characteristics may be deduced from the definitions cited above:

a. Casteism is the extreme caste or subcaste loyalty in the most irrational form. It
completely undermines the interests of other caste or subcaste groups.
b. Casteism ignores human values and social welfare.
c. Casteism acquires a new lease of life through the provisions of constitutional safeguard
to the deprived sections of the population.
d. Casteism contrasts with the aim of bringing about a casteless society. Hence, it is anti-
democratic.
e. Casteism is contrary to the spirit of our Constitution.
f. Casteism adversely affects the outcome of elections.
g. Casteism hinders the process of national integration.

Causes of casteism

There are multiple causes of casteism:

 The feeling of caste prestige: The feeling of superiority / inferiority by the members
of a caste over the rest may be construed as an important cause of casteism. The
Hindu society is divided into many castes on the basis of superordination and
subordination. The members of any caste want to enhance the prestige of their own
caste group. Therefore, they endeavour to stabilize the position of their own caste,
which ultimately results in casteism.
 Connubium: The practice of caste endogamy, which proclaims that a person can
marry only within her/his caste, has been responsible for the emergence of the feeling
of casteism. By restricting the circle of marriage to one's own caste, people have
developed different degrees of social distance within and outside their own caste.
 Lack of scientific worldview: Though science and technology have advanced in
India, we have not been able to develop scientific worldview in our practices. A nation
becomes stronger based on its scientific and technological outlook, not on the basis of
superstition, orthodoxy and obscurantism propagated by casteism.
 Lack of urbanization: Urbanization, and to a lesser extent industrialization, emerged
in colonial India. Even after India's independence, the mode of production hardly
changed. The ruling class in India has used casteism for its political mileage. The
sluggish pace of industrialization has resulted in the continuity of caste feeling in the
Indian psyche.