A comprehensive review of the methodologies proposed

in adaptive protection systems for active distribution

networks

J. Mora-Flóreza,∗, J. Pastuña G.
a Electrical Engineering Program, Technological University of Pereira , Campus Julita, Pereira,

Colombia

Abstract
It is a well-know fact that normal and abnormal operating conditions of distribu-
tion network with distributed generation, known as active distribution network
(ADN), are innumerable. With this in mind several methodologies to adaptive
protection system (APS) has been proposed, whereby it results in greater dif-
ficulty to contextualizing the wide information about its main characteristics.
This due to each research propose either successful or partial solution to over-
come the impacts occurred due to DG integration. Hence is evident that exist
uncertainty about of those methodologies and how the relay’s settings must be
update according to operating conditions. The purpose of the current study is to
provide a comprehensive review of the available protection methodologies that
are applied to ADN protection problems in both grid-connected and islanded
mode. The most up to date relevant options are described and categorized into
specific groups. A comparative analysis is carried out in which the advantages
and disadvantages to each APS are assessed. Lastly, after the appraisement
of the existing protection techniques, some conclusions and suggestions are put
forward for the protection of ADN in the future.
Keywords: Adaptive protection system, Methodology, Distributed generation,
Active distribution network, Review, Protection problems

1. Introduction

The increasing dependence on electricity supply around the world makes

the electrical utility operators need to reach an acceptable level of reliability,
quality and safety, at a fair price for the customers [1, 2]. Hence, any distribution
5 network (DN) must be respond to acceptable design, operation and maintenance
adequate so as to limit faults probability and energy supplies outages [3–5].

∗ Corresponding author: Tel.: +57 63137329; fax: +57 63137329/3137122.

Email addresses: jjmora@utp.edu.co (J. Mora-Flórez), j.pastuna@utp.edu.co (J.
Pastuña G.)

Preprint submitted to Journal of LATEX Templates May 23, 2018

 Associated with the distribution networks themselves are a number of ancillary
systems to assist in meeting these requirements, where one of the most important
are the protection systems (PS), that are installed to minimize and limit the
10 adverse effects of faults [6]. Most faults are self-extinguishing or transient and
often do not cause outages for a long time such as the permanent faults. The
protection elements for instance relays, reclosers and fuses, have aim to isolation
of the failed section of DN in order to maintain energy supply at healthy sections.
For this reason, the protection system must be suitably coordinated, so that
15 smallest section of DN affected by the fault removed as quickly as possible [7].
Currently, the massive integration of distributed generation (DG) [8] in DN
has occurred in several countries around of the world, as a result the great ad-
vantages that offers, with regard power sources based on fossil fuels and located
far away from the load centres, among which is highlights, the reduction of
20 greenhouse gas emissions [9]. Despite its benefits, the large-scale integration of
DG causes problems in operation, control and protection of the DN [10, 11].
Regard to DN protection system, the loss of coordination is severe problem
to be solve [12]. Specifically, increase in short-circuit capacity and bidirectional
flow of active power through the lines cause variable patterns of behavior during
25 fault event, for which the previously relay settings on SP are usually not valid in
different operating modes [13]. The effects occur on relays are: delay or accel-
eration of operation, non-operation, over-reach and sub-reach of the protection
area, among the most important [14, 15]. To address the aforementioned prob-
lems, a protection system must be developed that can perform with adaptive
30 behavior, for the different fault conditions, either in island mode or connected
to the network, considering different operating modes of DN and the DG [16].
This is known as adaptive protection system (APS) and is the object of study
in this work.
The purpose of this paper is to expand upon the range of investigated APS
35 and proffer a more in-depth explanation and analysis of each proposed method-
ology whereby this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses brief back-
ground about of DG types with its energy sources, active distribution character-
istics, protection problems and APS for ADN. Section 3 analyzes the proposed
methodologies of APS in order to categorize into specific groups and explain
40 its main methodologies with merits and demerits. Finally, section 4 concluding
remarks are presented.

2. Background
At this section, the basic theoretical aspects are presented. Detailed infor-
mation are provided by the cited references.

45 2.1. Distributed generation

Around the world, conventional power system is facing the problems of grad-
ual depletion of fossil fuel resources, poor energy efficiency and environmental
pollution. These problems have led to a new trend of generating power lo-
cally at distribution voltage level by using non-conventional/renewable energy

2
 Figure 1: DG types and your energy source

50 sources like natural gas, bio gas, wind power, solar photo voltaic cells, fuel cells,
combined heat and power (CHP) systems, micro turbines, and stirling engines
and their integration into the utility distribution network. This type of power
generation is termed as distributed generation (DG) and the energy sources are
termed as distributed energy resources (DERs). The term Distributed Genera-
55 tion has been devised to distinguish this concept of generation from centralized
conventional generation [17]. GD units are integrated in DN by two ways: par-
allel and by switching connection. When is connected in parallel, under normal
circumstances, the system supply to load demanding and in addition it enters
in active standby mode, which helps in the prevention of energy interruptions.
60 However, if GD is interconnect by switching, during the transition time, a short
power interruption will occur due to out off main network. The most usually is
the parallel connection [9].

2.2. Active distribution network

It is universally known that conventional distribution network is designed to
65 work with a radial topology: where load and short-circuit current flow are uni-
directional, but due to massive DG integrate, it is no longer completely radial;
rather, it similar the transmission system (mesh network), with load and short-
circuit current flow bidirectional in certain segments of the network, becoming
a complex system with multiple sources of generation. Taking this into account,
70 the distribution network becomes active with the integration of DG and hence
is termed as active distribution network (ADN) [17]. On the other hand, distri-
bution systems are not redundant like mature high voltage or extra high voltage
systems and therefore security is the most important aspect because obviously
will be affected [18]. Compared with conventional radial distribution network,
75 exists some typical characteristics of ADN as: multi-source, bidirectional power

3
 flow and short-circuit current, multi-branch, weak infeed, multi-type of DGs
and lack of voltage information currently. These aspects must be analyzed in
order to provide suitable protection system for ADN.

2.3. Protection of ADN

80 The integration of DG units would impose major challenges in ADN as the
commercial, technical, environmental and regulatory [3], see the figure 3. Be-
sides of technical challenge will detail the conflicts related to malfunction of
protection system, have to mainly consider the type, location and size DGs [12].
Usually the protection problems can be divided into two categories: fault detec-
85 tion problems and selective problems, when highlights problems are reduction
over-reach and under-reach the relay settings, no operate of protection, selective
lose, unintentional islanding, sympathetic tripping and blinding. For a better
comprehension about those problems take as reference the figure 2 and following
description.

Figure 2: A sample of active distribution network

90 Assuming heavy faults, when a fault F1 occurs downstream from DG1 in

grid-connected mode of operation, the total short-circuit current increase due
to contribution from DG1 , DG2 and main grid (red dash lines), hence appear
over-reach of relay R2 and the fuse Fs could melt. In the same mode operation
during F 1 the current from upstream is less in R1 that in R2 because of partial
95 contribution from DG1 therefore occur blinding of protection in R1 . In other
hand when F2 occur on adjacent feeder, the current contribution from DG1 (if
the capacity is sufficiently large) could exceed the feeder pickup current setting of
R1 and incite to sympathetic tripping which would disconnect the heath feeder
from the main grid . The lose of selectivity by bidirectionally occurs when either
100 in grid-connected or island mode operation exist presence of DG because the
power and fault current flows bidirectionally, for example during the fault F2

4
 if the relay R1 dont has directional module would be act for the contribution
current from DG1 (blue dash lines). The no operating of protection elements is
given by presence of inverter-interfaced DGs inside the ADN because their fault
105 current contribution is limited to about twice the rated current of the power
switching device used in the inverter.
Regarding the problems mentioned above, there are some aspects to be con-
sidered when dealing with protection systems of the ADN [2].

• Protection of the generation equipment from internal faults.

110 • Protection of the faulted distribution network from fault currents supplied
by the DGs.
• Anti-islanding or loss-of-mains protection (islanded operation of DG will
be possible in future as penetration of DG increases)

Several strategies was proposed regard above aspects in order to mitigate the
115 problems caused by DG integration,such as: fault current limiters (FCLs) [19],
limit DG capacity [20], immediately disconnection of DG after fault detection
[21] and modify topology of ADN, using or replace extra breakers, reclosers and
et al. elements [22]. But those strategies able only mitigate the problems with
expensive investments and DG in-operant.
120 With those in mind several researches about protection systems was pro-
posed to deal demerits in the mitigation strategies, those are voltage-current
protection, dual setting current protection, expert system protection [23], multi
agent system protection, fault current compensation and adaptive protection,
see the figure 3. All above researches are mainly related to protection of faulted
125 distribution network from fault currents supplied by the DGs. Other aspects
about those is that use coordination strategies as: curve fitting, graph theory,
analytical method, Linear and non linear optimization based techniques, hybrid
optimization techniques, fuzzy and neuro-based optimization [24].
The voltage-current protection result expensive [3], the dual setting protec-
130 tion only deal the bidirectional problem, the expert system needs wide informa-
tion to train itself and like the multi agent system their computational effort
is huge [25], to compensate the fault current and avoid blinding problem needs
several storage elements so that this is other expensive protection system [26].
Due above mentioned the adaptive protection systems were analyzed below.

135 2.4. Adaptive protection system

The conventional protection system are appropriate only when power system
operates in normal state but if the system is under stress, unnecessary tripping
will contribute [1], very likely, to wide spread system failures, thus compromising
system security. Therefore a new concept termed adaptive protection system
140 bored [8]. A brief explain is carried out to contextualize the these concept.
The “adaptive protection”, it is as an online activity that modifies the pre-
ferred protective response to a change in system conditions or requirements. It
is usually automatic, but can include timely human intervention. The same way

5
 Figure 3: Challenges and protection systems in ADN

an “adaptive relay” is a relay that can have its settings, characteristics or logic
145 functions changed online in a timely manner by means of externally generated
signals or control action.
In other words, “adaptive protection systems” are systems which allow to
change relay characteristics/settings due to the actual system state [27]. The
requirements for implementing adaptive relaying concepts are: Microprocessor-
150 based relays, appropriate software for relay modelling, relay coordination and
communication, appropriate means of communication et al. [28]. But with
new technologies this not completely true because several APS has been pro-
posed with different characteristic and circumstance for example: load current
changes, fault current changes, topology changes and coordination maintain.

155 3. Adaptive protection systems analysis

This section presents the main characteristics about of methodologies pro-
posed in scientific researches during ten last years, and each those were devel-
opment in order to overcome the protection problems due DG interconnection.
The characteristics will allow divide the different methodologies in five groups
160 and each one is identified with the most representative characteristic. The table
1 depicts the groups, their respective abbreviations and article’s references.
The methodologies have similar characteristics, see table 2, but only the
most representative was used to named the APS groups. The methodologies

6
 Table 1: Classification of APS based to fundamentals of methodologies
Most representative characteristic Reference
APS1 Comparative analysis of offline and online centralized information. [28–42]
The infeed effect and effective coverage of lines by means of anal-
APS2 [43–54]
ysis of pre-fault and post-fault characteristics.
Steady state model analysis of Distribution Network reduced to
APS3 [55–61]
unconventional Thvenin equivalent circuit.
Selection of the appropriate adaptive relay setting group (ARGS)
APS4 [62–69]
of adjustment parameters.
Determining of dynamic coordination range between recloser and
APS5 [70–74]
fuse.

in APS1 are great number due to exist several centralized substation but now
165 day these is changing and the protection elements based on microprocessors are
very important factor like will be describe below.

3.1. Main methodologies explanation

Continuing with analysis, in order to have comprehension about of each
methodology in this section will explain, first the most representative charac-
170 teristic and after each APS methodology with a particular description about
the problem, solution and its weakness.

3.1.1. Comparative analysis of offline and online centralized information [APS1]

The commercial software packages are integrate in a central processing unit
(CPU) in order to develop a collaborative work and centralized control. For
175 this, use the previous information gotten from load flow, short circuit analy-
sis and operative characteristics of ADN elements and its topology. All offline
information is saved in CPU in order to compare with values measured in net-
work operation (online) and so discriminate fault types, determine the faulted
section and adapt setting parameters on different protection devices during var-
180 ious operating conditions. From information transmission the methodology use
a communication protocol based on master-slave communication (CPU-relays)
in order to send all suitable command decision and concentrate all data provide
of field devices.
A example of APS1 has been proposed in [28] in order to implement the new
185 relay settings, even when exist different operating condition as: load changes,
system-topology changes and events fault. The hardware and software aspects
of implementation was outlined in order to exchange information, between relays
and station computer, trough local area network (LAN) in “token ring” config-
uration and with serial communication (RS-232) between station computer and
190 central station computer. During the total or partial failure of communication
system the relays go into program mode and fetch the previous settings stores in
nonvolatile memory in order to provide a conventional protection. At that time
(1994), the technology in microcontrollers and communication networks was not
as developed as today is known, so the implementation of this propose would

7
195 became very complex in comparison with APS proposed in [29] that used com-
mercial software packages to overcome the complexity of information processing
and also the problems that would appear with DG units interconnection into an
unbalanced distribution network. This APS was proposed in order to change
recloser parameter settings and thus save the fuses by means of fuse-recloser ad-
200 equate, for this requires create tables containing contribution from each source
to each type of fault at each bus, store the characteristics curves of fuses and
reclosers. These off-line information is compared with online measurements, fro
example, in case of a fault the APS sense this and determine its type by means
of excess the contribution current from sources, after determine the faulted zone
205 comparing if the fault current measurement is into the range of maximum and
minimum contribution current stored to each bus. Before send the tripping com-
mand to circuit breaker (CB) at faulted zone the current directions is verified,
last if the fault still sensed, to permanent fault creates and activate islands, else
if fault is temporary perform the reclosing operations only if . However, it has
210 precision errors during measurements state estimation for specify the faulted
zone, unlike the APS proposed in [30] that utilized a “Simulated Annealing
Method ”in order to precise fault location determination considering an ADN.
This APS calculates the errors between source currents and bus currents contri-
bution and determine the minimum errors in order to determine the faulted zone
215 and last send trip command to zone CB and DG CB, or only send trip command
to zone CB if there are not fault in DG unit. For fault sense and reclosing op-
eration utilized similar methodology to previous APS in [29]. However the APS
not work well for systems with low DG penetration and large fault resistor, so
these in [31] was proposed an APS to carry out integration DG problems, as well
220 as non-DG-caused such as undetected high-impedance ground faults. This was
based on hybrid approach of enhancing computer network with the IEC-61850
communication standard and distribution network protocol (DNP3), through
which also perform reclosing operation, but his key feature is that it APS can
sense and de-energized downed conductors. It is based on ground overcurrent
225 protection (50N, 51N), their setting are normally set at the maximum unbal-
ance current permitted at rated full load but the setting would be higher than
necessary whenever the load is less than the maximum rated for the feeder, and
consequently some high impedance ground faults are undetected. This APS
continuously monitor the load current and dynamically adjust the ground low-
230 set time overcurrent pick-up settings as a function of positive sequence current.
Unfortunately it protection trip only for permanent high impedance but will not
trip for transient high impedance ground faults. Due to DG itself disconnected,
not be possible to utilize the DG any more so that will not be perform reclosing
operation. In order to do possible utilize again DG units after the fault clear, the
235 authors in [32] proposed an APS base on capabilities of Distribution Automa-
tion System (DAS). This used previous methodology in [29] but isn’t dependent
of capacity and location of DGs like each zone of ADN divided, and updates its
operation whenever there is a change in network by means of a computer-based
relay installed in sub-transmission substation. It was implements into real ADN
240 and has strong ability of fault locating, efficiency when a generation unit goes

8
 out of operation and recognize when should be realize synchronized reclosing or
not. But the APS has some weaknesses, for example: it is not able to diagnose
high impedance faults, leads to increase of energy not supplied when a zone
has island operation and its load is not at peak being that take into account
245 only zones peak loads, zone divided increases with increase in number of DG
and consequently so many isolating circuit breaker will be needed. It APS may
not be economic due to needs monitoring each and every single of the existing
zones in a ADN, by other hand due to his detection faulted zone is affected due
to over-reach or sub-reach current in in [33] was proposed other similar APS
250 but it introduced a feed forward neural network to identify the fault location.
This use the predict results from the algorithm that consist on training of per-
ceptron multi-layer neural network for online fault location considering error of
back propagation. Its input must be proportion of maximum three-phase fault
current contribution (normalized values) respect to different sources in the sys-
255 tem with and without fault resistance for different types faults. A supervised
learning method was used for neural network training so than when the mean
square errors (MSE) vary in the interval of [−1, 1] due to normalization values
and MSE is near zero will means that training was done accurately. However in
order identify accurately the faulted line, reduce the time training of the single
260 staged neural network and maximize the speed and coordinate relays in [34]
was developed an APS with two staged radial basis function neural network
(RGFNN). The first RBFNN determines the fault distance from each source by
means of Euclidean norm, while the second RBFNN identifies the faulty line.
After identify the exact faulted line the protection coordination is implemented,
265 first the unitary protection and finally the backup protection coordination algo-
rithm, using backtracking algorithm based on heuristics. The implementation
procedures in the training of the RBFNN is summarized on first four offline
steps one online step, regard to the coordination problem it is realized by mul-
tistage confirmed step by step with its advantage for find a consistent solution
270 given enough time. However this APS only optimal DG placement was calcu-
lated but not considering a adequate placement of protective circuit breakers
to create the zones of ADN and improve the load shedding procedures, so that
in [35] was proposed an APS using an optimization method for placement of
protective circuit breakers. It APS also is similar to [32] regard to sense and iden-
275 tify fault and faulted section respectively, additionally there is an approached
based on the goal of minimizing the total risk of the system, this considering
the probability of each fault multiple by its damage during the power cut. At
here should be calculate how many CB’s are needs to be installed in the ADN
and those should be at last two times more than the number of DG units. In
280 spite of advantage of this APS your implementation is greatly complex, due this
in [36] defined the necessary steps that designer carry out for design an APS.
The algorithm of APS was integrated in a main programmable logic controller
(PLC) in order to improve efficiency and take into account impacts that pre-
vious method don’t, as the percentage changes of fault level respects system’s
285 levels without DG, and this is the same change to all nodes. This behavior
was used as calculation variable for reprogram relay’s parameters, building up

9
 an APS. So, it is possible to calculate the parameters for all the relays only
knowing original protection coordination of the systems without DG and the
percentage variation of fault levels. However this APS don’t applied in a real
290 system, so that was proposed an APS in [37] applying Real Time Hardware
in the Loop simulation (RT-HIL), besides using LabView software in order to
operator gives the possibility to change up the setup of any over current device
remotely if it is necessary. This was used for evaluate and validate the new
equipment of overcurrent protection device using an APS with a integrated and
295 collaborative software scheme with a communication infrastructures, standard
protocols upgrade and smart hardware sensors. Furthermore the RT-HIL can
be used as a platform for testing and validation of several overcurrent protection
algorithms. But this needs a efficient intelligent communication that support all
infrastructure to large ADN, so that in [38] proposed implement an APS that
300 support different multi-functional protection with communication systems. For
which makes use of Line differential, busbar differential and overcurrent protec-
tion, these has to support blocking schemes based an redundant communication
infrastructure in order to block the function upstream to obtain the correct
coordination and enhance the protection reliability. Besides the APS presents
305 several assumptions regard to the time delay components of the total fault clear-
ing time, like latency values of each component. This addresses simultaneously
three function protections and therefore, while more large the ADN, it becomes
unfeasible to precalculate protection settings and even would not cover all poten-
tial solutions. Due these disadvantages in [39] used functional layers which were
310 established according to the type of data and communication protocols (IEC-
61850). This APS provide one autonomous layer that in case of communication
failure between the execution (decisions) layer and the coordination layer it is
not affected. In order to minimize the protection operating times was adopted
the downstream to upstream calculation method and then new protection set-
315 ting are calculated and analyzed to establish if improvement can be achieved
through setting modification, otherwise, no further action is taken. The applica-
tion of variable protection settings were based on an approach does not employ
predefined protection setting groups because each specific protection setting is
accessible for modification, and the adaptive protection system can write the
320 calculate protection setting on an individual basis. It allows more flexibility but
the risk of applying wrong protection settings increase which might cause false
tripping or no operation of the protection system during faults and intermittent
DG infeed. For these reason in [40] other APS was presented also based in
communication protocol, which was based on overcurrent and distance relays.
325 The optimization of relay settings was based on differential search algorithm
(DSA) incorporated additional selectivity constraints in the objective function,
this was done to the zone-2 operations of distance relay to be most flexible rather
than keeping fixed. The settings are obtained by solving as per the operational
network topology which are identified in online mode by means of a fuzzy logic,
330 where each different network topology is a rule base. How ever are not possible
consider all different network topology, whereby also needed monitoring the sta-
tus breaker connected with DG source since, like in [41]. This other APS used

10
 a more simple way to identify the network topology by means of observation
of the active or passive state of each DG by mean of communication protocol.
335 There considered three selectivity methods, each one with its respective off-line
parameters values which were used to update the TMS values in real time and
after send the new values to each relay in order to the protection is dynamically
realized, considering the availability of DG power production (related to faults
or meteorological conditions). However the APS usually consists of single main
340 protection and has no breaker failure protection due this in order to improve
the reliability and realize dual-configuration protection in [42] was developed
a centralized scheme with coordination substation (CS) protection and master
substation (MS) protection. The first protection combines the local function
with coordination concept by means of three functional models and second is
345 a regional integrates backup protection and its protection range is the network
composed of several CSs and theirs available data through wide area commu-
nication network to analyze regional comprehensive information. The regional
information is sharing trough process bus (SV+GOOSE) between intelligent
electronic devices (IED) and the LAN communication with accurate GPS syn-
350 chronous time-marker gived by IEC-61850-9-2LE standard between substations.

3.1.2. The infeed effect and effective coverage of lines by means of analysis of
pre-fault and post-fault characteristics [APS2]
They are a decentralized APS in which the information is shared through a
master-master network communication architecture to field protection device.
355 This is how the primary and backup protection functions are executed, de-
pending by the variability factors obtained as a result of infeed effect analysis,
post-fault and pre-fault voltages and currents respectively. Hence, these APS
emphasized on the proportional relation of the positive sequence phase current,
which is represented by the ratio of phase voltages between phases before a
360 fault. Bearing this in mind the APS could clear fault with adaptive behavior,
as well as provide effective coverage of the lines to be protected.
In order to providing backup protection and higher line coverage to any
changes in the operating conditions of ADN, an approach for compute zone-2
(Z I I) settings for distance relay was proposed in [43]. This APS determined the
365 apparent impedance seen by relays with either max. or min. levels of genera-
tion, line contingencies and infeed effects. Then the relays are settings with least
apparent impedance seen when a fault is carried on at line of remote bus. This
reduced the operation delay time 2.3, however the protection will be only valid
to previous conditions analyzed. For this reason in [44] proposed a backup APS
370 in 11Kv distribution network that would allow increase DG unit connection. For
which used low voltage of transformer coil in order to estimate the line voltage.
But this voltage can’t measured directly for which parameters of transformer
was saved in relay, and so calculate the average fall voltage and add its positive
sequence voltage V 1 . This estimate voltage already compensated was utilized to
375 determine the transformer’s load current online and so calculate the new settings
of the relay. However DG connection is not always through transformers, beside
this methodology would be very limited to system impedance (Zth ) upstream at

11
 relay location. For these reason in [45] proposed calculate infeed coefficient and
the Thevenin parameters (Zth and Vth ) by means of previous analysis. This
380 APS analyzed several fault location to determine an index which allow amends
line current due to down-reach and over-reach problem. Then that relay had to
calculate its new settings according to DG location. That is, if DG is located
downstream to relay, then this will utilize the Thevenin parameters and if DG
is located upstream will utilized the infeed coefficient. However, although this
385 APS too offered and hybrid method to island detect its authors only considered
DG based on traditional rotating machine. Due this in [46] utilized an inverter
interfaced DG and also distance relays. In order to obtain the current contri-
bution from DG unit, this was modeling by DC-type PQ-mode control, whit
these, the relay will calculate setting Z II with enough sensitivity to clear fault
390 at next protected line. It depended on infeed coefficient expressed as a relation
between a subtraction between interphase current contribution of DG and a
subtraction between interphase current contribution of main grid. However this
APS would have problems to calculate setting Z II when there is more than one
DG in ADN. For this reason in [47] proposed an APS for resolve the low sen-
395 sitivity problem with an integrated protection. This consisted to combine both
current and voltage instantaneous protections for which adopted a multithread-
ing technique with aim to execute multiple processes concurrently. However the
operating system of relay had to endure the large computational load, this is the
reason for which the APS was only analyzed and not implemented. But more
400 late it would be implemented in [48], with traditional rotating machine DG.
Besides in this occasion analyzed contingency and variation load conditions in
order to test the sensitivity of APS. However the authors suggested that is nec-
essary reduce the computational effort for these APS with protection functions
integrated. Whit this in mind in [49] proposed an APS based in overcurrent
405 function with enhancing the backup protection. This APS organized the mea-
surements of pre-failure and post-failure in bus bars and inverter interfaced DG
in matrices, as well as all line’s impedance. The impedance matrix was sepa-
rated in local lines impedance matrix and external lines impedance matrix, it
in order to determine a correct settings to local and backup protection even
410 in case of topological changes, because the elements of inductance matrix are
all modified accordingly. However if the ADN grows or new DG are integrated
the matrices will not be adequate. Whit this in mind in [50] proposed an APS
in order to implement more DG than already exist in the ADN without affect
to reliability and sensitivity of protection elements even either three phase or
415 interphase faults. Its methodology was based on determine the relation between
voltages and currents before and after than fault occur. From this relation ob-
tained two voltage factors Uf 1 and Uf 2 which have to change according to fault
type, these are less than one during normal operating condition. Then Uf 1 > 1
and Uf 1 < 1 if fault location is on line where relay was installed, but if fault
420 location is on external line Uf 1 < 1 and Uf 2 > 1. The back protection were
coordinated with primary protection by means of delay time which the relay
has to wait before fault clearing. However the relay needs information sharing
through a decentralized communication network, whereby when communication

12
 failure only primary protection will work. Besides the single ground fault wasn’t
425 analyzed and was for this reason than in [51] proposed an APS considering the
infeed contribution through neutral line in ADN. Two distance relays were uti-
lized Mho and quadrilateral type in order to provide an effective directionality
and adequate zones protection. However, the configuration of the relays was
made based on the traditional analysis of the infeed effect, so that the identifi-
430 cation of the failed zone would be affected, bedsides its full functionality requires
three phase-to- neutral connected VTs what makes the costs increase. For these
reason in [52] proposed an APS with one numerical distance relay in order to
perform discrimination of the faulted area. This methodology proposed solve
heterogeneity of lines problem by means of correction factor which modifies the
435 virtual impedance seen for the relay. The factors depend of conductors type
and are obtained from optimization method, this was an disadvantage because
there had delay times during relays operation. However for implement this
APS is necessary a huge synchronized information whereby in [53] proposed an
methodology that only used the phase currents information. This only needs
440 to collect current information, therefore there is no need for additional voltage
transformer. With this information the relay can determine if fault is external
or internal by means of compare the phase of sequence current before and after
fault. Due to APS used a pilot scheme, only needs to transmit discrete values of
phase variation and not require communication channel with high synchroniza-
445 tion. Finally the authors in [54] proposed a methodology similar to described
in [50]. Then when fault is detected in the system, each relay will search other
relay at same protection area and these will exchange the voltage and current
synchronized phasor measurements. With these information the adaptive ac-
tion factor is constructed according to the proportional relationship between the
450 phase voltage difference and phase current after the fault. However this APS
was proposed only for three-phase and interphase fault.

3.1.3. Steady state model analysis of Distribution Network reduced to unconven-

tional Thvenin equivalent circuit [APS3]
In conventional Thevenin equivalent circuit there are relationship between
455 Thevenin equivalent voltages Vth and impedance Zth , these can be obtained as
long as Vth are constant. However these parameters are determined once only
and Vth does not always stay constant. Several APS in this group proposed uti-
lize the variation in voltages and currents in order to achieve accurate Thevenin
equivalent circuit parameters, for this they have to two important considering
460 to determine this equivalent model. The first approximation is model DG units
as a current source with constant output power during fault duration and con-
sider the fault current at relay to be constant and equal to the steady state
fault current value. Beside their parameters must be determined continuously
instead of once and hence any changes in ADN could be detected adding to this
465 the Thevenin parameters at each bus bar would determined in variations term.
Finally with those parameters the short circuit currents are obtained in order
to relays update with new settings.
A fault behaviour analysis when ADN works in island mode was proposed

13
 in [55]. There, in order to develop an APS the authors considering inverter
470 interface DG units and so comprehend the behaviour of system voltages and
currents during fault and operating condition changes either ADN or on/off DG
units. However due to standard short circuit analysis cannot handle or account
for a current source they used a power flow technique, which can be solved using
the Gauss-Newton method. From this analysis the relays would be setting with
475 updates currents values, but if communication link failure the pickup settings
will not adequate. For this reason in [56] proposed a methodology which the
parameters of Thevenin equivalent were determined to each bus where fault ex-
ist and hence the communication network was not necessary. This APS utilized
overcurrent and distance relays and their settings were estimated using to the
480 method proposed in [57]. The main advantage was that by knowing the fault
currents estimated, the OC relay over any power line must adjusted indepen-
dently (i.e., there is no need to simultaneously set the calculation for the OC
relays of all power lines). However using this method, only problems in relay’s
operation due to changes in the topology of ADN are totally solved. For this
485 reason in [58] was proposed an APS with simple improvements that made robust
u
against oscillation by charges. This APS establish threshold parameters of Vth
u
and Zth for determine when should be calculate the Thevenin parameters, it
latter by means of get samples and their variations. Once the parameters have
been determined the APS have to take a decision, set the relay with new set-
490 tings or set original setting. However only rotating conventional machines were
analyzed hence in [59] analyzed the transient model of Doubly-fed Induction
Generator (DFIG) in order to proposed an APS based on overcurrent instanta-
neous relays. Therefore, the output power of DFIG should be obtained in real
time in the protection installed places and calculate the effective value of short
495 circuit current I with Fourier algorithm. If I > Iu where Iu is threshold current
then there is fault at line and the protection acts. However, it continued using
the Gauss-Newton optimization method to estimate the parameters. For this
reason in [60] used another well-known optimization method called primal-dual
hybrid gradient algorithm. This APS implemented the multistage strategy with
500 definite-time OC relays still widely utilized in China for un-grounded ADN. In
order to get Thevenin impedance Zth upstream to relay location, the method-
ology utilized a Rudin, Osher, and Fatemi (ROF) optimized denoising model
in which system’s impedance is smooth at most time and has mutation par-
tially, interfered by white Gaussian noise. Whit this processing of co-variances
505 were estimated the fault currents setting to relays and then coordinated pri-
mary and backup OC protections in real time and adaptive way. However in
results presented inaccuracy whereby the back protection in few chances failed.
Finally in [61] implemented cutting-edge technology in order to develop an APS
based on current differential. The protection discussed here only focused on
510 clearing two types of fault, e.g. interphase and three-phase short-circuit, and
adopted three-phase reclosing mode. This work implemented a prototype using
an advanced hardware platform embedded with real-time multi-tasking opera-
tion system (RTOS), FPGA and DSP elements. Here utilized positive-sequence
fault component (PSFC) and determined three differential protection criteria in

14
515 order to identify the section feeder in distribution network normally non-solidly
grounding. Beside this APS needs data self-synchronization and peer-to-peer
communication techniques.

3.1.4. Selection of the appropriate adaptive relay setting group (ARSG) of ad-
justment parameters [APS4]
520 In this group the APS using adaptive relay setting groups (ARSG), these
are obtained from offline analysis and are selected online, these are restricted
to availability in each microprocessor-based relay. The main characteristics of
these methodologies are each relay stores in its memory space the time charac-
teristic curves (TCC) and the setting parameters of each of the relays associated
525 with its protection area upstream and downstream, selects groups of adjustment
parameters for different conditions of operation and status of the ADN, in order
to get the interaction between protection devices a communication protocol is
not always necessary. In some proposals, the protection system adaptability
varies due to DG’s intermittent nature, therefore stochastic methods analysis
530 was used in order to improve the protection systems adaptability.
According to previous context in [62] two protection systems were proposed,
adaptive and non-adaptive protection system. Only adaptive protection sys-
tem going to be discus here, it was based on previous obtaining of optimum
minimum number of relays, their location and their new settings under on/off
535 DG combinations. However this APS might not be applicable as the number
of DGs increases, besides some factors could impact its reliability when opti-
mization methods are using as processor speeds and computational effort et al.
Hence the authors in [63] presented a simple and local APS without commu-
nication. In this way, any problem with a protective relay is limited to that
540 relay only. This used directional overcurrent relays (DOR) with different fixed
ARSG, algorithm for island detecting and stored all information from down-
stream relay as instantaneous and pickup overcurrent settings. Then with these
data each relay detect the faulted section comparing instantaneous overcurrent
with fault current measurement and identify which relay cleared the fault by
545 means of calculate the times operation and compare with the time in which the
fault was cleared. Later the suitable setting group is selected. But only radial
ADN was evaluated and not meshed ADN hence in [64] proposed an APS using
4 ARSG types. This method can adapt to the state changes, such as change
of operation mode (grid-connected or islanded) and changing of the topology
550 (radial or meshed). As opposed to detection method above here they configured
the auto-reclosure times differently in order to relays could accurately identify
which relay has tripped. After successfully identifying the faulted section, the
upstream forward relays would know which DG has lost, and update the new
protection settings to their adjacent backward relays. However, this APS as-
555 sumed that all current relays have measured is the actual fault current, but this
may not be accurate, besides in order to enhanced island detection method and
reliability of protection in [65] was proposed an APS with thyristor-based de-
vice connected next to the relay, through which the grid equivalent impedance
is measured. This impedance was calculated using the thyristor pulse current

15
560 magnitude and the terminal voltage magnitude. The first stage consists on
identifying voltage disturbances after send the pulse to enable the thyristor to
conduct, this pulse only with a minimum voltage level of 80% to ensure that the
equivalent impedance of the ADN will not be measured before a fault is cleared,
due the thyristor activation is repeated unnecessarily. Following, the state de-
565 tection algorithm compares the calculated impedance to previous saved values
when ADN configuration were previously studied. Once a change of the ADN
configuration is detected, a signal is sent to the overcurrent relay. Based on this
signal, the most suited ARSG is selected to ensure the ADN safety operation. If
the voltage keeps varying, the minimum interval for firing the thyristor is 4 cy-
570 cles. However due to power output of the DG units is intermittent, only ARSG
aren’t sufficient. Owing to this, in [66] proposed an APS based on: selection
of suitable ARSG, fuzzy logic decision module (FLDM) and also implemented
a recursive discrete Fourier transformed technique (FRDFT) for efficient esti-
mation signals. Regard to this methodology the measurements of current and
575 voltage signal are processed through the FRDFT to get fundamental phasors
(magnitude and angle) and later given as input to the directional unit in order
to provides the connectivity status of the system to the relay. Different ARSG
are chosen according to operating conditions of ADN when APS haven’t FLDM.
But to avoid the directional element in the relays closer to DG and considerate
580 the varying DG power, the FLDM module is embedded with FRDFT. This can
be easily coordinated with other numerical relays and can be implemented in
hardware to provide a cost-efficient solution to handle the stochastic nature of
DG units. On other hand in contrast to ADNs city other APS was proposed in
[67] for maritime ADN without a central control unit, with the advantage that a
585 possible single point of failure is eliminated. Each relay is able to obtain online
information about the status of the generators or circuit breaker (CB) position,
thus to correctly identify the network status. It does not require any additional
hardware and it is based on the same communication infrastructure due to the
short distance between the equipment, sometimes already existent in the mar-
590 itime applications for control purposes. Each relay is provided with 2 protection
functions: an over current protection and inter-tripping function in order to im-
prove the backup operation, stimulating the tripping operation of another relay.
The relays also stores the calculated settings but a single ARSG is active at once.
Selection of the active ARSG is realized based on the network status detected by
595 the relay. The relay continuously adjusts its settings, such that the optimal set-
tings are always active. However in order to go beyond conventional simulation
an APS based on hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) infrastructure was implemented in
[68]. This consisted on a real-time digital simulator (RTDS), powerful optimiza-
tion techniques convex and non-convex into the adaptive process, multifunction
600 digital relays, and a programmable logic controller (PLC). The ADN utilized
was simulated into RTDS, while digital relays undertake the supervision and
protection of selected distribution feeders. Optimal ARSGs can be either pre-
calculated offline if ADN operating scenarios are known, or calculated online if
the are numerous possible configurations and the available relays’ ARSG can-
605 not entirely satisfy these conditions. The PLC was firstly responsible to get

16
 and store the circuit breakers (CB) status, and second that relays’ transition
be to the proper ARSG whenever a major change in network operating mode
takes place (e.g., DG on/off, grid reconfiguration, et al.). Considering all above
methodologies born a question What happen if the protection coordination will
610 not be optimized?. Use ARSG with a switching signal between groups was the
response in [69]. Its already well-known fact that, the modern relays have the
ability to switch between multiple groups of time current characteristic (TCC)
curves, this according to system operating conditions. The proposed algorithm
defined two ARSG, based on the DG capacity and the fault current contributed
615 from DG. The relays must be adapt to the changes in the network configuration
using the wireless network (Elmadar), which has a very good coverage, and was
adopted as the main link among the protection relays.

3.1.5. Determining of dynamic coordination range between recloser and fuse

[APS5]
620 It is a challenging task to coordinate reclosers in a radial distribution line
with fuses on the line’s laterals, when DG units are present at feeder. Therefore
several APS has been proposed considering the coordination of fuse and recloser
characteristic curves in its worst situations when the ADN architecture change
due to on/off circuit-breaker’s actions or even recloser’s actions. This APS are
625 capable of maintaining and improving the time margin for which the fusible-
recloser coordination would not be lost considering certain GD input capacities
before the melt fuse. With this in mind an factor must be calculated using the
currents through recloser and fuse during fault event downstream fuse located.
This factor was utilized in order to shift the characteristic curves of recloser and
630 so adapt range coordination. But according to [56] the adaptive setting method
cannot overcome recloser-fuse coordination problem, mainly because blowing
the fuse is independent of the recloser setting. But not only changing the fuse
link or using the (fault current limiter)FCL are effective overcome this problem
but also the APS analyzed below.
635 Microprocessor-based recloser with adaptive capabilities have been proposed
for achieving protection coordination considering the worst condition (DG ca-
pacity at 200% of maximum feeder load). In order to maintain enough margin
between fast and low recloser’s curves these are shifted in [70]. For this here
multiplied the recloser time dial setting (TDS) by fuse-recloser ratio (FRR),
640 this last utilizing the maximum possible fault current through fuse and recloser
If use /Irecloser . Besides the leakage reactance of the corresponding DGs inter-
face transformer is assumed to be conservatively low, i.e. 5% and also taken into
account that due to possibility of out of phase synchronization a common utility
practice has been to disconnect the DG before recloser closes for the first time.
645 Hence, when the recloser closes for the first time, DG no longer exists in the
circuit and the system will change to original condition, this means that original
coordination curves without DG wont now again be valid. In order to avoid the
definitive disconnection of the GD units was proposed an APS in [71] in which
the recloser settings must be changed after the first reclosure. The authors con-
650 sidered a directional relays which were employed at beginning of feeders where

17
 DG units were connected. Adding, in order to preclude false tripping when a
fault impacts the neighboring feeder each relay block it is ow circuit breaker dur-
ing a pre-specified period of time. This action allow to relay of the faulty feeder
to isolate the fault on their own. The blockage, however, does not continue any
655 longer than the duration of the relay reverse definite time; afterwards, the circuit
breaker is commanded to open, as a back-up protection. However, these studies,
can only applied in specific networks and requires various measurement points in
ADN, at least equal to the number of fuses, and can-not check the coordination
between protective relays after connecting each DG in the network. Moreover,
660 the proposed APS may provide unreliable operation because of disconnection of
DG at every fault occurrence even when faults are temporary in nature. There-
fore in [72] proposes an APS to calculate and change the pickup current setting
of instantaneous element whenever a DG unit is added or removed from ADN
in order to ensure fuse-recloser coordination under different fault conditions.
665 Furthermore a wireless link between DG units and the ADN control centre is
needed for continuous monitoring of DG status. Hence, cost, speed, redundancy,
and reliability of the communication systems are several important factors that
must be considered before implementation. Despite of that implemented an
APS by means of ”Supervisory control and data acquisition” (SCADA) in [73]
670 using the algorithm bio-geography-based optimization (BBO) which help to op-
timize the capacity and location of DG units in a real distribution feeder, by
minimizing of losses and maintaining the recloser fuse coordination even while
using the adaptive relay methodology expressed in the previous section. How-
ever, these proposes focuses only synchronous machines DGs, so that an APS
675 was presented to recloser fuse coordination considering high photo-voltaic (PV)
DG for different fault scenarios, variation of PV penetration and different fault
resistance was presented in [74].

3.2. Comparative analysis of main methodology characteristics

After describing the methodologies and the respective APS proposed of each
680 group, in this section carries out the comparative analysis of each of them by
means of the characteristics that most represent in order to gives to know the
complexity or simplicity of each methodology.
Each one of methodologies presents a certain difficult which can be deduced
from its main characteristics, see tables 2 and 3. The analysis begin from most
685 to least difficult methodology.
The APS1 needs to know most of the electrical network topology to be
protect, also executes optimization techniques and fault type discrimination
methodology, but it should be noted that it is practically impossible to ana-
lyze all possible faults considering all different fault impedance. Those methods
690 would require the collection of an enormous amount of data due to the hugeness
of the set of conditions to be considered. This makes totally impractical to take
into account the possibility of simultaneous faults (even though they are rela-
tively unlikely to occur). Trying to do this would mean to increase the number
of simulations beyond a realistic limit. Like all information is processed only
695 in the central unit may be occurs great retards during the sending of actuation

18
 Table 2: Adaptive protection systems qualitative analysis
CHARACTERISTICS APS1 APS2 APS3 APS4 APS5
√ √ √ √
Storage and control of decentralized information
√ √
Formation and use fault and overcurrent database
Share out information through master-master network archi- √
tecture
Contrast between stored and measured values of Imaxf ault , √ √
Imaxload to define unhealthy section √
Integrated and collaborative software scheme
√ √
Use conventional teleprotection schemes
√ √
Autonomous main element of protection
Centralized information through master-slave network archi- √
tecture
Knowledge of the network topology and status of the switches √ √
(on / off)
Stored of the contribution current of the distributed generation √ √ √
for several operating conditions
Require current signals and either one or both post-fault and √ √ √
pre-fault voltage √ √ √
Use parameters obtained from optimization techniques
Use fault coefficient types to know the status of the protected √
section
Consider the variation of voltages and currents to unconven- √
tional Thevenin equivalent circuit √ √
Short circuit analysis with equivalent models of DG
Storage of decision parameter’s relays and setting groups in √
each relay
√ √ √
Use fault type discrimination methodology
Characteristics of Minimum Melting (MM) and Total Clear- √
ance (TC) of all fuses in network must be stored
√ √
Overcome subsequent faults
Requires a detailed off-line study to determine protection set- √ √ √
tings √ √
Link communication from DG units

signals to the respective protection elements and also during information re-
ception time from respective protection devices through a large communication
protocol.
In order to face the limits of the previous methodology, the APS3 methodolo-
700 gies was proposed. The processing of the information is decentralized, although
it also uses optimization technique and fault type discrimination methodology,
but the computational stress is less than APS1 methodologies and wont have
problems due network expansion. The complexity appears when considering the
variation of voltages and currents for the non-conventional Thevenin equivalent
705 and the short-circuit analysis of the equivalent models of distributed generation.
Then, in contrast to above, the APS2 methodologies don’t use optimization tech-
nique neither a network or DG equivalent circuit. It use fault coefficient types
determining from post-fault and pre-fault signal either current or voltage share
out between adjacent relays. Regard to functions of protection this approach
710 is based in adaptability factor that uses to determine the tripping signals in
primary and backup protection, if the adjacent information is false or has com-
munication mistake the APS would be failure. But these adopts multithreading
technique which differs from multiprocessing in APS1 methodologies. For this

19
 reason the APS5 methodologies builds on the ratio between recloser fault cur-
715 rent and fuse during the fault event in order to shift the characteristic curves.
The initial adjustment parameters are determined from the previous study of
the network to determine the range of displacement of the characteristic curve.
But due to requires current flow through the fuse, measurement elements are
installed in each ADN node and although it is a simple methodology it is also
720 expensive.
A opposed to methods above described in the APS4 the main protection
device is totally autonomous because no needs remote information through a
communication protocol due to it store information in itself with the parameters
of decision, operation times of relays and circuit breakers in ADN exist. But
725 this methodologies constrain to numbers of available ARSG that depend on
manufacturing and is susceptible to determine the correct current seen in the
relay during fault event. In the table 3 depicts highlight merits and demerits
about of methodologies.
Availability of the Difficult imple-
Merits Demerits Cost
communication link mentation
Applicable for all DG
The algorithm run time
APS1 types, normal and abnor- Total Advanced Expensive
increase with system size.
mal operating condition.
Applicable for both grid
Performance fails during
APS2 connected mode and is- Partial Intermediate Reasonable
network changes.
landed mode.
Communication between
Capable to handle the net-
APS3 numerical relay and DG Partial Challenging Reasonable
work dynamic changes.
are essential.
Difficult identification
Suitable only for local in-
APS4 of all potential network Not essential Moderate Cheap
formation.
topology.
It is not desirable change
APS5 Use simple algorithm. the complete curve of re- Not essential Demanding Cheap
closer.

Table 3: Merit and demerits of different methodologies

4. Conclusion

730 This paper has described and analyzed the most important characteristics
of APS regarding the topology of active distribution systems. After perform-
ing an overview of the most relevant advantages and disadvantages of APS, a
classification of the most used has been carried out, based on different method-
ologies to change relay characteristics/settings due to the actual system state,
735 DG interconnection type and their connection to the utility. In this context,
five main groups have been distinguished, which are named as in the table 2.
In order to highlight the most relevant features of each configuration a com-
parative evaluation has been carried out, showing that there is not an optimal
solution for all the applications. The APS will highly depend on the application
740 and environment it is going to be integrated, so a deeper research of the scenar-
ios and topology is considered necessary. The authors consider that this paper
provides a guide for developers to further research the development of adaptive

20
 protection systems at active distribution network applications. Among the fac-
tors that need to be improved, the reliability, efficiency and cost of the interface
745 device are considered to be some of the most important ones for the integration
of these APS.
This paper was the first part, of the subsequent development of a strategy,
based on quantitative analysis, that will help to better selection of methodologies
according to their needs. For now has been presented, the qualitative analysis
750 of APS’s methodologies

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