Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

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The Mesoproterozoic Kibaride belt (Katanga, SE D.R. Congo)

J.W. Kokonyangi a,*, A.B. Kampunzu b,z, R. Armstrong c, M. Yoshida d,
T. Okudaira e, M. Arima a, D.A. Ngulube f
a
Geological Institute, Graduate School of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
b
University of Botswana, Department of Geology, Private Bag 0022, Gaborone, Botswana
c
Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
d
Gondwana Institute for Geology and Environment, 147-2 Hashiramoto, Hashimoto 648-0091, Japan
e
Department of Geosciences, Faculty of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
f
Institut Pédagogique National (IPN), Kinshasa/Binza, Congo

Received 15 February 2004; accepted 15 January 2006

Available online 17 July 2006

Abstract

Five representative key regions from the NE–SW-trending Mesoproterozoic Kibaride belt of SE Congo are described. Although the
present database is still insufficient for a definitive reconstruction of the tectonic setting, available data suggest that the investigated areas
experienced a similar geological history. The Kibaran Supergroup comprises four major lithostratigraphic units in SE Congo. The Kia-
ora Group is the oldest unit. It starts with a basal conglomerate which is overlain by siliciclastic rocks deposited in fluviatile and possibly
lacustrine environments. The conglomerate is overlain by abundant metapelites (predominantly black schist) with calc-silicate, volcano-
sedimentary rocks and minor metachert deposited in shallow marine environments. These units are cut by 1.38 Ga granitoids. The over-
lying Nzilo Group is composed of coarse-grained, siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks including metaconglomerates, quartzites and minor
metapelites and metamorphosed ironstones. Frequent herringbone and wavy ripples suggest tidal flat deposition. The maximum depo-
sitional age of this group is given by the 1.38 Ga granitoids on which it rests disconformably and by detrital zircons from a quartzite,
which yields a concordant age of 1360 ± 27 Ma. The above two groups are separated by a disconformity along with the matrix-supported
Kataba Conglomerate occurs at the base of the Nzilo Group. Higher in the succession, the Hakansson Group is essentially pelitic with
minor quartzites. At the top of the succession, the Lubudi Group is made of (stromatolitic) carbonates, black schists and minor black
quartzites and is inferred to record shallow marine deposition. All these metasedimentary rocks were deposited before the emplacement
of ca. 1.0–0.95 Ga tin granites and are older than 1.08 Ga, which is the age of the climax of Kibaran deformation in the Mitwaba area.
Two major deformational events have been recognized in the study areas. The earliest (D1) is characterized by ENE-trending asym-
metric folds and thrusts showing N to NNW transport directions. These structures occur in the Kiaora Group and predate the deposition
of the Nzilo, Hakansson and Lubudi Groups. The second deformation (D2) marks the climax of the Kibaran orogeny and affects all
sedimentary units. It is defined by NW-verging mesoscopic and macroscopic isoclinal folds (F2) and reverse faults parallel to D2 planar
fabrics. M2 metamorphism is characterized by medium-pressure/medium-temperature (MP/MT) mineral parageneses, with preliminary
data indicating peak P-T conditions between 740–780 C and 6–6.5 Kb. U–Pb dating of metamorphic zircon in older orthogneisses in the
Mitwaba region tentatively constrains the timing of M2 metamorphism at 1079 ± 14 Ma.
The Kiaora Group was intruded by widespread arc-related gabbro-diorite and ca. 1.38 Ga syn-D1 calcalkaline and strongly peralu-
minous granitic plutons similar to those documented in the Lachlan and Hercynian belts. Late to post-kinematic granites and related
pegmatites and greisens hosting tin-group ore deposits were emplaced at 1.0–0.95 Ga and exhibit geochemical similarities with SE
Asian collisional granites. The Kibaran orogenic system was active between 1.4–1.38 (accretionary stage) and 1.0–0.95 Ga (continen-
tal collision and post-orogenic exhumation), but the Kiaora Group sedimentary rocks were deposited prior to 1.4–1.38 Ga, which is the
igneous crystallization age for the syn-D1 Kibaran orthogneisses intruding them. Sedimentological data broadly indicate that the Kiaora
Group was deposited in shallow marine environments, during the rift-drift stage of the evolving Kibaran basin while the post-D1 Nzilo

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 45 333 1416.
E-mail address: jkokonyangi@yahoo.fr (J.W. Kokonyangi).
z
Deceased November 2004.

1464-343X/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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2 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

Group was deposited in an intra-arc environment, although more modern data are required before a definite conclusion can be reached.
Available structural, sedimentological, geochronological and petrological data support a convergent margin setting for the Kibaride belt
and are inconsistent with an intracontinental, rift model.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Congo; Kibaride belt; Mesoproterozoic orogeny; Subduction; Continental tectonics

1. Introduction and references therein). In central and southern Africa

Available geological, tectonothermal, geochronological
and paleomagnetic data from 1.4 to 1.0 Ga orogens and
adjacent cratonic blocks around the world suggest that
the Mesoproterozoic was dominated by accretionary and
collisional orogenic processes that culminated in the assem-
bly of the Rodinia supercontinent (e.g. Dalziel et al., 2000
(Fig. 1, upper inset), Mesoproterozoic orogenic events led
to the development of the Kibaran orogenic system (Rob-
ert, 1931; Cahen, 1954; Cahen et al., 1984; Thomas et al.,
1994). The segment of the Kibaran system exposed in SE
Democratic Republic of Congo (hereafter Congo) is known
as the Kibaride belt, and has been defined as the type-area
of the Kibaran orogenic system of Africa (e.g. Cahen

Fig. 1. The Kibaride belt of SE Congo. Inset shows the distribution of the Kibaran orogenic system in sub-equatorial Africa. C = Congo craton,
B = Bangweulu block, BT = Buganda-Toro, K = Kalahari craton, T = Tanzania craton. Compiled from Cahen (1954) and Lepersonne (1974).
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
et al., 1984; Kampunzu et al., 1986). In fact, the original
name given to this Mesoproterozoic belt in French was
‘‘système du Kibarien’’. With the progress of mapping in
central and eastern Africa, it was realized that several
orogenic belts in this region were correlative of the ‘‘système
du Kibarien’’, including the Burundian, Karagwe–Ankole,
and Irumides belts. In the 1960s/early 1970s therefore it
was commonplace to use the name Kibaran for the whole
Mesoproterozoic orogenic system of Africa. In order to
avoid potential confusion, Cahen and others introduced
in the 1970s, in the Anglophone literature, the name Kiba-
rides for the type area of the Kibaran belt in central Africa
and Irumides for the Kibaran segment exposed in Zambia.
The geographic position of the Kibaride belt makes it a
critical area for any correlation between the northern (e.g.
Burundian belt of Rwanda, Burundi and northern Congo,
Karagwe–Ankolean belt of Uganda and Tanzania) and
southern (e.g. Namaqua–Sinclair–Rehoboth of Namibia,
Namaqua–Natal of South Africa) segments of the Meso-
proterozoic orogenic system of Africa.
The Kibaride orogenic belt is preserved as a NE-trend-
ing zone of deformation, metamorphism and magmatism
over 600 km long and 100–300 km wide, from Kongolo
(NE) to Nzilo (SW) in the Katanga province of Congo
(Fig. 1). This belt is composed of supracrustal sedimentary
and volcano-sedimentary assemblages intruded by numer-
ous plutons. Along its eastern margin, the Kibaride belt
is in tectonic contact with the Palaeoproterozoic Bangwe-
ulu block, which was accreted to the Tanzania craton dur-
ing the Palaeoproterozoic (Schandelmeier, 1981; Andersen
and Unrug, 1984; Kabengele et al., 1991). Along its western
margin, the Kibaran belt has both unconformable (Kiba-
ran basal conglomerate exposed in Nzilo region; Mortel-
Fig. 2. General geological map of the Mitwaba region. Modified after Cahen (1954), Van de Steen (1953b), Kokonyangi et al. (2001b), Kampunzu et al.
(unpublished data). A–B represents the cross section shown in Fig. 10a.
3
mans, 1951) and tectonic contacts (see Bukama region,
Lataillade and Bielle, 1972) with the Archaean/Palaeopro-
terozoic Congo Craton. There are no geological similarities
between Archaean–Palaeoproterozoic rocks exposed on
either side of the Kibaride belt. To the south of the Kiba-
rides (Fig. 1) occur the rocks defining the Neoproterozoic
Katangan belt, which have both unconformable and tec-
tonic contacts with the Kibaride belt.
This contribution presents an overview of the geological,
geochronological and tectonic evolution of the Kibaride belt
on the basis of data from five representative key areas: Mitw-
aba, Mwanza, Bukama, Bia and Nzilo (Fig. 1) in the south-
western sector of the Kibaran belt in SE Congo. Existing
data are of variable quality and insufficient to provide a com-
prehensive geological and geochronological reconstruction
of the evolution of the entire belt. However, the lithostrati-
graphic, structural and magmatic similarities along with
geological continuity of units exposed in these five adjacent
regions allow preliminary regional correlations. The Mitw-
aba region has been used as the reference region because it
is the best documented area of the Kibaride belt (e.g. Kam-
punzu et al., 1986; Kokonyangi et al., 2001a,b, 2004).
2. Mitwaba
The Kibara Mountains, the type locality of the Meso-
proterozoic Kibaran orogenic system as first defined by
Robert (1931), occur in the Mitwaba region. They define
a ca. 100-km-long, NE-trending mountainous region
underlain by greenschist to amphibolite facies metasedi-
mentary sequences intruded by abundant felsic and mafic
plutonic bodies (Fig. 2). Excellent exposures allow docu-
mentation of geological structures along the NW–SE to
4 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

NNW–SSE Mitwaba–Kapia road, which runs across strike
and allows a detailed lithostratigraphic succession of the
Kibaran metasedimentary units to be established in this
area (e.g. Cahen, 1939, 1954; De Magnée, 1935a,b; Grose-
mans, 1948; Mortelmans, 1951; Raynaud, 1952a; Van de
Steen, 1953a, 1959; Kampunzu et al., 1986; Kokonyangi,
2001; Kokonyangi et al., 2001a,b, 2002). A schematic litho-
stratigraphic column for the Kibaran metasedimentary
units in this area is shown in Fig. 3. It is important to note
at this stage that due to the grade of metamorphism and
the intensity of ductile deformation in some locations, all
the thicknesses reported in this paper are structural rather
than stratigraphic thicknesses. Three main units can be rec-
ognized within the supracrustal sedimentary packages
(Table 1): (1) the oldest has a structural thickness up to
4300 m and is composed of muscovite-chlorite schists,

Fig. 3. Lithostratigraphic columns of the five representative key-regions within the Kibaride belt. Main data sources are Cahen (1954), Lepersonne (1974),
Byamungu et al. (1979), Cahen et al. (1984) and Kokonyangi (2001).
Table 1
Correlative lithostratigraphy of the five investigated areas within the Kibaride belt
Group names and identified
magmatism and deformation
K4 or Lubudi
• Absence of Dl fabrics
• Presence of Syn-D2
fabrics and related
igneous rocks
• late to post-Kibaran
tin granites, quartz,
pegmatites
K3 or Tambo or Hakansson
• Absence of Dl fabrics
• Presence of Syn-D2
fabrics and related
igneous rocks
• Late to post-Kibaran
tin granites, quartz,
pegmatites
K2 or Mulumbi or Nzilo:
• Absence of Dl fabrics
• Presence of Syn-D2
fabrics and related
igneous rocks
• Late to post-Kibaran
tin granites, quartz and
pegmatites
Major unconformity
K1 or Mitwaba or Kiaora
• Syn-Dl fabrics and related
igneous rocks (mafic and
felsic).
• Syn-D2 fabrics and related
igneous rocks
• late to post-Kibaran tin
granites, quartz, pegmatites
Note: Group names are from Cahen (1954), Cahen et al. (1984) and Kokonyangi (2001).
Mitwaba
Greenish slates, black to
greenish metapelites, minor
quartzites and rare
metaconglomerates? Thickeness
Coarse grained quartzites,
psamm-itic schists, conglomerates,
metapelite intercalations, Fe–Ti
oxide-bearing quartzites
100–300 m Kataba Conglomerate
Ch1t schists, ms schists, grt-bt
schists, psammitic schists, minor
quartzites, grt-bt-sil gneisses
observed thickness: ±4300 m
Mwanza
Fine quartzite, marbles,
calc-silicates, black to
purplish metapelites, minor
quartzites
Fine grained black to pinkish
quartzites (Pombo quartzites),
dark to purplish metapelites,
slates, minor quartzites
Pinkish quartzites minor
metapelites, conglomerates
and Fe–Ti bearing ironstones.
± 1500 m thick
Lubweyi conglomerate, sometimes
metabasalts and metarhyolites?
Thickness
Dark carbonates, chl schists,
mica schists, sil-ky gneisses,
amp-px-bearing calc-silicates,
para-amphi-bolites and
volcano-sedimentary rocks.
2000 m thick.
Bia
Slate, purplish quartz -
phyllites, alternating with
minor laminated quartzites,
conglomerate horizons,
pebbly conglomerate at the
base.  1700 m thick
Quartzites, laminated quartzites,
metaconglomerates, Fe–Ti-oxide-
bearing quartzites, metapelite
intercalation
2500–3500 m thick?
Black schists with finely bedded
quartzites, finely laminated
phyllites, metapelites, calc-
silicates, marbles and
para-amphiboli-tes. 3000–4000 m
thick
Bukama
Marbles, calc-silicates and
stromatolitic marbles, minor
black schists. 1000–1300 m
thick
Graphitic black shales and
slates 400–500 m thick
1500–2500 m Black schists,
quartzites, conglomerates,
feldspar-bearing quartzites
and pebbly conglomeratic
lenses
1000–1300 m thick
Amygdaloidal basaltic
and rhyolitic lavas
bt-grt-sil-ky gneisses, talc
schists, chd schists, bt schist.
Marbles, calc-silicates,
stro-matolitic marbles
(Kikosa Formation)
5000 m thick
Nzilo
J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
Quartzites with
metapelite intercalation,
Quartzites and minor
metapelites, Thick
quartzite beds without
metapelites. >3000 m
thick
100–200 m
conglomerate
Chl schists, chid
schists, calc-silicates,
talc schists, mica
schists, stromatolitic
marbles, motachortc.
>2000–3000 m thick
Basal conglomerate
5
6 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

chloritoid schists, garnet-biotite schists, subordinate psam-
mitic schists with quartzite intercalations and garnet-bio-
tite-staurolite and garnet-biotite-sillimanite gneisses. Most
of the rocks forming this oldest unit in the Kibarides,
except the garnet-biotite sillimanite gneisses, are black to
dark-green in color, have well developed laminations and
contain pyrite. Cahen (1939) and Mortelmans (1951)
reported thick lenses/layers of calc-silicate rocks within this
unit. This sequence was referred to as the K1 unit by Cahen
(1954) and Van de Steen (1959), the Kiaora Group by
Cahen et al. (1984) and the Mitwaba Group by Kokony-
angi et al. (2001a). In this review, we use the name Kiaora
Group as this reflects the location of the best exposures.
Within the Kiaora Group, Mortelmans (1951) reported
wavy ripples in quartzites intercalated within chloritoid
schists exposed for about 6 km along Mitwaba–Kapia
Road. The base of the Kiaora Group is not exposed in
the Mitwaba area. Field relations indicate that the group
is older than the 1.4–1.38 Ga orthogneisses intruding it
(Kokonyangi et al., 2004, 2005).
The Kataba Conglomerate overlies the Kiaora Group
and spatially associated orthogneisses in the Mitwaba
region (e.g. Figs. 3 and 4a). The conglomerate contains
detrital zircons as young as 1329 ± 32 Ma (Kokonyangi
and Armstrong, unpublished data). It is the basal unit of
the Nzilo Group, which has a structural thickness between
3900 and 5500 m (De Magnée, 1935a; Mortelmans, 1951;
Cahen, 1954; Kokonyangi, 2001; Kokonyangi et al.,
2001a). The Kataba Conglomerate is 100–300 m thick,
matrix-supported, poorly sorted to unsorted and contains
ellipsoidal clasts of black schist, quartzite, metapelites,
quartz, mafic rocks and granite, set in a black schistose
matrix. A disconformity separates this conglomerate from
the underlying chloritoid schist of the Kiaora Group (De
Magnée, 1935a; Mortelmans, 1951; Cahen, 1954; Kokony-
angi et al., 2001a, 2002). The conglomerate is characterized
by an upward decrease in clast size and abundance. It is
overlain by coarse-grained quartzites, psammitic schists,
conglomerate and minor metapelite intercalations and
Fe–Ti-oxide-bearing quartzites (Mortelmans, 1951; Cahen,

Fig. 4. (a) Geological map of the Mitwaba area showing the distribution of the 1.38 Ga felsic and mafic bodies relative to the Kiaora and Nzilo Groups.
Modified after Cahen (1954), Van de Steen (1953b), Kampunzu et al. (unpublished data) and Kokonyangi et al. (2004). Note that the Kataba
Conglomerate at the base of the Nzilo Group disconformably overlies the Kiaora Group and adjacent orthogneisses. C–D represents the cross section
shown in Fig. 10b. (b) Contact between an undeformed, mineralized pegmatite and Kisele monzogranite gneiss. The D2-related fabrics are well developed
within the Kisele monzogranite gneiss. (c) Quartz vein cutting the Kisele monzogranite and folded during D2. Hammer for scale. (d) Tin mineralization
(black cassiterite crystals) within the undeformed pegmatite shown in (b).
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
Fig. 4 (continued)
1954; Kokonyangi et al., 2001a). Sedimentary structures
include planar bedding, bi-directional (herringbone) cross
bedding, graded bedding, symmetrical ripple marks (wavy
ripples) and erosional channels (Mortelmans, 1951; Cahen,
1954). Most of the rocks forming this group are white-
cream or pinkish or deep-plum in color, depending on
the amount of iron oxide, commonly hematite but rarely
magnetite (Mortelmans, 1951; Cahen, 1954). This sedimen-
tary succession corresponds to the Nzilo Group of Mortel-
mans (1951), the K2 unit of Cahen (1954) and Van de Steen
(1959), and the Lufira Group of Cahen and Snelling (1966).
The name Nzilo Group, which has priority, is adopted in
this review, and the best outcrops of this succession are
exposed in the Nzilo area described later in this paper.
The youngest age of 1360 ± 27 Ma obtained from a pink
quartzite in the Mitwaba area sets the maximum time of
deposition of the Nzilo Group in this area.
The Nzilo Group in the Mitwaba region is overlain by a
succession of slate, black to greenish metapelitic schists and
minor quartzite with psammitic intercalations, forming the
K3 Goup of Cahen (1954) and Van de Steen (1959) and the
Hakansson Group of Cahen et al. (1984). The term
Hakansson Group is adopted in this review. The contact
between the Nzilo and Hakansson Groups is gradational
(Mortelmans, 1951).
The Kiaora Group is intruded by gabbro-diorites and
strongly peraluminous (SP) granitoids, including the
Kifinga–Kisele batholith and coeval smaller bodies, such
as the Nyangwa pluton and Kungwe–Kalumengongo stock
(Kokonyangi et al., 2004, Fig. 2). The composite Kifinga–
7
Kisele batholith is the largest granitic body in the region
and consists of the Kabonvia granodioritic augen gneiss,
Kisele monzogranite gneiss and Fwifwi foliated leuco-
monzogranite (Kokonyangi et al., 2001b, 2004). The
granitoids carry two foliations developed during the two
deformational events identified in the region and contain
xenoliths of country rocks and abundant, foliated, micas-
rich restitic enclaves (Kokonyangi et al., 2004, Fig. 4b
and c). Both micaceous enclaves and xenoliths are
elliptical with long axes aligned parallel to the trend of
the oldest foliation. Quartz veins within the Kisele foliated
monzogranite gneiss and Kabonvia granodioritic augen
gneiss are folded with axial planes trending NE–SW
(Fig. 4c).
Mafic/intermediate igneous bodies intruding the Kiaora
Group sedimentary rocks in the Mitwaba area (Figs. 2 and
4a) include the Lwabwe metagabbro/metadolerite and the
Kidilo orthoamphibolites (Van de Steen, 1953a,b; Cahen,
1954; Kampunzu et al., 1986; Kokonyangi et al., 2005).
Both deformation fabrics identified in the Mitwaba region
affect these mafic bodies. Kokonyangi et al. (2004, 2005)
reported a contact aureole in the mafic bodies close to
the contact with the Kifinga–Kisele batholith. Grosemans
(1948) suggested that the Lwabwe mafic body and the
Kifinga–Kisele granitic batholith were coeval. The struc-
tural patterns along with field relationships suggest that
the granitoids and closely associated mafic bodies intruding
the Kiaora Group in the Mitwaba area are broadly coeval
and syn-kinematic with the earliest deformation event
(Grosemans, 1948; Cahen et al., 1967; Kampunzu et al.,
8 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
1986; Kokonyangi et al., 2001b, 2004). Nowhere in the
Mitwaba region have the orthogneisses intruded the Nzilo
Group. Near Mwadianvula Falls (Fig. 2), the orthogneisses
are disconformably overlain by the Kataba Conglomerate
at the base of the Nzilo Group.
Preliminary conventional U–Pb zircon isotopic analyses
of the Bukena granitic gneiss, representing the northeast-
ern extension of the Nyangwa pluton (Fig. 1), yielded a
date of 1306 ± 35 Ma (Cahen et al., 1967, 1972). Recent
U–Pb SHRIMP zircon investigations yielded the following
igneous crystallization ages for the Mitwaba granitoids
(Kokonyangi et al., 2004): 1386.3 ± 8.1 Ma for the Kisele
monzogranite gneiss, 1385.5 ± 7.4 Ma for the Kabonvia
granodioritic augen gneiss, 1383.3 ± 4.8 Ma for the Nyan-
gwa monzogranite (southern termination of the Bukena
massif, Fig. 1), 1377 ± 10 Ma for the Kungwe–Kalumeng-
ongo monzogranite (including the Shombio pluton,
Fig. 4a) and 1372 ± 9.6 Ma for the Fwifwi foliated leuco-
monzogranite, including the Mandwe facies (Table 2).
Parts of the Mitwaba granitoids have previously yielded
younger conventional U–Pb dates, including the Shombio
and Mandwe plutons (Fig. 4a) dated at 1050 ± 50 Ma
(Eberhardt et al., 1956; Ledent et al., 1956) and the Buk-
ena igneous body (the northern extension of the Nyangwa
pluton; Fig. 1) dated at 1306 ± 35 Ma (Cahen et al., 1967,
1972). However, field relations suggest that these plutons
are all part of the same magmatic assemblage emplaced
at 1381 ± 8 Ma (Kokonyangi et al., 2004). In addition,
all the plutons, including those dated by Eberhardt et al.
(1956) and Ledent et al. (1956) and Cahen et al. (1967,
1972) are affected by both Kibaran deformational events.
Metamorphic zircon from the strongly deformed amphib-
olite facies Kisele monzogranite gneiss yielded a U–Pb
date of 1079 ± 14 Ma, which is indistinguishable from
the date of 1050 ± 50 obtained by Eberhardt et al.
(1956) and Ledent et al. (1956) (Table 2). This date has
been interpreted to record the time of the climax of D2
regional deformation and related amphibolite facies
metamorphism in the Mitwaba area (Kokonyangi et al.,
2004).
Zircon dating of the Mitwaba mafic intrusive bodies
yielded a 207Pb/206Pb date of 1417 ± 1.7 Ma (97% concor-
dant) and an upper intercept age of 1376 ± 13 Ma
(MSWD = 0.046) for the Kidilo orthoamphibolites and
Lwabwe metagabbro/metadolerite, respectively (Table 2,
Kokonyangi et al., 2005). Because the data from the Kidilo
orthoamphibolites that yielded the date of 1417 ± 1.7 Ma
are 3% discordant, the upper intercept of 1376 ± 13
obtained for the Lwabwe body is taken to represent the
best estimate of the crystallization age of the Mitwaba
mafic igneous rocks. Zircon crystallization ages therefore
support broadly coeval emplacement of felsic and mafic
magmas in the Mitwaba area, as previously suggested by
Grosemans (1948).
Igneous rocks intruding the Nzilo Group sedimentary
sequences are rare in the Mitwaba area. The Kisandji plu-
ton (Fig. 2) contains elliptical microgranular mafic enclaves
(pyroxene + amphiboles + biotite + quartz). This intru-
sion and the Nzilo Group post-date the older deformation
event in the Mitwaba region and are only affected by the
NE-trending younger foliation. No geochronological and
petrological data are available for this pluton.
Tin granites and related mineralized aplitic and pegma-
titic bodies intrude both the 1.38 Ga orthogneisses and the
complete Kibaran Supergoup metasedimentary succession.
They host tin, colombite–tantalite, tungsten and tourma-
line, and the mineralized bodies are free of pervasive
solid-state deformation fabrics (Fig. 4d), indicating that
the tin granites and related aplites and pegmatites are late
to post-kinematic with respect to the Kibaran deformation
events.
3. Mwanza region
The Mwanza region as described in this paper comprises
the following areas: Mwanza, Kikonja, Ankoro, Bukena,
Manono and the area around the Luvidjo River (Fig. 1).
For the sake of simplicity in this paper, the boundary
between the Mwanza (NW) and the Mitwaba (SE) regions
is taken to be the Upemba Valley, which is filled by Phan-
erozoic sedimentary rocks. Previous research includes
reconnaissance mapping and lithostratigraphic investiga-
tions by a number of workers (Matthieu, 1912; Van Aubel,
1928; Karpoff and Karpoff, 1938; Mortelmans, 1947;
Aderca, 1950; Landa et al., 1950; Thoreau, 1950; Raynaud,
1952b; Van de Steen, 1950a, 1953b; Cahen, 1954; Loncha-
mpt, 1971; Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972; Lepersonne,
1974; Bassot and Morio, 1989; Günther and Ngulube,
1992; Ngulube, 1994) and preliminary, conventional U–
Pb and Rb/Sr whole-rock and/or mineral dating (Cahen
et al., 1967, 1972, 1984).
The Kibaran lithostratigraphic succession in the region
comprises four lithostratigraphic units (Fig. 3 and Table
1). The oldest unit comprises chlorite schists, mica schists,
sillimanite- and/or kyanite-bearing gneisses and amphi-
bole-clinopyroxene-bearing calc-silicate rocks. This succes-
sion corresponds to the Kiaora Group (K1) of Cahen et al.
(1984). Cahen and Lepersonne (1967) reported dark car-
bonate rocks within the Kiaora Group in this region. These
carbonates are separated from the younger units either by
the Lubweyi Conglomerate (Cahen, 1954) or by volcanic
sequences including metabasalts and metarhyolites (Van
de Walle, 1959). Lonchampt (1971) and Lonchampt and
Heinry (1972) in addition described para-amphibolites int-
erbedded with a volcano-sedimentary breccia along the
Mwimbi River and suggested that these rocks are part of
the older sedimentary sequences (Kiaora). Above these
Kiaora Group rocks are >1500 m of pinkish quartzite
sequences alternating with minor metapelites and subordi-
nate ironstones and conglomerate intercalations, possibly
representing the Nzilo (K2 of Cahen et al., 1984) Group.
These rocks are overlain by ±1000 m of metapelites, slates
and subordinate quartzite (K3 of Cahen et al., 1984). The
uppermost unit consists of marbles, calc-silicates and
Table 2
Summary of previous geochronological data on the Kibaride magmatic rocks
Region Pluton name Deformation – Petrography Isotopic system and Age (Ma) MWSD Data sources Previous Interpretation in
analyzed mineral interpretations this paper
Mitwaba Mandwe granite gneiss D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, Conventional 1050 ± 50 n.p. Eberhardt et al. (1956); Type C or G3 Age of D2 and related
monazite, tourmaline U–Pb on priorite Ledent et al. (1956). metamorphism
Fwifwi foliated Conventional 1030 n.p. Cahen and Snelling (1966) Type C or G3 Age of D2 and related
leucomonzogranite U–Pb on zircon metamorphism
Fwifwi foliated D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, U/Pb SHRIMP 1372 ± 9.6 0.61 Kokonyangi et al. (2004) Syn-D1 SP granite
leucomonzogranite monazite, tourmaline on zircon

J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

Kungwe–Kalumengongo D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, U–Pb SHRIMP 1377 ± 10 1.5 Kokonyangi et al. (2004) Syn-D1 SP granite
monzogranite monazite, tourmaline on zircon
Kisele monzogranite D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, U/Pb SHRIMP 1386.3 ± 8.1 0.58 Kokonyangi et al. (2004) Type A or G1 Syn-D1 SP granite
gneiss monazite, tourmaline on zircon
Kisele monzogranite D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, U/Pb SHRIMP 1079 ± 14 0.006 Kokonyangi et al. (2004) Low Th/U, M2
gneiss monazite, tourmaline on zircon metamorphic overgrowth
Kabonvia granodioritic D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, U/Pb SHRIMP 1385.5 ± 7.4 1.09 Kokonyangi et al. (2004) Type A or G1 Syn-D1 SP granite
augen gneiss monazite, tourmaline on zircon
Kabonvia granodioritic D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, U/Pb SHRIMP 1929 ± 21 n.p. Kokonyangi et al. (2004) Inherited
augen gneiss monazite, tourmaline on zircon xenocrystic zircon
Nyangwa monzogranite D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, U/Pb SHRIMP 1383 ± 4.8 1.3 Kokonyangi et al. (2004) Type B or G2 Syn-D1 SP granite
monazite, tourmaline on zircon
Kidilo ortho-amphibolite D1, D2; Hb, OPX and U/Pb TIMS 1417 ± 1.7 n.p. Kokonyangi et al. (2005) Syn-D1 mafic arc rocks
Pl-bearing mafic complex on zircon
Lwabwe metagabbro D1, D2; Act ± Hb + Pl-bearing U/Pb TIMS 1376 ± 13 0.046 Kokonyangi et al. (2005) Syn-D1 mafic arc rocks
mafic complex on zircon
Mwanza Mwanza granitic gneiss D1, D2, muscovite and/or Rb/Sr W.R. and 1324 ± 71 0.27 Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type A or G1 Syn-D1 granite
biotite granite mineral isochron
Mwanza granite Undeformed, Rb/Sr W.R. isochron 977 ± 18 0.94 Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type D or G4 Late to post-kinematic
2 micas, tin-granites SP granites
Mwanza pegmatite Muscovite-bearing Rb/Sr W.R. and 912 ± 30 n.p. Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type D or G4 Late to post-kinematic
undeformed pegmatite mineral isochron SP granites
Bukena granitic gneiss D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, Rb/Sr W. R. and 1329 ± 55 0.06 Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type B or G2 Syn-D1 granite
monazite, tourmaline mineral isochron
Bukena granitic gneiss D1, D2; two micas, ilmenite, Conventional 1306 ± 35 0.03 Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type B or G2 Syn-D1 granite
monazite, tourmaline U/Pb on zircon
Manono Sn–Nb–Ta Undeformed Rb/Sr mineral 925 ± 28 n.p. Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type D or G4 Late to post-kinematic
pegmatite muscovite-pegmatite isochron SP granites
Bia Bia granitic gneiss D1, D2, muscovite and/or Rb/Sr W.R. and 1324 ± 71 0.27 Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type A or G1 Syn-D1 granite
biotite granite Min. isochron
Bia granite Undeformed, 2 micas, tin-granites Rb/Sr W.R. and 966 ± 21 0.2 Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type D or G4 Late to post-kinematic
mineral isochron SP granites
Shienzi and Sofwe Undeformed muscovite pegmatite Rb/Sr mineral 953 ± 29 n.p. Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) Type D or G4 Late to post-kinematic
pegmatite isochron SP granites
n.p. = MSWD not provided, W.R. = whole-rock, Min. = mineral, SP = strongly peraluminous, previous interpretations are mainly based on Cahen et al. (1967, 1984).

9
10 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
minor black to purplish schists and quartzites (K4 of Cahen
et al., 1984, Fig. 3 and Table 1).
Large granite and gabbro-diorite bodies intrude the
Kiaora Group supracrustal metasedimentary rocks in
the Mwanza region. The main granitic intrusions include
the Mwanza, Bukena, Luvidjo and Manono plutons and
related quartz veins, aplite and pegmatite bodies (Figs. 1
and 5). Metadiorite-metagabbro-metadolerite bodies con-
taining mainly plagioclase-amphibole ± pyroxene intrude
the Kiaora Group metasedimentary sequences around
Mwanza (e.g. Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972) and Manono
(e.g. Landa et al., 1950; Ngulube, 1994). Orthogneisses
exposed in the Manono area contain mafic enclaves and
carry two foliations (an older one trending N50–70E
cut or crenulated by the younger one oriented N30–
40E, e.g. Figs. 5 and 6a). The orthogneisses exhibit intru-
sive relationships with the Kiaora Group metapelites,
which include chlorite schists and mica schists (Ngulube,
1994). In general, three main intrusive bodies can be dis-
Fig. 5. Simplified geological map of the Manono area showing the distribution of granitic gneisses, tin granites and pegmatites (Source: Thoreau, 1950;
Landa et al., 1950; Ngulube, 1994).
tinguished in the Mwanza region (Cahen, 1954; Van de
Walle, 1959; Cahen et al., 1967; Lonchampt, 1971; Lon-
champt and Heinry, 1972; Pasteels, 1971; Lepersonne,
1974; Günther and Ngulube, 1992; Ngulube, 1994): Type
(1) hornblende and/or biotite orthogneisses containing
titanite as the main accessory mineral; type (2) two-mica
granitic orthogneisses and type (3) two-mica tin granites
and associated tin-bearing quartz, pegmatites and aplites.
Types (1) and (2) orthogneisses carry both Kibaran defor-
mation fabrics and intrude the Kiaora Group (K1) with-
out cutting the younger overlying groups. They are
commonly associated with mafic to intermediate igneous
rocks, e.g. the arc-shaped mafic body of Lonchampt and
Heinry (1972) surrounding the Mwanza granitic batholith
(not shown in Fig. 1 due to the lack of detailed maps for
this region). Van de Walle (1959) indicated that the types
(1) and (2) orthogneisses are syn-kinematic with respect to
earliest Kibaran deformation in the Mwanza region
and, by analogy with the Mitwaba region, their igneous
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35 11

Fig. 6. (a) A NE–SW-trending reverse fault affecting a mafic enclave within the Manono syn-D1 orthogneiss. (b) A NW–SE cross-section of the Kahungu
open pit (Manono) showing the relationships between Kiaora Group, orthoamphibolites, Sn–Nb–Ta pegmatite and quartz veins. The pegmatite lacks
pervasive solid-state foliation and exhibits sharp intrusive relationships with the adjacent, older, NE-trending mafic igneous rocks, which were affected by
contact metamorphism. (c) Sketch drawn from a field photograph of Landa et al. (1950) showing deformed mafic rock xenoliths within the undeformed
Manono Sn–Nb–Ta pegmatite. Kinematic indicators suggest a sinistral sense of shear. See text for details.

crystallization ages could be ca. 1.38 Ga. The Lovoi River
stock and the Luvidjo River granitic plutons (Fig. 1)
could belong to the types (1) and/or type (2) granitoids,
although Lonchampt (1971) and Lonchampt and Heinry
(1972), regarded these plutons as pre-Kibaran, based on
mineralogical similarities with the Paleoproterozoic grani-
toids exposed near Kamina. In contrast, Lepersonne
(1974) considered them to be Kibaran igneous bodies on
the basis of field relationships. Precise geochronology is
required in order to resolve this controversy. Type (3)
tin granites and pegmatites intrude all Kibaran sedimen-
tary units and cut across types (1) and (2) orthogneisses
in the Mwanza region (e.g. Karpoff and Karpoff, 1938;
Grosemans, 1946a; Cahen, 1954; Cahen et al., 1967,
1984).
The Manono pegmatite is the biggest tin-bearing peg-
matitic body in the Kibaride belt (Fig. 5). Exposed for
>14 km along strike with an average width of ca. 400 m,
this pegmatite is among the largest pegmatitic bodies in
the world (e.g. Ngulube, 1994). It hosts fabulous tin-group
ores, including cassiterite, colombite–tantalite, spodumene
and thoreaulite (Landa et al., 1950; Thoreau, 1950). Previ-
ous work on this pegmatite includes reconnaissance and
descriptive geological studies (Landa et al., 1950; Thoreau,
1950; Bassot and Morio, 1989) and preliminary Rb–Sr and
K–Ar geochronological investigations (Cahen et al., 1967,
1972, 1984). A comprehensive review of previous work
and a modern petrological study was undertaken by Ngul-
ube (1994), whose results are summarized below. The Man-
ono pegmatite is elongated northeast, parallel to the
foliation in the adjacent micaschist (e.g. Landa et al.,
1950). It intrudes the Kiaora Group metasedimentary
rocks (Figs. 5 and 6b), which include micaschists, garnet-
staurolite gneisses and subordinate quartzites in the Man-
ono area. The northeastern segment of the pegmatite body
(Fig. 5) exhibits sharp intrusive relationships with the adja-
cent, older, NE-trending mafic igneous rocks, which were
affected by contact metamorphism during the emplacement
of the pegmatite (Landa et al., 1950; Thoreau, 1950; Van de
Steen, 1953b). The pegmatite contains enclaves of the adja-
cent mafic igneous rocks and xenoliths of the metasedimen-
tary host rocks (Fig. 6c). Pervasive solid-state fabrics are
absent within the pegmatite. However, Landa et al.
(1950) described a weak foliation developed at the margins
of the pegmatite near its contact with the micaschist of the
Kiaora Group, and locally the pegmatite margins exhibit a
gneissic facies. Based on field and structural observations
within both the host rocks and the pegmatite margins,
Ngulube (1994) inferred these marginal gneissic fabrics to
record stress generated during pegmatite emplacement.
Detailed field observations within the pegmatite are
required in order to draw a definite conclusion. The oldest
orthogneisses exposed in the Manono area contain mafic
enclaves and some of them are affected by reverse faults
(Fig. 6a). Similarly, mafic xenoliths observed near the con-
tact between the orthoamphibolites and the pegmatite are
sheared and mapping indicates a sinistral sense of move-
ment (Fig. 6c).
Geochronological data are scanty in the Mwanza region
(Table 2). Cahen et al. (1967, 1984) reported a conventional
U–Pb zircon age of 1306 ± 35 Ma and Rb/Sr whole rock
and mineral isochron of 1329 ± 55 Ma for the Bukena gra-
nitic gneiss. The same authors obtained the following
whole-rock Rb–Sr isochron dates in the Mwanza region:
1324 ± 71 Ma for the Mwanza granitic gneiss,
977 ± 18 Ma for the tin granites, 925 ± 28 for the Manono
Sn–Nb–Ta–Be–Li-bearing pegmatites and 912 ± 30 Ma for
the Mwanza pegmatite (Table 2).
12 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
4. Bukama
The Bukama region (Fig. 1) includes localities scattered
between Lubudi and Kamina, including the Hakansson
Mountains. The limited amount of data available from this
region come from Cahen and Mortelmans (1946), Mortel-
mans (1947, 1948), Dumont (1950, 1952), Van de Steen
(1959), Cahen (1954), Lonchampt (1971), Lonchampt and
Heinry (1972) and Lataillade and Bielle (1972). There are
no modern studies covering this region, which is dominated
by metasedimentary rocks. Minor granitic stocks are
exposed south of Bukama (e.g. Van de Steen, 1950b).
The Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic Congo craton is
exposed to the west, and the Kibaran rocks in the Bia
Mountains to the east (Fig. 1). The Kibaride belt rocks
and those of the Congo craton are partly covered by unde-
formed Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic sedimentary
rocks (Fig. 7). Where exposed, the rocks of the Congo cra-
ton are composed of ortho and paragneisses intruded by
gabbroic and doleritic dykes of unknown age. This base-
ment is in tectonic contact with the Kibaran Supergroup
sedimentary succession. The contact is presumably a
thrust, but kinematics of the shear zone have not been
properly documented (e.g. Lataillade and Bielle, 1972).
Fig. 7. Geological map of the Bukama area. Data source: Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM, France, Orlean).
The lower part of the Kibaran metasedimentary suc-
cession in the Bukama region (Table 1) comprises a
4000–4500-m-thick metamorphic complex including
gneisses, phyllites, talc-schists, chloritoid schists, biotite
schists and subordinate fine grained quartzite and iron-
stone intercalations. Above this, a 2000–2200-m-thick
package of fine- to coarse-grained quartzites and subordi-
nate Fe–Ti-oxide-bearing quartzites and conglomerates is
present. This succession is capped by 1000–1300-m-thick
amygdaloidal basaltic and rhyolitic lavas (Mortelmans,
1947; Dumont, 1950, 1952; Cahen, 1954; Lonchampt,
1971; Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972). At the confluence
of the Lubudi and Lutembwe Rivers (not shown in
Fig. 7 due to the scale), the sedimentary and volcanic
sequences are thrust onto the Congo craton (Lataillade
and Bielle, 1972). In the Hakansson Mountains and Lub-
udi areas (parts of the Bukama region), the amygdaloidal
basalts and rhyolites are overlain by ±400–500 m of gra-
phitic black schist and metapelites, which are capped by a
1000–1300-m-thick succession of marbles, calc-silicates
and stromatolitic marbles with minor black schists corre-
sponding to the K3 unit of Van de Steen (1959), K3–K4 of
Cahen (1954) and Lubudi Group of Cahen et al. (1984)
(Fig. 3 and Table 1).
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
No geochronological data are available on the Bukama
volcanic rocks. However, field relationships indicate that
the volcanic rocks overlie the lower units along an ero-
sional surface (Mortelmans, 1947). These volcanic rocks
were originally described as post-Kibaran in age (e.g. Mor-
telmans, 1947; Dumont, 1950, 1952). However, they show
the same deformation fabrics and metamorphic history as
observed within the Kibaran metasedimentary rocks, thus
cannot represent post-Kibaran metavolcanic rocks (Mor-
telmans, 1947; Van de Steen, 1950b; Cahen, 1954; Loncha-
mpt, 1971; Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972).
South of Bukama (Fig. 7), a Kibaran terrain known as
the Kikosa metasedimentary complex forms a basement
inlier within the Neoproterozoic sedimentary cover of the
Katangan Supergroup. The Kikosa complex is composed
of marbles, calc-silicates and stromatolitic marbles with
an exposed thickness exceeding 700 m (Grosemans,
1946b; Mortelmans, 1947; Cahen, 1954). The stratigraphic
position of the Kikosa metasedimentary complex within
the Kibaran Supergroup is controversial because this
metasedimentary complex was originally thought to repre-
sent Neoproterozoic rocks given that it is surrounded by
the Katangan basal Conglomerate (e.g. Grosemans,
1946b; Mortelmans, 1947; Cahen, 1954). The metasedi-
mentary complex shows the same regional structural pat-
terns as the Kibaran metasedimentary rocks, and like
them is affected by the two Kibaran deformation events
(Cahen, 1954; Cahen et al., 1984). Furthermore, it is
intruded and metamorphosed by the oldest Kibaran grani-
toids (e.g. the Bakalenge Mountains granitic gneisses),
which are similar to the early Kibaran orthogneisses
described elsewhere in the Kibaride belt (Van de Steen,
1950b), and which yielded U–Pb zircon crystallization ages
of 1.38 Ga in the Mitwaba region. These observations sup-
port the conclusion of Mortelmans (1947), Cahen (1954)
and Cahen et al. (1984) that the Kikosa carbonates are part
of the Kiaora Group.
Mesoproterozoic orthogneisses and mafic intrusive
bodies exposed in this region were suggested to be the
source of heat for the generation of the amphibolite facies
metamorphism recorded in the adjacent metasedimentary
rocks (e.g. Cahen, 1954; Lataillade and Bielle, 1972). Mes-
oproterozoic orthogneisses and mafic rocks are not well
exposed in the Bukama region. They include the Bakalenge
orthogneisses to the southeast of Bukama, which intrude
the Kikosa metasedimentary complex (Fig. 7). There are
no geochronological data available for the igneous rocks
exposed in this region.
5. Bia
This region is the southwestern extension of the Kibara
Mountains (Fig. 1). Previous studies covered the regional
geological framework and defined the Kibaran lithostrati-
graphic column and regional structural trends in this
region (Cornet, 1897; Asselberghs, 1938; Cahen and Mor-
telmans, 1940, 1946; Beugnies, 1950). The orthogneisses
13
and their host rocks in the Bia region generally trend
NE–SW, parallel to the Kibaride structural grain. The fol-
lowing lithotectonic units can be defined from existing data
(from the youngest to the oldest): (1) 1700-m-thick slate
and purplish blue quartz–phyllites alternating with minor
laminated quartzites, sometimes with metaconglomeratic
horizons, with a conglomeratic quartzite at the base; (2)
>2500–3000-m-thick quartzites, laminated quartzites with
cross-bedding and ripple marks, metaconglomerates, Fe–
Ti-oxide-bearing quartzites and subordinate metapelitic
intercalations; (3) 3000–4000-m-thick black schist alter-
nating with finely bedded black quartzite, finely laminated
phyllites and metapelites and locally thick lenses of calc-sil-
icates, marbles and para-amphibolites (Fig. 3; Cahen and
Mortelmans, 1940, 1946; Beugnies, 1950; Cahen, 1954).
Intrusive rocks are widespread and dominated by the
Bia granitic body and its southern extension, known as
the Kalule granitic gneiss, and a granitic pluton exposed
NE of the Bia Mountains (Fig. 1). The following individual
plutons were described by Beugnies (1950), Cahen (1954)
and Cahen et al. (1967): gabbro, hornblende–biotite
orthogneisses, the Kakongwe biotite orthogneisses and
two-mica granitic gneiss. The granitic gneisses and gabbros
intrude the Kiaora Group, including a carbonate sequence
equivalent to the Kikosa complex and were affected by the
two Kibaran deformation events, showing a stronger
mylonitic foliation near the margins and weaker foliations
in the centre of the intrusive bodies. The youngest intru-
sions are late to post-kinematic with respect to the youn-
gest Kibaran deformation and include two-mica + garnet
microgranitic and aplitic bodies, the Sofwe and Shienzi
pegmatites and related quartz veins (Beugnies, 1950). Beug-
nies (1950) indicated that the two-mica granites, aplites and
pegmatites intrude the older orthogneisses and all the Kib-
aran metasedimentary units in the region. Two generations
of doleritic sills and dykes were identified. The older intru-
sions cut the Kiaora Group metasedimentary units and
have been folded and metamorphosed during the Kibaran
orogeny. The younger generation occurs mainly along NE-
trending fractures and joints (Mortelmans, 1947, 1948;
Cahen, 1954) and is undeformed.
There are no reliable geochronological data on intrusive
bodies exposed in this region. The following whole-rock
Rb–Sr dates were reported by Cahen et al. (1967, 1984)
for the Bia granitoids: 1324 ± 71 Ma for orthogneisses,
966 ± 21 Ma for tin-bearing granites and 953 ± 29 Ma
for the tin-barren Sofwe and Shienzi pegmatites (Table 2).
6. Nzilo
Located north of Kolwezi (Fig. 1), the Nzilo region
hosts the south westernmost exposures of the Kibaride belt
in Congo. Metasedimentary rocks are widespread in this
region, whereas igneous rocks are scarce (Figs. 1 and 8a).
The Kibaran rocks in the Nzilo region are bounded to
the west by the Archaean to Paleoproterozoic Congo cra-
ton and are overlain to the east by the Neoproterozoic
14 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

Fig. 8. (a) Geological map of the Nzilo area. NEP: Nzilo electric power plant. Map completed after Byamungu et al. (1979). (b) The boundary between
Katangan strata and the Kibaride belt in the Nzilo area (Yoshida et al., 2004). (c and d) Hand-specimen and field photographs showing herringbone cross
bedding within the Nzilo Group. Battery and hammer for scale respectively. (e) Field photograph showing wavy ripples within the Nzilo Group. (f)
Kataba Conglomerate in Nzilo area.
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
Fig. 8 (continued)
Katangan Supergroup. The contact between the Congo
craton and the Kibaride belt was described along the Lung-
enda River and 4 km toward the north, away from the
confluence between the Katchiza and Tshiezi Rivers (Mou-
reau, 1960). The Archaean to Paleoproterozoic Congo cra-
ton is composed of orthogneisses, chlorite schists and
quartz phyllites. It is overlain by a 100-m-thick conglom-
erate at the base of the Kibaran supracrustal rocks (Mou-
reau, 1960). The conglomerate is a poorly sorted to
unsorted and locally strongly deformed. It contains ori-
ented, ellipsoidal quartz and quartzite pebbles set in a seri-
cite schist matrix. The pebbles have flat bases. The lower
boundary of the Katangan strata against the Kibaran
rocks is marked by a basal conglomerate. The Katangan
Supergroup sedimentary rocks are gently dipping to the
SE (10–20) and some authors (e.g. Cailteux, 1990) sug-
gested that the Katangan was thrust onto the Kibaran
rocks, although Moureau (1960) proposed that this bound-
ary is marked by a major unconformity. This controversy
arises from a lack of detailed field descriptions of the
boundary.
We have recently made lithostratigraphic and structural
observations, in the Nzilo area, which show that the con-
tact is a well defined unconformity that can be traced for
several km (Fig. 8b, Yoshida et al., 2004). The unconfor-
mity runs nearly NE–SW (sub-parallel to the strike of the
Kibaride rocks) and is gently dipping (10–20) to the SE.
An undeformed, pebble-supported conglomerate above
the contact defines the base of the Katangan and covers
the upper part of the Nzilo Group. Brecciation and associ-
ated hematite mineralization affects Kibaran rocks a few
meters below the unconformity but is absent within the
15
basal conglomerate. These data rule out the hypothesis that
the Katangan is in thrust contact with the Kibaran rocks in
this area (Yoshida et al., 2004).
Two main Kibaran lithostratigraphic units were defined
in the Nzilo region (Fig. 3, Table 1; Robert, 1931; Cahen,
1954; Moureau, 1960; Byamungu et al., 1979): (1) a basal
conglomerate of unknown thickness, which is overlain by
a 2000–3000-m unit made of chlorite schists, chloritoid
schists, calc-silicates, talc schists, stromatolitic marbles,
mica schists and minor lenticular metacherts corresponding
to the K1 or Kiaora Group; (2) a >3000-m-thick succession
of quartzite and subordinate phyllite-conglomerate alterna-
tions. Sedimentary structures within this succession include
normal bedding, graded bedding, bi-directional cross strat-
ification or herringbone cross stratification (Fig. 8c and d)
and wavy or symmetrical ripple marks (Fig. 8e). This lith-
ological association and related sedimentological features
are characteristic of the Nzilo Group (K2) as described else-
where within the Kibaride belt. The boundary between the
Kiaora and the Nzilo Groups is defined by a 100–200-m-
thick, poorly sorted to unsorted, matrix-supported con-
glomerate (Fig. 8f) at the base of the Nzilo Group. The
conglomerate is composed of clasts of black shale, quartz-
ite, quartz, granite and mafic igneous rock, similar to the
Kataba Conglomerate reported in Mitwaba area. These
pebbles show flat bases and were mostly derived from the
underlying Kiaora Group metasedimentary units and the
igneous rocks intruding this group.
Igneous rocks are rare in the Nzilo area, but Lepersonne
(1974) reported NE–SW-elongated tonalitic bodies intrud-
ing the Kiaora Group sedimentary rocks around Nseke
and northeast of Mutchacha (Fig. 1). The Nseke pluton
16 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

is affected by both Kibaran deformation events. It lacks
primary muscovite and contains hornblende, kinked or
bent biotite, plagioclase and quartz with minor alkali feld-
spar. Zircon, titanite and apatite are the main accessories
(Kokonyangi and Roser, unpublished data). This orthog-
neiss is similar to those described in the Manono area
(Ngulube, 1994). Moureau (1960) describes two-mica gra-
nitic gneisses intruding the Kiaora Group northeast of
the Kolwezi–Mutchatcha railway line. There are no
detailed petrological or geochronological data on these
granitic gneisses, but they show structural similarities with
the 1.38 Ga orthogneisses exposed in the Mitwaba region.
Kibaran mafic igneous complexes are exposed west of
Kolwezi, along the Lubudi River, and extend a strike
length of >50 km (Moureau, 1960). Byamungu et al.
(1979) document mafic igneous rocks near the Nzilo elec-
tric power plant (Fig. 8a). The rocks include basalts associ-
ated with rhyolites at the top of the Nzilo Group (e.g.
Fig. 3). In the same area, dolerites and gabbros intrude
quartzites, metapelites and metaconglomerates of the Nzilo
Group. The mafic rocks are composed of plagioclase and
pyroxene, with well-preserved ophitic texture in the gab-
bros (Cahen, 1954; Moureau, 1960). Pyroxenes are par-
tially converted into hornblende. Moureau (1960)
suggested that the mafic igneous rocks exposed along the
Lubudi River could be coeval with adjacent parts of the
Nzilo Group. The relationship between these mafic rocks
and the Kibaran granitoids has never been described. How-
ever, because the mafic rocks intrude the Nzilo Group, they
must be younger than the 1.38 Ga granitoids, which pre-
date that group. Geochronological data are needed from
the mafic rocks.
7. Structure and metamorphism
Detailed structural and metamorphic data are scarce in
the Kibaride belt and come mainly from the Mitwaba area.
The regional structural trends (Fig. 9) indicate that all the

Fig. 9. Sketch map showing the regional structural trends in the Kibaride belt. Modified from Cahen (1954), using data of Aderca (1950), Van de Steen
(1953b), Lepersonne (1974), Kampunzu et al. (1986) and Kokonyangi et al. (2001b).
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35 17

regions defining the >600-km-long Kibaride belt experi-
enced the same deformation history. The main structural
trend is NE–SW, with NW-verging macroscopic isoclinal
folds (Figs. 9 and 10a–c). These regional structures are
linked to the youngest deformation event that has
deformed and/or partly or totally overprinted earlier
ENE-trending mesoscopic fabrics and related metamorphic
parageneses (Byamungu et al., 1979; Kampunzu et al.,
1986; Ngulube, 1994; Kokonyangi et al., 2001a, 2004,
2005).
In the Mitwaba region (e.g. Fig. 4a), two main contrac-
tional events affected the Kibaran metasedimentary and
igneous rocks (Van de Steen, 1959; Kampunzu et al.,
1986; Kokonyangi, 2001; Kokonyangi et al., 2002, 2004,
2005). Where preserved, the oldest deformation event is
characterized by an ENE-trending foliation/schistosity
(N60–90E) and associated mesoscopic asymmetric folds
with a steeply dipping (50–60SE) axial plane foliation.
Because these oldest fabrics affect the bedding (S0), they
are taken here to represent the D1 deformation event in
the Kibaride belt. This fabric is well developed within
upper amphibolite facies rocks of the Kiaora Group and
related granitoids (e.g. Figs. 4a and 11a). D1 deformation
is also characterized by south-dipping reverse faults and
thrusts (Fig. 10a). Syn-D1 granitoid gneisses yielded a
SHRIMP U–Pb zircon crystallization age of
1381 ± 8 Ma, which is taken to represent the timing of
D1 in the Mitwaba region (Kokonyangi et al., 2004). The
S1 fabric is totally absent within metasedimentary rocks
of the Nzilo and Hakansson Groups, which are not
intruded by syn-D1 orthogneisses (e.g. Figs. 2 and 4a).
Near Mwadianvula Falls in the Mitwaba region, the
Kataba Conglomerate unconformably overlies the Lwa-
bwe mafic complex. In this outcrop, the Kataba Conglom-
erate contains clasts from the 1.38 Ga igneous rocks
(Kokonyangi et al., 2005). These field relationships indicate

Fig. 10. Cross-sections displaying the structural style within the Kibaride belt: (a) A–B shows characteristic NW-verging F2 isoclinal folds in the NW part
of the Mitwaba area (Fig. 2). (b) C–D shows asymmetric F1 folds in central Mitwaba area (Fig. 4a). (c) NW-verging F2 isoclinal folds in the Bia region
(map unavailable).
18 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
Fig. 11. (a) Photograph showing the field relations between the Kisele monzogranite gneiss and its host sillimanite-grade metasedimentary rocks of the
Kiaora Group. S1 within both the ortho- and paragneisses is parallel to the long axes of metasedimentary xenoliths. (b) Microphotograph showing two
stages of garnet growth (G1 and G2) in metapelites located within the contact aureole of the Kifinga–Kisele batholith in the Mitwaba area. See text for
further details.
that the Nzilo, Lubudi and Hakansson Groups were depos-
ited after the emplacement of the syn-D1 1.38 Ga igneous
bodies (Mortelmans, 1951; Kokonyangi et al., 2001a,
2004). Geochronological data (Kokonyangi and Arm-
strong, unpublished data) indicate that the Kataba Con-
glomerate contains zircons from the 1.38 Ga
orthogneisses, supporting the post-D1 deposition of the
Nzilo, Lubudi and Hakansson Groups. The younger defor-
mation is recorded by regional, NE-trending, isoclinal folds
with a related schistosity deforming the earlier (D1) fabrics
and reverse faults (e.g. Fig. 6a). These regional structures
deform a metamorphic/structural foliation and therefore
are linked to the D2 in this paper. SHRIMP analyses of
metamorphic zircon from the strongly deformed and meta-
morphosed Kisele foliated monzogranite gneiss and
inferred to record M2 metamorphism yielded an age of
1079 ± 14 Ma, which was tentatively suggested to date
the timing of the D2 contractional event and related M2
metamorphism in the Kibaride belt (Kokonyangi et al.,
2002, 2004).
The syn-D1 Mitwaba granitoid bodies are surrounded
by a metamorphic contact aureole including the assem-
blages biotite–garnet–hornblende in mafic rocks and gar-
net–biotite in metapelites (Kokonyangi et al., 2005). Most
of the garnet porphyroblasts from the contact aureole exhi-
bit two stages of growth (Fig. 11b). Kokonyangi et al.
(2002, 2005) suggested that the cores of these garnets por-
phyroblasts grew during syn-D1/M1 metamorphism while
the rims developed during syn-D2/M2 regional metamor-
phism. The mineral assemblages including chlorite, biotite,
garnet, staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite and defining the
S2 foliation display medium-pressure (MP)-medium tem-
perature (MT) Barrovian metamorphism (Kokonyangi
et al., 2001a). There is a general increase in metamorphic
grade from the chlorite zone (NW) to sillimanite zone
(SE). The preliminary peak P–T conditions for the amphib-
olite facies mineral assemblages documented SE of Mitw-
aba were estimated at 740–780 C and 6–6.5 kb
(Kokonyangi et al., 2001b).
In the Mwanza region (Manono), Ngulube (1994)
defined two foliations within granitic gneisses and their
host metapelites (Figs. 5 and 6). S1 trends N50–70E, par-
allel to the bedding. This foliation is crosscut or crenu-
lated by S2, which trends N30E and is oblique to the
bedding. Cahen (1954) indicated that the large-scale Kib-
aran structures in the Mwanza region form a succession of
NE-trending isoclinal anticlines and synclines verging
towards the NW, similar to that identified in the Mitwaba
region. The same author reports the existence of thrust
sheets in this area with a NW-transport direction, but
no detailed study has been conducted on these tectonic
units. Although detailed metamorphic data are not avail-
able in the Mwanza region, various reports document
upper amphibolite conditions, as shown by the assem-
blage garnet + biotite + sillimanite ± kyanite in metape-
litic rocks and tremolite + diopside in calc-silicate rocks
(Lonchampt, 1971; Tegyey, 1971; Lonchampt and Heinry,
1972). The mineral assemblages, including garnet–stauro-
lite–kyanite, suggest a MP/MT metamorphism, similar
to that reported in the Mitwaba area. In the Mwanza
area, Lonchampt (1971) and Lonchampt and Heinry
(1972) pointed out that the grade of metamorphism is
higher in the Kiaora Group than in the overlying groups.
Indeed, in many parts of the Kibaride belt in Katanga,
several studies indicate that the older Kiaora Group
exhibits higher metamorphic parageneses (up to higher
amphibolite facies) whereas the younger groups display
greenschist facies parageneses (e.g. Lonchampt, 1971;
Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972; Byamungu et al., 1979;
Kokonyangi, 2001). In keeping with similar interpreta-
tions in orogenic belts around the world (e.g. Barker,
1998) this difference could suggest that the older Kibaran
sedimentary units (Kiaora Group) were sited in the middle
crust during the onset of the D2/M2 tectonothermal event
while the younger units were at shallower crustal levels.
However, metamorphic conditions were clearly variable
during M2 and reached sillimanite grade in the Mitwaba
area, as discussed above.
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
In the Bukama and Bia Mountains areas, Cahen (1954)
reported two deformation events, with predominant meso-
scopic and macroscopic NE-trending isoclinal folds verging
towards the NW (Fig. 10c). In the Hakansson Mountains
and Mwanza areas, Van de Steen (1959) documented
thrusts overprinting D1 and D2 Kibaran structures. Latail-
lade and Bielle (1972) indicated that these areas were
affected by a low- to medium-grade metamorphism, and
reported local garnet-biotite-staurolite-kyanite assem-
blages suggestive of MP/MT metamorphism similar to
the Mitwaba region.
In the Nzilo region, two deformation events were identi-
fied within the metasedimentary successions (Byamungu
et al., 1979; Kokonyangi and Yoshida, unpublished data).
S1 is a flow schistosity, axial planar to F1 folds affecting
the bedding S0. This fabric is oblique to the stratification
and occurs within the Kiaora Group sedimentary rocks
exposed around Nseke and Nzilo (Kokonyangi and
Yoshida, unpublished data). Structures related to the
second deformation event include NE- to NNE-trending
S2 cleavage, axial planar to F2 macroscopic and mesoscopic
isoclinal folds verging to the NW. D2 affects all Kibaran
metasedimentary rocks exposed in the Nzilo region
(Byamungu et al., 1979). In addition, these authors docu-
mented large-scale reverse faults affecting the Nzilo anticline
(Fig. 8a) and Yoshida et al. (2004) mapped a large-scale zone
of brecciation marked by hematite mineralization (Fig. 8b),
although the significance of these brittle deformations is as
yet not well understood. The grade of regional metamor-
phism is low (chlorite-biotite zone) in the Nzilo area. The
chlorite zone is recorded in the Nzilo Group, whereas the
biotite zone is recorded in the Kiaora Group (Byamungu
et al., 1979).
8. Geochemistry of igneous rocks
8.1. Mafic igneous rocks
Mafic igneous rocks exposed in the Kibaride belt can be
subdivided into two different groups: (1) syn-D1, 1.38 Ga
igneous bodies intruding the Kiaora Group sedimentary
rocks and; (2) mafic igneous rocks of unknown age intrud-
ing the Nzilo Group sedimentary rocks and affected by the
D2 fabric, as well as post-D2 lavas in the Bukama region.
Modern geochemical data are only available on syn-D1
1.38 Ga mafic rocks from Mitwaba (Kokonyangi et al.,
2005).
8.1.1. Syn-D1 1.38 Ga mafic igneous rocks
This group of intrusive mafic igneous rocks is geograph-
ically associated with granitic plutons throughout the Kiba-
ride belt, e.g. in the Mitwaba (Grosemans, 1948; Van de
Steen, 1953a, 1959; Kampunzu et al., 1986; Kokonyangi
et al., 2004, 2005), Mwanza (Grosemans, 1946a; Loncha-
mpt, 1971; Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972; Ngulube, 1994)
and Bia (Cahen, 1954; Cahen and Lepersonne, 1967)
regions. Cahen (1954) described mafic igneous rocks closely
19
associated with granitic gneisses around the N’seke area
(Nzilo region). In the Mitwaba area, these mafic complexes
are closely associated with the 1.38 Ga Kifinga–Kisele gra-
nitic batholith (Figs. 2 and 4a), and they share the same field
relations, deformational history and petrographic features
with the older mafic igneous bodies exposed elsewhere
within the Kibaride belt (e.g. Mwanza, Bia and Manono).
All these rocks are tentatively considered to represent the
same syn-D1 mafic igneous event in this paper, although
more geochronological data are required to confirm this
hypothesis. These igneous rocks are affected by both Kiba-
ran deformation events. They are variably metamorphosed
and composed of plagioclase, amphibole, biotite and rare
relict igneous orthopyroxene. Two types of plagioclase
and hornblende were distinguished in the Mitwaba mafic
rocks (Kokonyangi et al., 2005). Greater than 30 m away
from the contact with the Kifinga–Kisele granitic batholith
(Fig. 2), relict magmatic labradorite (An up to 66) is pre-
served, and the main amphibole is a metamorphic actinolite
(XMg = {Mg/Mg + Fe2+} = 0.71–0.76) or cummingtonite
(XMg = 0.54–0.55), although relict hornblende (XMg 
0.52) is preserved within the Lwabwe complex. Close to
the contact (<15 m), plagioclase is andesine (An30–40), and
the amphibole is a tschermakite (XMg = 0.39–0.43; Kok-
onyangi et al., 2005).
Representative whole-rock chemical compositions of
these mafic igneous rocks, including major element compo-
sitions for samples from Manono (Thoreau, 1950), are
shown in Table 3. The rocks range from gabbro to diorite
and are characterized by the following elemental ranges:
SiO2: 48–58 wt.%, TiO2: 0.53–0.92 wt.%, Al2O3: 13.1–
18.68 wt.%, MgO: 5.19–8.73 wt%; Zr: 45–142 ppm, Y:
13–43 ppm. The Mg# ranges between 40 and 66. The mafic
rocks are marked by relatively high Th/Ta (3–14), La/Ta
(8–54) and La/Nb (2–5) and low Ce/Pb (<1–13, av. 7,
N = 25) and Ti/V (10–19). Chondrite-normalized rare
earth element (REE) patterns (Fig. 12a) exhibit enrichment
in light REE (LREE) relative to heavy REE (HREE), a
moderate fractionation of REE (e.g. LaN/YbN = 3–6)
and moderate negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.7–0.8).
Primordial mantle-normalized spider diagrams (Fig. 12b)
are marked by negative Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies. The
compositions of the mafic rocks resemble those of tholeiites
originating from a mantle source affected by subduction-
style enrichment and in particular show affinities with con-
tinental mafic arc rocks (Fig. 12c, Kokonyangi et al., 2005).
8.1.2. Post-D1/pre-to syn-D2 mafic rocks
This group of mafic/intermediate rocks post-dates the
oldest Kibaran deformational event (D1), but is affected
by the youngest one (D2). It includes post-D1/pre- to syn-
D2 mafic dykes described in the Nzilo area (Fig. 8a), intrud-
ing the Nzilo Group (Byamungu et al., 1979; Kokonyangi
and Yoshida, unpublished data). SW of Nzilo area, along
the Lubudi River, mafic igneous complexes intruding the
Nzilo Group (Moureau, 1960) display ophitic to subophitic
texture and contain pyroxene and plagioclase as the main
20 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
igneous phases, with metamorphic hornblende, muscovite
and zoisite. No geochemical analyses have so far been per-
formed on these rocks. Other igneous rocks considered to
be post-D1 and pre-D2 are the lavas in the Bukama region
(e.g. Fig. 7; Mortelmans, 1947; Cahen, 1954; Lataillade
and Bielle, 1972; Bulambo, unpublished data). Sparse major
element analyses performed in the 1940s on samples from
the more mafic Bukama lavas (Table 3) do not allow any
reliable geochemical interpretation, but show that the rocks
are dominantly andesitic (SiO2: 54.88–55.6 wt%), although
they are described as basalts in the literature.
8.2. Felsic igneous rocks
Felsic igneous rocks exposed in the Kibaride belt can be
grouped into three major categories. The first one consists
of 1.38 Ga orthogneisses showing intrusive relations with
the Kiaora Group and preserving both D1 and D2 fabrics.
These rocks were described in various localities within the
Kibaride belt, especially Mitwaba (e.g. Aderca, 1950; Van
de Steen, 1953a; Kampunzu et al., 1986; Kokonyangi
et al., 2004, 2005), Mwanza (Cahen, 1954; Cahen et al.,
1967, 1984; Van de Walle, 1959; Lonchampt, 1971;
Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972; Ngulube, 1994), Bia and
Bukama (e.g. Mortelmans, 1947, 1948; Cahen, 1954; Cahen
et al., 1967, 1984; Lataillade and Bielle, 1972) and Nzilo
(e.g. Cahen, 1954; Lepersonne, 1974; Moureau, 1960; Kok-
onyangi and Roser, unpublished data). The second group
consists of granitic gneisses intruding the Nzilo Group
and affected only by D2 deformation. They are represented
by the Kisandji granite gneiss (Mitwaba) and other post-D1
and pre- or syn-D2 Kibaran granitoids in other regions.
Rhyolites exposed in the Bukama region are also included
in this category. The third group consists of tin granites
and related quartz-pegmatite and greisen bodies. This last
group of igneous rocks intrudes all the other Kibaran igne-
ous units as well as the Kibaran metasedimentary units and
lacks Kibaran solid-state ductile fabrics. Tin granites and
related aplites/pegmatites and greisens are widespread in
the Kibaride belt, and important examples are documented
from the Mitwaba, Manono, Mwanza and Bia regions (e.g.
Aderca, 1950; Landa et al., 1950; Thoreau, 1950; Cahen,
1954; Cahen et al., 1967; Lonchampt, 1971; Lonchampt
and Heinry, 1972; Ngulube, 1994). Whole-rock chemical
data exist only for types (1) and (3) but are missing for
the type (2) granitoids and the Bukama rhyolites.
8.2.1. 1.38 Ga granitoids
The 1.38 Ga Kibaran orthogneisses include three petro-
graphic subgroups:
(1) Hornblende-biotite orthogneisses containing perthitic
k-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz and relict alkali-feld-
spar phenocrysts. Accessory minerals include titanite,
apatite, zircon and opaque minerals. These orthog-
neisses were reported south of Bukama, where they
intrude and thermally affect the Kikosa carbonate
complex of the Kiaora Group (e.g. Van de Steen,
1950b; Cahen, 1954), and in the Bia Mountains
(e.g. sample 71020 of Cahen et al., 1967). There are
no modern petrological data for this group of igneous
rocks in the Kibaride belt.
(2) Biotite orthogneisses, which are widespread in the
Kibaride belt and occur in the Nzilo, Bia, Mwanza
and Manono areas (e.g. Cahen, 1954; Van de Walle,
1959; Cahen et al., 1967, 1984; Lepersonne, 1974;
Ngulube, 1994; Kokonyangi and Roser, unpublishd
data). The geochemical data available on these
orthogneisses include low-precision major element
analyses performed in the 1950s (Cahen, 1954) and
modern whole-rock data for the Manono orthogneis-
ses (Ngulube, 1994). In the Manono area, Ngulube
(1994) reports biotite orthogneisses containing micro-
granular mafic enclaves (14 enclaves/m2) and
affected by reverse faults oriented parallel to D2
fabrics (Fig. 6a). The orthogneisses are devoid of
hornblende and primary muscovite and contain red-
dish-brown to greenish biotite as the only Fe–Mg
phase together with alkali feldspar, sericitized plagio-
clase (An9–45) and quartz. Biotite is generally kinked
or bent and partially converted to chlorite. In the
modal QAP classification diagram, these rocks plot
in the field for monzogranites (Fig. 12d). Accessory
minerals include titanite, epidote, opaque minerals
and rarely allanite (Cahen et al., 1967; Tegyey,
1971; Ngulube, 1994).Representative whole-rock
chemical compositions of samples from these orthog-
neisses are given in Table 4. In the Mitwaba area,
two-mica orthogneisses (described below) have
undergone lower greenschist to amphibolite facies
metamorphism. However, the distribution of strain
in the study area is heterogeneous and the grade of
metamorphism is variable (Kokonyangi et al.,
2001b). Therefore, element mobility should be tested
before use of any discrimination diagrams. This has
been done by comparing the composition of rocks
with igneous mineralogy and texture locally pre-
served in greenschist facies metamorphic zones (e.g.
the Fwifwi foliated monzogranite) with those rocks
that have been highly deformed and metamorphosed
in the amphibolite facies (e.g. the Kisele monzogra-
nite gneiss, Fig. 2). Elements such as Na, K, Ca,
Ba, Rb and Sr are usually mobilized during metamor-
phic processes. However, contents and ratios of most
of these elements are similar between samples show-
ing markedly different degrees of deformation and
metamorphism (e.g. Table 4). Therefore, we infer that
these elements can be used to constrain the original
geochemical features of the granitoids in the Mitwaba
area. We also infer that similar conclusions apply to
orthogneisses from other parts of the Kibaride belt.
In addition, the Rb and Sr contents in these rocks
range between 119–329 and 61–313 ppm respectively.
K/Rb ratios are in the range 150–260, except in two
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35 21

Table 3
Representative whole-rock compositions of mafic rocks from the Kibaride belt (Katanga, Congo)
Samples Mitwaba syn-D1 mafic rocks Manono syn-D1 mafic rocks
LM1 LM2 LM3 LM4 LM5 LM12 KM2 KM3 KM4 KM5 K. 1622 K. 860 K. 799 K. 1091
SiO2 50.61 48.28 54.82 51.65 52.83 54.15 52.07 52.48 53.2 53.99 47.68 55.38 53.32 57.04
TiO2 0.80 0.65 0.59 1.07 0.55 0.76 0.53 0.69 0.7 0.77 0.58 0.48 0.53 0.62
Al2O3 14.86 17.68 13.99 13.10 14.11 14.45 15.36 14.59 14.69 14.17 14.45 18.16 12.25 17.28
Fe2O3 10.62 9.48 9.01 14.65 8.39 11.05 9.13 10.12 10.29 9.42 13,97 8.53 12.20 9.18
MnO 0.19 0.22 0.16 0.20 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.18 0.18 0.22 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
MgO 7.37 6.73 6.78 5.93 7.22 7.2 7.94 7.47 7.6 6.03 7.93 5.68 8.17 5.07
CaO 10.55 8.73 9.40 8.82 9.04 9.91 12 9.69 9.82 5.81 12.14 8.20 10.70 6.43
Na2O 0.84 1.90 1.78 2.36 2.73 0.78 1.09 1.04 1.04 0.76 1.17 1.25 1.28 1.33
K2O 0.22 2.49 1.58 1.39 1.69 0.27 0.24 0.84 0.81 2.95 0.07 0.92 0.33 1.22
P2O5 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.19 0.05 0.19 0.12 0.11 0.14 0.11 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
LOI 2.91 3.27 2.47 0.28 2.64 0.39 0.65 1.27 1.3 3.64 2.40 2.25 1.10 1.95

Total 99.04 99.47 100.64 99.64 99.46 99.36 99.32 98.51 99.81 97.87 100.39 100.85 99.88 100.12
Mg# 58 58 60 44 63 54 61 57 57 53 50 54 55 50
Q 14.89 1.38 12.81 10.04 5.51 19.91 12.44 14.8 15.26 17.49
Di 11.10 7.52 15.30 14.51 17.83 8.54 16.75 10.41 10.31
Hy 13.95 13.94 10.11 8.14 10.31 14.17 12.29 14.32 14.44 15.94
Ba 42.5 634 291 323 266 19.81 33.02 98.04 96.96 190.2
Cr 288 376 470 74 518 268.1 225.1 317.6 313 248.3
Nb 7.02 5.3 5 10 3 7.63 3.02 6.47 6.52 7.77
Ta 1.5 1.5 2 1.5 0.5 0.74 <0.5 0.61 0.59 0.64
Ni 40 5 5 65 10 28.59 17.45 36.26 34.93 29.88
Pb 7 10 7 4 7 4 61 6 6 3
Rb 6.8 173 65.4 75.6 92.6 10.97 12.22 64.76 62.3 128.9
Sr 174 207 125.5 175.5 173 124.2 180.4 104.6 106.8 101.6
V 280 230 220 265 245 294.6 302.4 275.6 265.3 304.4
Zr 86 95.5 85 133 73.5 84.97 47.71 73.12 71.6 88.93
Zn 125 90 75 140 85 50.59 193.9 102.5 96.21 62.06
Y 31.5 21.5 21 42.5 20.5 25.37 13.86 22.63 22.58 26.05
Th 4 6 5 6 4 5.63 3.19 4.37 4.08 5.16
U 1 1.5 1.5 1 1 0.87 0.54 0.75 0.78 0.93
Ce 30.5 37.5 30.5 48 30 30.36 19.52 29.27 32.61 26.72
La 22.5 19 17 22 16 10.47 9.2 12.67 12.98 11.69
Cs 1.7 10.1 3.1 7.8 3.4 14.8 4.53 11.28 11.15 13.4
Sm 5.5 3.8 3.2 6.5 3.3 3.53 2.23 3.3 3.54 3.49
Nd 24 18.5 15.5 26.5 15 23.9 9.35 13.92 14.47 13.67
Er 3.9 2.3 2.5 4.8 2.2 2.38 1.37 2.17 2.23 2.57
Eu 1.5 0.9 0.9 1.9 0.9 0.98 0.66 0.92 0.9 1.04
Ga 18 19 16 24 17 17.07 15.55 16.21 15.89 16.69
Gd 6.4 4.3 3.6 7.7 3.8 3.63 2.19 3.55 3.58 3.73
Hf 2 2 2 5 1 2.75 1.55 2.35 2.3 2.71
Ho 1.4 0.8 0.8 1.7 0.7 0.91 0.52 0.86 0.85 0.98
Dy 6.4 4 3.7 8.1 4.3 3.79 2.1 3.56 3.49 4.05
Lu 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.15 0.22 0.34 0.35 0.39
Pr 6.1 4.5 3.8 6.2 3.8 3.68 2.41 3.42 3.66 3.34
Tb 1 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.6 0.56 0.34 0.52 0.53 0.6
Tm 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.38 0.21 0.35 0.35 0.41
Yb 3.4 2.2 2.2 5 2.2 2.31 1.34 2.32 2.23 2.51
Th/Ta 3 4 3 4 8 8 7 7 8
La/Nb 3 4 3 2 5 1 3 2 2 2
Th/Ce 0.13 0.16 0.16 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.19
Ce/Pb 4.4 3.8 4.4 12.0 4.3 7.6 0.3 4.9 5.4 8.9
(La/Yb)cn 4.4 5.8 5.2 2.9 4.9 4.0 4.6 3.7 3.9 3.1

Bukama post-D1/pre-D2 volcanic rocks

Samples 1 2 3 4
SiO2 55.59 55.59 54.92 54.88
TiO2 1.29 1.51 1.63 1.04
Al2O3 14.45 13.48 13.66 15.33
Fe2O3 10.11 9.38 11.34 8.65
MnO 0.12 0.13 0.10 0.10
MgO 4.07 5.89 3.88 4.26
(continued on next page)
22 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
Table 3 (continued)
Samples 1 2
CaO 8.49 10.08
Na2O 3.47 2.82
K2O 1.32 1.30
P2O5 0.19 0.10
LOI 0.35 0.19
Total 99.45 100.32
Mg# 42.00 53.00
Q 6.55 4.94
Di 17.31 24.35
Hy 11.67 14.40
LM: samples from the 1.38 Ga Lwabwe metagabbro, KM: samples from Kidilo ortho-amphibolites.
Mg# = molar ratio {Mg/(Mg + Fe2+)}, with Fe3+/Fe2+ = 0.2. For Tables 3–5, the Mitwaba samples were analyzed at Chemex and Osaka City University
labs following the analytical techniques described in Kokonyangi et al., 2004, 2005 Samples from Manono were analyzed at Nancy University following
the analytical techniques described by Ngulube, 1994. Data on Bukama volcanics are from Cahen (1954).
samples marked by lower ratios close to 130. Accord-
ing to Shaw (1968), granitoids with K/Rb > 150 have
not been affected by a post-magmatic aqueous phase.
These elements can therefore be used with care in this
paper.The biotite orthogneisses in the Manono area
are potassic (K2O/Na2O: 1.56–3.5), and their alu-
mina saturation index ranges between 0.89 and
1.25, indicating coexistence of metaluminous and
peraluminous granitoids (Table 4 and Fig. 12e).
These rocks are characterized by a wide range of
trace element compositions (in ppm): Rb: 160–370,
Sr: 50–355, Ba: 340–1000, Ta: <4, Y: 15–58. In the
Rb–Yb–Ta discrimination diagram (Fig. 13), most
of the samples fall in the syncollisional field, although
some of them overlap the field for post-collisional
granites. Chondrite-normalized REE (Fig. 14a) are
characterized by regular, parallel patterns showing
enrichment in light REE (LREE) relative to heavy
REE (HREE), with (La/Yb)N between 6 and 16
and negative variable Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.2–
0.5). Primordial mantle-normalized spider diagrams
(Fig. 14b) display negative Ta, Ti and Sr anomalies
and enrichment in U, Th and K. The negative Ta,
Ti and Sr anomalies may indicate a subduction or
crustal source for these granites. Ngulube (1994) sug-
gested that these granitoids represent crustally con-
taminated high-K calcalkaline I-type granitoids.
(3) 1.38 Ga two-mica orthogneisses, which are known in
several areas within the Kibaride belt, such as in the
Mitwaba (e.g. Cahen et al., 1967; Kampunzu et al.,
1986; Kokonyangi et al., 2004), Mwanza (e.g. Van
de Walle, 1959; Cahen et al., 1967), Bia (Beugnies,
1950; Cahen, 1954) and Nzilo (Cahen, 1954; Lep-
ersonne, 1974) regions. They are geographically clo-
sely associated with the 1.38 Ga mafic arc rocks.
The orthogneisses contain alkali feldspar (Or74–96,
Ab26–2, An0–1), plagioclase (An3–30, Ab79–85, Or1–6),
primary muscovite and biotite. Monazite, ilmenite
and tourmaline are the main accessories and ilmenite
is the major opaque phase. The rocks have monzo-
granitic and granodioritic modal compositions
3 4
8.93 9.95
4.34 2.74
1.54 0.90
0.28 0.23
0.01 3.11
100.53 99.60
38.00 46.00
1.22 9.51
24.24 17.18
8.05 9.86
(Fig. 12d). Chemical compositions of biotites from
these granitoids point to their strongly peraluminous
composition (Fig. 12f, Abdel-Rahman, 1994).
Representative whole-rock chemical compositions of the
two-mica orthogneisses are presented in Table 4. They
show an increase of silica content from granodiorites
(67 wt.% SiO2) to monzogranites (77 wt.% SiO2). The rocks
are potassic (K2O/Na2O > 1) and show variable trace ele-
ment compositions (e.g. Rb < 100 ppm, Sr < 300–
400 ppm, Ba < 600–1000 ppm). The alumina-saturation
index is between 1.04 and 1.53 (Fig. 12e) and normative
corundum is in the range 1–4%. REE patterns are enriched
and fractionated (LaN/YbN  6–14; Fig. 14c). The HREE
are slightly enriched, as shown by YbN values between 4
and 12. Primordial mantle-normalized spidergrams
(Fig. 14d) are characterized by negative anomalies of Ti,
Nb, Sr and Ba. The mineralogical and geochemical compo-
sitions are typical of strongly peraluminous (SP) granites,
as shown by Kokonyangi et al. (2004). These authors also
showed that the genesis of these SP granitoids requires the
mixing of mafic to intermediate arc magmas (10–20%)
and felsic magmas (90–80%) originating from partial melt-
ing of the Kiaora Group sedimentary rocks.
8.2.2. Tin granites and related pegmatites/greisens
These igneous rocks are well represented within the
Kibaride belt and have been documented by various
authors (e.g. Van Aubel, 1928; Karpoff and Karpoff,
1938; Aderca, 1946, 1950; Landa et al., 1950; Thoreau,
1950; Cahen, 1954; Cahen et al., 1967, 1984; Lonchampt,
1971; Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972; Kampunzu et al.,
1986; Günther and Ngulube, 1992; Ngulube, 1994). They
contain quartz, alkali feldspar, plagioclase, garnet, tourma-
line, up to 15% primary muscovite and biotite. Plagioclase
is complexly zoned and shows embayed calcic cores of
irregular shape (Ngulube, 1994). Modal analyses (Cahen
et al., 1967) plot in the monzogranitic field (Fig. 12d).
Except for the Manono pink leucogranite and pegma-
tite, which were analysed using modern techniques, there
are no geochemical data from the other tin granites and
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35 23

Fig. 12. Petrology of Mitwaba 1.38 Ga (meta)igneous rocks. (a–c) 1.38 Ga orthoamphibolites. (a) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns, (b) Primordial
mantle-normalized spider diagram. (c) Th/Yb vs. Ta/Yb discrimination diagram. Field boundaries from Pearce (1983). (d–f) 1.38 Ga granitoids. (d)
Quartz–Alkali feldspar–Plagioclase (Q–A–P) diagram. (b) Aluminum Saturation Index (ASI) diagram. (c) Chemical compositions of biotite from the
Mitwaba granitoids in the discrimination diagram of Abdel-Rahman (1994). See text for discussion. The normalizing values for REE and spider diagrams
are after Sun and McDonough (1989).

pegmatites exposed throughout the Kibaride belt. Repre-
sentative major- and trace-element compositions of the
Manono leucogranite and pegmatite are listed in Table 5.
The pink leucogranites are potassic (K2O/Na2O between
1.3 and 4.0). The alumina saturation index (1.03–1.17) indi-
cates that these are peraluminous granites (Table 5,
Fig. 12e). The silica content, ASI and normative corundum
values and certain trace element features (e.g.
Rb > 100 ppm, Sr < 300 ppm, Ba < 600 ppm, high Rb/Th
ratios (23–108), Th < 25 ppm and U < 10 ppm) are charac-
teristic for SP granitoids that originate from partial melting
of sedimentary rocks and are also known as S-type granites
(e.g. Vidal et al., 1982; Noble et al., 1984; Miller, 1985).
The spider diagrams for these rocks show negative Ti, Sr
Table 4

24
Representative whole-rock compositions of the 1.38 Ga orthogneisses from the Kibaride belt
Mitwaba syn-D1 SP granitoids
K12.1 K12.2 K12.3 K2.1 K2.2 K2.3 K23.1 K23.2 K23.3 K23.4 K23.5 K23.6 K15.1 K30 K35.1 K36.1
SiO2 69.39 68.32 67.69 74.16 75.46 74.68 70.84 74.21 71.38 70.98 71.81 69.34 69.2 70.88 74.05 68.58
TiO2 0.51 0.53 0.46 0.17 0.16 0.17 0.48 0.17 0.43 0.48 0.42 0.45 0.59 0.53 0.43 0.56
Al2O3 13.79 14.25 13.06 13.7 12.66 12.84 13.71 12.35 13.35 13.75 13.22 13.73 13.19 12.87 13.1 13.36
Fe2O3 3.47 3.82 3.71 1.44 1.22 1.23 2.95 1.46 2.38 2.88 2.07 2.9 3.66 3.82 2.13 4.83
MnO 0.07 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.01 0.05
MgO 1.66 1.72 1.67 0.57 0.49 0.51 1.01 0.41 0.99 1.01 0.86 1 1.35 1.37 0.72 2.12
CaO 1.36 1.32 1.95 0.52 0.58 0.68 2.12 0.72 1.77 2.13 1.83 2.01 2.55 0.24 0.63 2.29
Na2O 2.68 2.66 1.72 4.55 3.49 3.87 2.25 1.78 2.44 2.27 3.12 1.9 2.12 2.54 1.85 1.82
K2O 4.71 5.03 4.4 2.93 4.43 3.82 5.05 6.46 5.2 5.13 3.75 5.9 3.82 4.89 5.02 4.09

J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

P2O5 0.12 0.13 0.1 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.18 0.06 0.21 0.16 0.16 0.19 0.2 0.16 0.09 0.16
LOI 1.87 1.74 3.34 1.4 1.04 1.5 1.37 2.27 1.6 1.27 1.54 1.68 3.29 1.89 1.52 1.55
Total 99.76 99.71 98.26 99.59 99.68 99.43 100.1 99.95 99.96 100.2 98.97 99.33 100.1 99.42 99.66 99.53
Cs 18.2 19.6 6.8 1.3 1.3 1.2 4.2 11.8 6.9 3.8 6.9 5.2 13.3 2.4 23.1 6.6
Rb 309 329 225 132 185.5 168 254 249 220 255 184.5 257 243 169 301 201
Ba 999 1085 836 242 384 332 947 375 1300 936 1065 1235 805 1345 587 896
Th 14 16 17 16 20 25 17 27 12 16 13 14 17 14 13 14
U 3 3.5 4 13 16 19 3 7.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 3 5.5 6 3 4
Ta 3 4 3 6 6 6 6 9 4 6 5 12 4 5 8 7
Nb 13 14 13 9 9 10 15 16 12 15 13 16 16 15 15 15
Sr 160.5 159 226 65.8 72.6 74.5 284 183 272 290 238 313 281 105 91 288
Hf 5 6 6 5 4 6 6 3 5 6 5 5 7 6 5 6
Zr 279 281 296 267 241 278 300 192 272 301 286 288 323 313 290 312
Y 26 34 28.5 20 43.5 52 35.5 46.5 29.5 35.5 32 32 40 37.5 35 33.5
Cr 64 64 56 4 6 4 46 2 46 44 44 42 64 42 30 82
Ni 30 30 25 15 15 10 10 10 15 10 15 15 25 15 5 30
Cu 25 25 25 15 10 5 5 10 5 5 5 20 5 10 10 25
Pb 20 20 7 7 9 11 7 9 10 8 9 14 7 9 9 12
Zn 75 85 50 30 20 30 25 40 30 20 35 90 50 45 25 70
La 50 52 56.5 41.5 44 57.5 50.5 59.5 41 50 49.5 43 49.5 52.5 44.5 55.5
Ce 96 105 112 83 87.5 112.5 104.5 129 78.5 101.5 89 82.5 104 118.5 86.5 108
Pr 11 12.5 13 9.4 9.8 12.5 12.6 15.7 10 12.5 11.3 10.2 12.4 12.9 10.1 12.5
Nd 41 46 44.5 31.5 34.5 44.5 46.5 58.5 37 46.5 41 38.5 47 47 35.5 45
Sm 7.5 8.2 8 6.2 7.3 8.8 8.9 12 7.6 8.7 7.7 7.2 9.3 9.2 6.7 8.1
Eu 1.4 1.4 1.3 0.9 1 1.1 1.6 1 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.4 0.9 1.2
Gd 6.7 7.1 6 4.9 6.9 8.4 7.2 9.9 5.9 7.8 6.6 6.4 7.9 7.4 7.3 6.9
Tb 1 1.1 0.9 0.8 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.4 0.9 1.1 1 0.9 1.1 1.1 0.9 1
Dy 5.2 6.5 4.8 4.7 7.9 9.5 6 8.9 4.9 6.2 5.4 5.3 6.7 6.8 5 5.3
Ho 0.9 1.2 1.1 0.8 1.6 1.9 1.2 1.6 1 1.2 1.1 1 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.2
Er 3 3.7 3 2.2 4.9 5.7 3.6 4.7 2.9 3.5 3 2.7 3.8 3.6 3.5 3.4
Tm 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.5
Yb 2.6 3.8 3.3 2 5.2 6.2 3.2 4.1 2.7 3.1 2.7 3.2 3.7 3.5 3.2 3.3
Lu 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.8 1 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4
K2O/Na2O 1.8 1.9 2.6 0.6 1.3 1.0 2.2 3.6 2.1 2.3 1.2 3.1 1.8 1.9 2.7 2.3
ASI 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5
Cor. norm 1.8 2.1 2.0 2.3 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.2 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.9 1.3 3.2 3.5 2.0
Mg# 49 47 47 44 44 45 40 36 45 41 45 41 42 42 40 47
Rb/Sr 1.9 2.1 1.0 2.0 2.6 2.3 0.9 1.4 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.6 3.3 0.7
Rb/Ba 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.2
Rb/Th 22 21 13 8 9 7 15 9 18 16 14 18 14 12 23 14
Sr/Ba 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3
Th/U 5 5 4 1 1 1 6 4 5 6 4 5 3 2 4 4
(La/Yb)N 13 9 11 14 6 6 11 10 10 11 12 9 9 10 9 11
Eu/Eu* 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5

Manono syn-D1 orthogneisses

GM 1 GM 2 GM 3 GM 4 GM 5 GM 6 GF 2 GF 3 GF 4 GF 5 GF 6
SiO2 63.17 70.20 72.01 67.01 72.17 74.54 70.22 72.87 59.53 67.04 71.50
TiO2 0.33 0.25 0.18 0.38 0.25 0.17 0.50 0.38 0.78 0.67 0.53
Al2O3 20.48 16.31 14.30 17.89 15.23 13.72 14.72 13.45 20.12 15.23 13.98

J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

Fe2O3 2.40 2.55 2.42 2.30 2.43 2.31 3.13 3.60 2.66 3.23 3.71
MnO 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.11 0.27
MgO 0.50 0.28 0.32 0.43 0.27 0.30 1.49 0.70 1.33 1.14 0.70
CaO 1.53 1.53 1.29 1.36 1.43 1.26 2.25 1.86 5.12 2.55 1.99
Na2O 2.71 3.17 3.29 2.35 3.02 3.13 2.29 2.35 3.19 2.59 2.44
K2O 8.41 5.44 5.12 8.21 5.20 5.08 5.34 4.99 7.41 5.43 5.10
P2O5 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.40 0.11 0.14
LOI n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Total 99.74 99.84 99.04 100.08 100.11 100.62 100.11 100.42 100.61 98.11 100.37
Cs 7 14 15 5 10 11 15 25 8 13 22
Rb 310 300 370 300 280 350 230 300 160 220 280
Ba 470 370 440 440 340 400 810 800 930 780 730
Th 34 56 38 30 51 34 16 19 18 14 17
U 11 26 18 10 22 15 2.9 6.8 3.1 2.4 5.4
Ta 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Nb nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
Sr 104 54 65 100 50 55 130 100 330 120 70
Hf 5 7 4 3 6 2 6 7 5 5 5
Be 2.40 3.70 2.80 2.00 3.00 2.20 1.70 1.70 2.00 1.10 1.10
Y 49 36 19 42 30 15 41 34 55 38 31
Sc 3.8 9.7 4.2 3.6 9 4 8.9 10 10 6.8 8
Ni 8 4 5 6 3 4 11 6 9 10 5
Cu 13 3 12 11 2 10 14 12 8 12 10
Pb 59 45 49 50 40 45 19 15 28 17 12
Zn 190 196 91 170 180 80 58 41 40 54 37
La 42 57 44 40 51 42 47 47 50 43 43
Ce 91 123 87 85 118 80 89 96 88 80 92
Pr nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
Nd 42 58 37 38 52 30 47 43 41 42 41
Sm 10 15 8.7 8 12 6.7 7.3 8.6 7 7 8
Eu 1.1 0.9 1 1 0.7 0.8 1 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.9
Gd n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Tb 1.6 2.5 1.1 1.1 2.1 1.02 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1
Dy n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Ho n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Er n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Tm n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

25
(continued on next page)
26 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

GF 6

1.06
0.7
2.1

4.0
0.4

0.1

0.4
25

16
5

3
6
GF 5

0.45

1.03
38.6
3.3

2.1

1.8
0.3

0.2

0.4
16

6
9
GF 4

0.89
3.7
0.5
2.3

0.5
0.2

0.4

0.5
47

6
9

Fig. 13. Rb vs. Yb + Ta discrimination diagram for Manono granitoids,

Katanga, Congo. Fields after Pearce et al., 1984. The area enclosed in
the dashed circle represents field for post-collisional granites of Pearce,
GF 3

0.73

1.06

1996.
5.3

2.1

3.0
0.4

0.1

0.4
26

16

3
6

and subsidiary Ba anomalies and a pronounced positive U

anomaly (Fig. 14e).
GF 2

0.55

1.08

The Manono pegmatite shows a variation in chemical

3.8

2.3

1.8
0.3

0.2

0.4
6
8
50

14

composition correlated to the zoning pattern recognized by

Ngulube (1994) on the basis of petrographic data. The rocks
are characterized by high silica contents (71–81 wt%). The
samples containing spodumene and alkali feldspar are richer
GM 6

ASI = molar ratio Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O + K2O), Mg# = molar ratio {Mg/(Mg + Fe2+)}, with Fe3+/Fe2+ = 0.2.
1.06

in SiO2 (>75 up to 81 wt%), Al2O3 (>16, up to 20 wt%), and

1.8
0.2
1.6

6.4
0.9

0.1

0.4
19

10

16
2

K2O (0.9–4.22) and are extremely peraluminous (ASI: >2 up

to 7) compared to those marked by higher albite and musco-
vite (70 < SiO2 < 75 wt%, Al2O3: 13.89–17.28 wt%, K2O:
0.52–1.57 wt%, ASI: 0.98–1.1, i.e. a metaluminous to weakly
GM 5

1.15

peraluminous composition). In contrast, albite-muscovite-

0.7
1.7

5.6
0.8

0.1

0.2
GM and GF represent migmatitic and foliated granites, respectively. n.d. = not determined.
17
4

2
9

bearing samples are richer in Na2O (7.99–8.9 wt%) than

those containing spodumene and alkali feldspar (Na2O:
0.35–3.44 wt%). The pegmatite is characterized by Rb con-
tents between 150 and 590 ppm, except two samples with
GM 4

0.27

1.17

Rb close to 120 ppm, Sr contents of 7–30 ppm and Ba con-

3.5

3.0
0.7

0.2

0.4
25

10

13
2

tents <100 ppm. High Ta (22–69 ppm) and Sn (up to

1200 ppm) and low Y (<2 ppm) values occur in barren rock
samples. Alkali feldspar-spodumene-bearing samples are
richer in Yb (0.2–0.5 ppm) than other lithologies
GM 3

1.08

(Yb < 0.2 ppm). Ngulube (1994) indicated that the Manono
19.1
2.2
0.3
1.6

5.7
0.8

0.1

0.4
10

13
2

pink leucogranite and pegmatite could be cogenetic products

from a single parental magma. The Manono pink leucogra-
nite and tin pegmatite analyses plot in a similar area in the
Rb–Yb–Ta diagram, encompassing both collisional and
GM 2

0.78

1.17
16.4
5.2

1.7

5.6
0.8

0.1

0.2

post-collisional granites (Fig. 13). They display chemical

5

2
7

similarities with Cretaceous to Tertiary SE Asian tin-gran-

ites (e.g. Ishihara et al., 1980).

9. Summary
GM 1

0.53

1.25
3.1

3.0
0.7

0.2

0.4
27
3

3
9

9.1. Lithostratigraphy, structure and metamorphism

Table 4 (continued)

It is clear that there is a general similarity in the litho-

K2O/Na2O

(La/Yb)N

stratigraphic succession across the Kibaride belt, in spite

Eu/Eu*
Rb/Th
Rb/Ba
Rb/Sr

Sr/Ba
Th/U

of the deformational overprint. An attempted synthetic

Mg#
ASI
Yb
Lu

lithostratigraphic column of the Kibaride belt is shown in

 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35 27

Fig. 14. (a) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for Manono orthogneisses. (b) Primordial mantle-normalized spider diagram for Manono orthogneisses.
(c) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for Mitwaba orthogneisses. (d) Primordial mantle-normalized spider diagram for Mitwaba orthogneisses. (e)
Primordial mantle-normalized spider diagram for Manono tin granites. The normalizing values for REE and spider diagram are after Sun and
McDonough (1989).

Fig. 15, and the schematic evolution of the Kibaride belt is
illustrated in Fig. 16. The Kibaride belt supracrustal
(meta)sedimentary successions can be divided into four
major lithostratigraphic units: K1 or Kiaora Group, K2
or Nzilo Group, K3 or Hakansson Group, and K4 or Lub-
udi Group (Mortelmans, 1951; Van de Steen, 1959; Cahen
et al., 1984 and references therein).
The Kiaora Group unconformably overlies the Archaean
to Paleoproterozoic rocks of the Congo craton. A Kibaran
basal conglomerate representing possibly a fluviatile deposit
described in the Nzilo area (Moureau, 1960) occurs directly
above the unconformity. The overlying sedimentary succes-
sion of the Kiaora Group is characterized by fluviatile,
lacustrine and shallow marine deposits. The Nzilo Group
(K2) comprises coarse-grained quartzites with common
metaconglomeratic intercalations. The siliciclastic rocks
forming this group rest on an erosional disconformity and
are separated from the Kiaora Group by the Kataba
matrix-supported conglomerate, which defines the base of
the Nzilo Group. The presence of common herringbone
cross-bedding and wavy ripple marks within this group
points to a shallow-marine (tidal flat) environment. The
Hakansson Group (K3) is made of fine-grained, dark-col-
ored slates and minor conglomeratic layers. In the Bukama
and Mont Hakansson areas, Mortelmans (1947) documents
amygdaloidal basaltic lavas capping the Nzilo Group and
separating that group from the Hakansson Group. The
basaltic lavas overly the Nzilo Group across an erosional
surface (Figs. 15 and 16). The Lubudi Group (K4) is well
exposed in the Mwanza and Bukama regions. It comprises
calc-silicate rocks (often silicified with local stromat-
olites), black schists and dark quartzites. The presence of
 28
Table 5
Representative whole-rock compositions of the late to post-D2 tin granites and pegmatites from the Kibaride belt
LR 1 LR 2 LR 3 LR 4 LR 5 LR 6 LR 7 LR 8 LR 9 LR 10 LR 11 LR 12 LR 14 LR 15 LR 16 Psk1 Psk2 Psk3 Psk4 Pna1 Pna2 Pna3 Pna4 Psp1 Psp2 Psp3 Psp4
SiO2 74.21 76.00 73.11 77.01 75.10 72.20 76.79 74.33 75.57 76.77 76.35 74.12 75.10 75.82 71.12 77.28 74.67 75.16 76.06 74.66 72.91 74.87 71.50 77.85 79.37 76.79 80.21
TiO2 0.05 0.02 0.18 0.03 0.08 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.05 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Al2O3 14.59 13.70 13.72 12.57 12.91 15.16 12.19 13.59 14.00 13.13 12.45 13.34 13.11 13.66 14.49 16.57 18.39 17.99 17.25 15.61 16.36 14.89 17.23 18.50 17.29 19.42 16.12
Fe2O3 0.92 1.17 1.94 1.36 1.10 1.85 1.04 1.48 1.02 1.13 1.41 1.17 1.07 1.57 1.87 0.47 0.45 0.42 0.43 0.28 0.37 0.15 0.43 0.64 0.56 0.64 0.70
MnO 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.14 0.14 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.21 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.06 0.12 0.13 0.31 0.43 0.30 0.34
MgO 0.13 0.02 0.35 0.07 0.15 0.22 0.23 0.17 0.12 0.25 0.17 0.18 0.25 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
CaO 0.83 0.50 0.27 0.72 0.96 0.76 0.10 0.94 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.77 0.10 0.94 0.78 0.20 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.20 0.57 0.17 0.67 0.64 0.52 0.66 0.80
Na2O 2.92 3.19 3.03 3.56 1.90 3.03 2.16 3.28 2.76 3.01 3.88 3.01 2.51 2.98 3.13 3.44 2.79 2.74 2.98 8.32 8.57 7.99 8.87 0.40 0.35 0.43 0.40
K2O 5.96 5.23 6.39 4.64 7.51 6.27 7.35 4.69 5.64 5.20 4.99 6.60 7.42 4.71 6.49 1.33 3.19 3.18 2.72 0.58 0.68 1.57 0.68 0.98 0.85 1.04 0.83

J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35

P2O3 0.14 0.23 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.14 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.21 0.11 0.23 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.32 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.44 0.21 0.46 0.64 0.60 0.69 0.57
Total 99.79 100.10 99.09 100.10 99.82 99.80 100.07 98.71 99.85 100.35 100.11 99.69 99.83 100.11 98.34 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Cs 32 16 9 24 10 8 3 19 30 10 25 15 8 20 5 55 48 45 50 18 26 26 26 67 65 70 60
Rb 240 500 350 390 320 260 290 540 230 580 400 350 300 530 250 360 590 500 400 150 230 100 280 420 410 430 415
Ba 100 100 440 280 280 140 840 230 100 100 300 300 850 220 120 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100
Th 6 5 38 7 10 11 28 16 5 4.2 8 12 30 15 10 1.3 1.1 1 1.2 0.9 2.6 0.8 2.7 2.2 2.1 2.4 2
U 9 14 27 14 7 7 9 32 8 12 16 7.5 9 30 6 4.1 7.9 7 5.2 9.6 9.3 9.5 9.39 2.6 2.4 2.8 2.2
Ta 2 <1 2 2 2 <1 <1 4 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 69 25 22 28 55 56 54 57 44 43 45 45
Sr 32 21 61 9 79 41 84 36 30 20 10 80 88 38 35 5 8 6 6 14 26 12 28 10 9 11 8
Hf 2 2 4 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 4 4 4 3 3 <1 <1 <1 <1 2 1 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1
Be 3.7 1.4 3 2.5 0.7 2 1 <2 3.2 1.2 3 1 2 7 0.5 204.1 94.5 90 104.5 121.4 146.9 119.6 150.1 176.9 170 180 165
Y 25 12 29 13 28 26 7 7.5 22 10 15 30 10 19 20 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
V 1 1 7 1 1 3 4 3.8 1 1 2 2 5 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <1 1 1
Sc 3 3.5 3.6 4.5 3.2 5.7 1.6 16 2 3 5 3.5 2 3.5 4.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1
Ni 1 3 1 7 3 1 5 <0.5 1 1 2 8 2 1 1 4 2 1 3 6 4 5 5 1 1 1 1
Cr <10 <10 <10 11 <10 <10 <10 23 <10 <10 12 10 10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10
Cu 8 14 17 7 2 9 4 8 7 12 9 4 5 7 7 1 8 6 4 7 4 6 5 4 3 5 2
Pb 32 29 46 14 27 24 28 51 30 25 16 30 30 50 20 5 17 15 12 6 9 5 10 5 4 6 3
Zn 87 35 21 17 12 25 19 75 80 30 20 15 21 73 20 138 94 90 110 62 54 60 58 83 80 90 75
Co <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <10 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5
La 6 5 44 9 13 17 50 40 6 5 12 15 52 15 14 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Ce 13 12 73 18 32 38 82 20 12 10 20 35 85 35 30 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3
Nd <5 6 37 10 19 19 42 5 <5 5 12 20 45 18 15 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5
Sm 1.9 1.6 8.7 2.8 3.6 4.5 6 0.8 1 1 3 3.8 8 4.5 3.8 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Eu <0.2 <0.2 1 <0.2 0.7 0.4 0.6 <0.5 <0.2 <0.2 0.2 1 0.8 0.7 0.3 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2
Tb 0.8 <0.5 1.3 0.7 0.9 1.1 <0.5 1.19 0.6 0.5 0.9 1.1 0.5 <0.5 0.8 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Yb 3.1 1.6 2 4 7.2 5.3 0.4 0.28 2.8 1 6 7.5 0.9 1.8 4.2 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.35 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2
Lu 0.44 0.19 <0.05 0.55 1.03 0.79 <0.05 <0.05 0.3 0.1 0.7 1.5 0.05 0.2 0.59 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
K2O/ 2.17 2.40 1.66 2.00 2.46 2.24 1.64 0.50 2.00 1.73 1.29 2.20 2.96 1.58 2.07 2.20 2.07 0.39 1.14 1.16 0.91 0.07 0.08 0.20 0.08 2.43 2.44
Na2O
ASI 1.14 1.23 1.11 1.03 1.00 1.15 1.04 1.12 1.21 1.14 0.98 1 1.06 1.17 1.07 2.22 2.2 2.18 2.12 1.06 1.03 0.98 1.04 6.39 7.08 6.33 5.38
Mg# 20 3 24 8 20 18 28 17 17 28 18 22 29 16 14 39 7 7.8 7.65 11 8.8 19 7.7 5.2 6.0 5.2 4.8
Rb/Sr 7.5 23.8 5.7 43.3 4.1 6.3 3.5 15.0 7.7 29.0 40.0 4.4 3.4 13.9 7.1 72.0 73.8 83.3 66.7 10.7 8.8 8.3 10.0 42.0 45.6 39.1 51.9
Rb/Ba 2.4 5.0 0.8 1.4 1.1 1.9 0.3 2.3 2.3 5.8 1.3 >1.2 0.4 2.4 >2.1 >3.6 >5.9 >5.0 >4.0 >1.5 >2.3 >1 >2.8 >4.2 >4.1 >4.3 >4.15
Rb/Th 42.9 108.7 9.2 54.2 32.0 23.6 10.4 33.8 43.4 138.1 50.0 29 10.0 35.3 25 277 536 500 333 167 88 125 104 191 195 179 208
Sr/Ba 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 >0.05 >0.08 >0.06 >0.06 >0.14 >0.26 >0.12 >0.28 >0.1 >0.09 >0.11 >0.08
Th/U 1.6 3.0 0.7 1.9 0.7 0.6 0.3 2.0 1.6 2.9 2.0 0.6 0.3 2.0 0.6 3.2 7.2 7.0 4.3 10.7 3.6 11.9 3.5 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1
(La/Yb)N 1.3 2.1 14.7 1.5 1.2 2.1 83.6 95.5 1.4 3.3 1.3 1.3 3.3 5.6 2.2
LR = Pink leucogranite, Psk, Pna, Psp are samples from Manono Sn–Nb–Ta pegmatite.
Source: Ngulube (1994), Mg# = molar ratio {Mg/(Mg + Fe2+)}, with Fe3+/Fe2+ = 0.2.
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35 29

stromatolites within this unit could suggest a marine depo-
sitional environment, although stromatolites can also occur
in lacustrine deposits.
The timing of deposition and provenance of the Kibaran
sedimentary successions are still poorly constrained. How-
ever, the Kiaora Group is older than 1.38 Ga, the igneous
age of the syn-D1 orthogneisses that intrude it, and younger
than 1.8 Ga which is the age of the Palaeoproterozoic
Ubendian orogeny (e.g. Kapenda et al., 1998). Detritus in
the Kiaora Group is possibly derived in part from a Paleo-
proterozoic source, based on a U–Pb date of 1.9 Ga for a
xenocrystic zircon core from the Mitwaba SP granitoids
(Table 2). The Nzilo, Hakansson and Lubudi Groups are
younger than the 1.38 Ga orthogneisses and related Kiaora
Group, from which they are partly derived. As noted previ-
ously, pink quartzite in the Nzilo Group (Mitwaba area)
yielded concordant detrital zircon dates as young as
1360 ± 27 Ma, giving the maximum depositional age of this
group (Kokonyangi and Armstrong, unpublished data).
Cahen et al. (1984) and Kokonyangi (2001), based on
field observations, concluded that the lower Kibaran sedi-
mentary rocks (Kiaora Group) are separated from the
remaining Kibaran sequences by a disconformity above
which occurs the Kataba Conglomerate in the Mitwaba
area. In addition, structural studies of Kokonyangi (2001)
suggest that the Nzilo Group was deposited after the
cessation of the D1 deformational event and intrusion of
syn-kinematic igneous rocks. In the northern continuation

Fig. 15. Generalized lithostratigraphic column for the Kibaride belt.

30 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
of the Kibaran belt (Rwanda–Burundi), Klerkx et al. (1987)
reported a Rb–Sr age of 1353 ± 46 Ma from a rhyodacitic
volcanic rock intercalated within Kibaran sedimentary
rocks which was not affected by the D1 event and concluded
that the sedimentation within the whole Kibaran basin
post-dates 1400 Ma. This interpretation was challenged by
the acquisition of 1.4–1.38 Ga U–Pb zircon crystallization
ages for igneous rocks intruding the Kiaora Group sedi-
mentary sequences in the Mitwaba area (Kokonyangi
et al., 2004, 2005). Also, mafic rocks intruding Kibaran
strata in Burundi and Tanzania have yielded 40Ar/39Ar
dates in the same range (1379 ± 10 and 1350 ± 10 Ma,
Deblond et al., 2001). The Rb–Sr date for the rhyodacitic
volcanic rock in Burundi is within error of the age of the
youngest detrital zircon (1329 ± 32 Ma) from the Kataba
Conglomerate, which is also not affected by the D1 fabric
in the Mitwaba area. Based on the stratigraphic, deforma-
tional and geochronological similarities, we suggest that
the rhyodacitic volcanic rock intercalated within the Kiba-
ran sedimentary rocks in Burundi is the time equivalent of
the Kataba Conglomerate, and both units mark the uncon-
formity separating the Lower (Kiaora Group) and the mid-
dle (Nzilo Group) Kibaran sequences in these areas. This
interpretation needs to be tested by obtaining a more robust
isotopic age for the rhyodacitic volcanic rock.
Regional isoclinal folds affect the Kibaran sedimentary
units, with the axial planes trending NE–SW to NNE–
SSW and verging to the NW. These structures are related
to the D2 deformation event. The D1 deformation pro-
duced ENE–WSW to E–W-trending planar fabrics and
mesoscopic asymmetric (F1) folds and predated the deposi-
tion of the Nzilo Group.
Fig. 16. Schematic representation of the geological evolution of the Kibaride belt.
The regional metamorphism in the Kibaride belt varies
from sub-greenschist (chlorite zone) to upper amphibolite
facies (sillimanite zone). Mineral parageneses include chlo-
rite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite (Van
de Steen, 1953a; Cahen, 1954; Lonchampt, 1971; Lataillade
and Bielle, 1972; Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972; Byamungu
et al., 1979; Ngulube, 1994; Kokonyangi et al., 2001a). The
peak metamorphic conditions for the MP–MT amphibolite
facies mineral assemblages in the Mitwaba area are
between 740–780 C/  6–6.5 kb (Kokonyangi et al.,
2001b). The timing of contractional deformation and
related metamorphism is not yet constrained in all the
regions, but available dates bracket these events between
1.4 and 0.97 Ga (Robert, 1931; Cahen, 1954; Ledent
et al., 1956; Eberhardt et al., 1956; Cahen et al., 1966,
1967, 1972, 1984; Kampunzu et al., 1986). Two tectono-
thermal events at 1.38 Ga (D1) and  1.1 Ga (D2) are
already relatively precisely dated in the Mitwaba region
(Kokonyangi et al., 2004, 2005, Table 2, Fig. 16).
9.2. Age of magmatism
In the Kibaride belt, four distinct generations of grani-
toids (Table 2) were previously described (Cahen et al.,
1967, 1972, 1984; Gerard and Ledent, 1970; Ledent,
1979): (1) type A or G1 syn-D1 biotite granites presumably
emplaced at 1370 ± 25 Ma; (2) type B or G2 syn-D2
two-mica granitoids emplaced at 1310 ± 25 Ma; (3) type
C or G3 two-mica granitoids dated at 1094 ± 50 Ma
and; (4) type D or G4 tin granites and related pegmatite/
aplite bodies dated at 977 ± 18 Ma. Previously accepted
ages for the granitoids were based primarily on Rb–Sr
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
geochronology. Kampunzu et al. (1986), using structural
and petrofabric data, suggested that the so-called ‘‘G1,
G2 and G3’’ Kibaran granitoids were part of the same
syn-D1 igneous event. This suggestion was confirmed by
recent U–Pb SHRIMP data on zircons from Mitwaba
orthogneisses yielding dates of ca. 1.38 Ga for samples
from G1–G3 granitoids (Kokonyangi et al., 2004; Table
2). Based on field data, calcalkaline, hornblende- and/or
biotite-bearing orthogneisses and two-mica SP orthogneis-
ses affected by the D1 and D2 deformation events and
intruding the Kiaora Group in the Manono, Mwanza,
Bia, Bukama and Nzilo areas, are all inferred to be part
of the 1.38 Ga syn-D1 magmatic event. However, addi-
tional geochronological investigations in each area are
required in order to draw a final conclusion. The early
Kibaran granitoids are commonly associated with gab-
broic–dioritic intrusions (Van de Steen, 1953b; Cahen,
1954; Lonchampt, 1971; Lonchampt and Heinry, 1972;
Kampunzu et al., 1986; Kokonyangi et al., 2004, 2005).
One of these mafic igneous bodies yielded a single zircon
U–Pb TIMS crystallization age of 1376 ± 13 Ma (Table
2). This indicates that syn-D1 felsic and mafic-intermediate
igneous bodies intruding the Kiaora Group could be
broadly coeval at ca. 1.38 Ga. Mineralized granites and
related tin and columbite–tantalite-bearing quartz veins
and pegmatites were emplaced between 1.0 and 0.95 Ga
(Table 2). The data summarized in Fig. 16 suggest three
magmatic cycles in the Kibaride belt, although it is impor-
tant to stress that this suggestion is based partly on poorly
representative, low-quality data and hence is only tenta-
tive. The first cycle of igneous rocks comprises mantle-
derived arc-type mafic and closely related intermediate
igneous bodies that are inferred to have supplied the heat
required for partial melting of the Kiaora Group metase-
dimentary rocks to produce the 1.38 Ga SP granitoids.
The second magmatic cycle includes intrusive bodies
(e.g. Kisandji granitic pluton in the Mitwaba region, dole-
rites and gabbros in the Nzilo region) and lavas (e.g. bas-
alts and rhyolites exposed in the Bukama and Nzilo
regions) that cap the Nzilo Group sedimentary rocks.
These rocks post-date D1 but pre-date or are synchronous
with respect to the D2 deformational event. The third
magmatic cycle is late- to post-D2 and includes widespread
tin granites and related aplite, greisen and pegmatite
bodies emplaced between 1.0 and 0.95 Ga, with chemical
characteristics similar to those of fertile granites of the
SE Asian tin belt.
9.3. Geotectonic model
The available database is insufficient to propose a defin-
itive geotectonic model for the Kibaride belt. However, the
tentative geological and tectonic evolution of the Kibaride
belt is summarized in Fig. 16.
There are currently two main models proposed to
explain the geotectonic setting of the Kibaran belt in cen-
tral Africa, and both are based on the geochemical and
31
geochronological data obtained from igneous rocks. The
first model was proposed by Kampunzu et al. (1986) and
expanded by Kokonyangi et al. (2004, 2005). This model
assumes that the early Kibaran magmatic rocks were
emplaced during plate convergence, possibly along an
active continental margin resulting from convergence
between the Congo craton (NW) and the Tanzania–Bang-
weulu craton (SE). The second model was proposed by
Klerkx et al. (1987) and supported by Fernandez-Alonso
and Theunissen (1998). It supposes that the Kibaran belt
is intracontinental and links the early Kibaran magmatic
rocks to an extensional rift setting. However, mafic rocks
exposed in the internal zone of the Kibaran belt in Burundi
exhibit geochemical affinities requiring a mantle source
enriched during a subduction process (Ntungicimpaye
and Kampunzu, 1987). Furthermore, the 1.4–1.38 Ga
mafic igneous rocks exposed in the Mitwaba area have geo-
chemical signatures similar to arc-related rocks (Kokony-
angi et al., 2005). These arc-related mafic igneous rocks
are temporally and spatially closely associated with
1.38 Ga SP granitoids similar to those documented in the
Lachlan and Hercynian belts (e.g. Chappell and White,
1992; Bea et al., 1999), and possibly to those related to
Mesozoic subduction beneath the western coast of America
(e.g. Pichavant et al., 1988). In Rwanda and Burundi, the
mafic and felsic rock associations have been interpreted
as representing extension-related bimodal magmatism
(e.g. Klerkx et al., 1987; Fernandez-Alonso and Theunis-
sen, 1998). Nevertheless, it should be noted that felsic igne-
ous rocks occurring in the so-called ‘‘bimodal suites’’ from
extensional zones around the world are never SP felsic
magmas, but rather metaluminous to peralkaline magmas.
The only tectonic setting where SP felsic magmas are asso-
ciated with mafic-intermediate arc-type igneous rocks as in
the Kibaran belt, is at active continental margins, as
shown, for example, by SP rhyolites and granites docu-
mented in the Andes. Late to post-kinematic D2 fertile
granites and related aplitic and pegmatitic bodies emplaced
around 1.0–0.97 Ga are collision-related and geochemically
comparable with mineralized granites forming the SE
Asian tin belt.
In a continental rift setting, the emplacement of a huge
volume of felsic rocks such as that exposed in the Kibarides
requires a large amount of mafic rocks derived from upris-
ing asthenosphere. Geochemical compositions of mantle-
derived mafic rocks in a pristine continental rift such as
the East African rift system require a substantial astheno-
sphere reservoir, suggesting plume uprise as the driving
force behind the rifting system. Such mafic rocks are
unknown in the Kibaran belt of central Africa. In modern
tectonic environments, very large S-type granitic batholiths
such as those exposed in the Kibaride belt and unrelated to
felsic A-type intrusions have not been reported in divergent
plate settings. Continental rift settings (such as the Rio
Grande rift or East African rift) are characterized by
immature sediments and bimodal volcanics (e.g. Wilson,
1983). Also, very few, if any igneous rocks of intermediate
32 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
composition such as those exposed in the Mitwaba area are
present in modern rift settings (e.g. Condie, 1997). Further-
more, the structural data indicate that the early Kibaran
granitoids were emplaced during the compressional (D1)
deformation event, which is marked by asymmetric folds
and reverse faults/thrusts (Kampunzu et al., 1986; Rumve-
geri, 1991; Kokonyangi et al., 2004, 2005). Thus, the struc-
tural evidence is in direct conflict with the interpretation of
Klerkx et al. (1987) and Fernandez-Alonso and Theunissen
(1998). An intracontinental, rift setting for the Kibaran belt
also implies that the Congo and Tanzania–Bangweulu cra-
tons existed as a single continental block before the Kiba-
ran orogeny. However, the lack of possible geological and
geochronological correlations between rocks units of the
Congo craton and the Tanzania–Bangweulu craton on
either side of the Kibaride belt indicates that these two cra-
tonic blocks were spatially unrelated prior to their Meso-
proterozoic assembly.
A tentative geodynamic model of the evolution of the
Kibaride is proposed in Fig. 17, although it is stressed
that, the model is only provided to stimulate discussion
and will require modifications with the gradual acquisi-
tion of more data. No definite conclusion can be drawn
on the tectonic environment during the early stages in
the evolution of the Kibaride sedimentary basins simply
because very little, if any, sedimentological study has
Fig. 17. Tentative geodynamic evolution of the Kibaride belt in SE Congo.
been conducted in many parts of this belt. However,
our observations indicate that the sedimentary rocks of
the Nzilo Group include thick, mature quartzites and
conglomerates, which are lithologically different from
the rocks of the Kiaora Group. The latter group is dom-
inated by metapelites, metachert, calc-silicates and vol-
cano-sedimentary rocks and is intruded by 1.4–1.38 Ga
arc-related igneous rocks (Ntungicimpaye and Kampu-
nzu, 1987; Ngulube, 1994; Kokonyangi et al. (2004,
2005)). Available sedimentological data indicate that the
Nzilo sedimentary rocks show characteristics of tidal flat
and shallow marine sediments (e.g. Wilson, 1983). We
suggest an intra-arc basin environment for the Nzilo
Group sedimentary rocks on the basis of the following
observations (Figs. 15–17): (1) the presence of both tho-
leiitic and calc-alkaline magmatic rocks on which the
Nzilo Group unconformably rests; (2) the occurrence of
1.4–1.38 Ga intermediate igneous rocks below the Nzilo
Group; (3) the dominance of felsic magmas, including
I- and S-type granitoids intruding as large batholiths
and, (4) the prevalence of mature clastic sediments exhib-
iting sedimentary structures characteristic of shallow mar-
ine environments. The absence of immature terrigenous
clastic sediments and bimodal magmatism (e.g. Wilson,
1983) in the Kibaran belt precludes a pull-apart setting
during the early evolution of the belt.
 J.W. Kokonyangi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 46 (2006) 1–35
Acknowledgements
J.K. acknowledges the Japanese Society for the Promo-
tion of Science (JSPS) for financial support and facilities
and the International Commission for Earth Science in
Africa (ICESA) for financial support. Prof. A.B. Kampu-
nzu received financial support of the University of
Lubumbashi (1976–1995) and the University of Botswana
(1995–2004). R.A. acknowledges the support of ANU.
The authors are grateful for positive comments from
reviewers R. Hanson, S. McCourt and M.J. De Wit that
helped clarify various parts of the paper. R. Hanson and
S. McCourt are additionally thanked for editorial assis-
tance. This paper is a contribution to the Japanese Society
for Promotion of Science, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Re-
search (Project number 13373005, leader Prof. M. Arima),
IGCP 418, IGCP 440 and Gondwana Institute for Geology
and Environment.
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