Chapter1 Introduction

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Vinyl chloride is an organic chloride with the formula H2C=CHCl that is also called vinyl
chloride monomer (VCM) or chloroethene. This colorless compound is an important
industrial chemical chiefly used to produce the polymer polyviny chloride (PVC).About
13 billion kilograms are produced annually. VCM is among the top twenty
largest petrochemicals (petroleum-derived chemicals) in world production. The United
States currently remains the largest VCM manufacturing region because of its low-
production-cost position in chlorine and ethylene raw materials. China is also a large
manufacturer and one of the largest consumers of VCM. Vinyl chloride is a gas with a
sweet odor. Vinyl chloride that is released by industries or formed by the breakdown of
other chlorinated chemicals can enter the air and drinking water supplies. Vinyl chloride
is a common contaminant found near landfills. In the past VCM has been used as a
refrigerant.

Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM) is the key material from which PVC is made. VCM is a
gas with a molecular weight of 62.5 and boiling point of -13.9°C, and hence has a high
vapour pressure at ambient temperature. It is therefore manufactured under strict quality
and safety control. There are two ways to manufacture VCM from ethylene (obtained
from thermal cracking); the direct chlorination method and oxychlorination method
(Figure 1.1). VC is transported as a compressed liquid. As it does not tend to polymerize
easily, liquid VCM(in the absence of oxygen and water) can be stored and transported
without polymerization inhibitors (Bönnighausen, 1986).

Figure 1.1. Preparation of Vinyl Chloride Monomer by oxychlorination and cracking method

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Chapter1 Introduction
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1.1 PROPERTIES

Vinyl chloride is an organic colourless compound. The physical and chemical properties
of Vinyl chloride are presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Physical properties
Chemical formula C2H3Cl
Molar mass 62.50 g·mol−1
Appearance Colorless gas
Odor Pleasant
Density 0.969 g/ml
Melting point −153.8 °C (−244.8 °F; 119.3 K)
Boiling point −13.4 °C (7.9 °F; 259.8 K)
Solubility in water 2.7 g/L (0.0432 mol/L)
Vapor pressure 2580 mm. of mercury 20 °C (68 °F)
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) -35.9·10−6 cm3/mol
Specific 0.8592 J/K/g(gas)
heat capacity (C) 0.9504 J/K/g (solid)
Std enthalpy (ΔHo298) −94.12 kJ/mol (solid)
Critical Temperature 156.6˚C
Critical Pressure 5.6 MPa
Critical Volume 169 cm3/mol
Latent Heat of Fusion 75.9 J/g
Latent Heat of Vaporisation 330 J/g
Standard Gibbs energy of Formation 51.5 kJ/ mol
Flash Point -77.75˚C

1.1.1 Flammability
VCM is extremely flammable. At concentrations of about 3.6 percent VCM in air, VCM
can be an explosion hazard. Direct contact with open flames or a high energy heat source
will result in combustion and corrosive, noxious gases. If combustion occurs, extinguish
fires using dry chemical, foam, or carbon dioxide. Water may be ineffective, but should
be used to keep fire-exposed containers cool.

1.1.2 Reactivity
VCM will polymerize if exposed to air, elevated temperatures or other activating
substances. Inhibitors are often added to VCM to prevent polymerization during storage.
VCM can be stored in vessels made of common materials of construction. VCM is stable
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Chapter1 Introduction
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with common metals other than aluminum and aluminum alloys and copper and copper
alloys (including brass). When moisture is present, VCM can corrode iron and steel.
Avoid VCM contact with moisture, pure oxygen, strong alkalis, alkali metals, open
flames and welding arcs, and other high temperature sources, which induce thermal
decomposition to irritating and corrosive hydrochloric acid.
1.1.3 Solubility
Water at 25 °C ---- 2,763 mg/L EPA 1,100 mg/L
Organic solvent(s) ---- Soluble in hydrocarbons, oil and most common organic solvents

1.2 APPLICATIONS

Vinyl is versatile: it can be as rigid as industrial pipes, as pliable as plastic wrap, and as
thin and flexible as wallcovering. It can also be completely clear or matched to any color
desired.
1.2.1. Building and Construction
About three-quarters of all vinyl produced goes into long-lasting building and
construction applications. Life-cycle studies show PVC/vinyl is effective in protecting the
environment, in terms of low greenhouse gas emissions and conservation of resources and
energy. Because it is strong and resistant to moisture and abrasion, vinyl is ideal for
cladding, windows, roofing, fencing, decking, wallcoverings, and flooring. Vinyl does not
corrode like some building materials, does not require frequent painting and can be
cleaned with mild cleaning products.

1.2.2 Siding and Windows

Vinyl is used to produce siding and window frames that are extremely durable,
affordable, and help to conserve energy during heating and cooling homes. In fact, vinyl
windows have three times the heat insulation of aluminum windows.

1.2.3 Wiring and Cables

Vinyl is able to withstand tough conditions behind building walls – such as exposure to
changing temperatures and dampness – for the life of the building. As a result, it is one of
the most prevalent and trusted materials used in electrical wiring and cables.

1.2.4 Water Pipes

PVC helps conserve energy and water by creating virtually leak-free pipes that are not
prone to corrosion and resist environmental stress. PVC breakage rates are as low as one

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Chapter1 Introduction
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percent of the breakage rates of cast metal systems. The lack of build-up in PVC piping
improves functionality and increases energy efficiency.

1.2.5 Packaging
Because it is durable, dependable and light weight, flexible PVC helps packaging do its
job to maintain the integrity of the products inside, including medicines. Clear vinyl is
used in tamper-resistant over-the-counter medications and shrink wrap for consumer
products. Rigid vinyl film is used in blister and clamshell packaging to protect medicines,
personal care products and other household goods.
1.2.6 Healthcare
Vinyl plays a critical safety role in dispensing life-saving medicine through IV bags and
medical tubing. The advent of the PVC blood-collection bag was a significant
breakthrough because blood bags are flexible and unbreakable, enhancing the
development of ambulatory medicine and serving as the foundation for modern blood
banks.
1.2.7 Household Products
PVC’s affordability, durability and water resistance make it ideal for rain coats, boots and
shower curtains.

1.3 MARKET SURVEY

Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) is one of the world’s most important and largest
commodity chemicals. VCM is used primarily for the production of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) homopolymer and copolymer resins. PVC has the advantage of being utilized in
conversion and fabrication processes with great flexibility, such that end products cover a
wide range, including pipe and fittings, profiles and tubes, siding, wire and cable,
windows, doors, floorings, film and sheet, and bottles. While the most important ultimate
end-use markets are commercial, residential, and nonresidential construction, a wide
variety of PVC converted products are also utilized in agricultural, electrical (wire and
cable), and health care markets. The vinyls chain, comprising ethylene dichloride (EDC),
vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), is a key component of the
global petrochemical and thermoplastics sectors. The vinyls industry—and VCM, as part
of the vinyls chain—has a history of change; manufacturers have exited and/or
consolidated, and new firms have been created over the decades. Manufacturing
technology has been improved from the standpoint of safety, the environment, quality,
and scale of production.
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Chapter1 Introduction
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World consumption of vinyl chloride monomer is shown in Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 World consumption of VCM

1.4 CONSUMPTION & DEMAND

In 2016, Northeast Asia was the largest consumer of VCM, accounting for over half of
the world’s VCM demand. China is the largest overall player in the VCM market, with
43% of the total global capacity and about 38% of total global production 2016. China
also leads the world in VCM consumption, accounting for 40% of global demand in
2016; demand will continue to grow by 3.7% annually through the forecast period to
2021.
The second-largest consumer was North America, representing 19% of global demand,
with the United States being the main driver in the region. The United States is the
second-largest overall player worldwide, and maintains a low production cost position in
chlorine and ethylene raw materials. The movement toward lower natural gas and
feedstock costs for the vinyls chain in the United States and Canada, via shale gas, is
solidifying the North American position as one of the world’s lowest-cost VCM
producers.
In 2016, the total volume of VCM exported globally represented 7% of world production.
The largest exporters are North America and Northeast Asia, which together account for
84% of the world’s VCM exports. Over the next five-year period, VCM trade is expected
to decline by about 0.6% per year as more vinyls producers become integrated. VCM
trade is challenging because of logistics, as VCM is a gas that needs to be shipped and
stored liquefied under pressure, requiring expensive LPG ships for its transportation.

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Chapter1 Introduction
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Over 99% of total global VCM consumption in 2016 was used for PVC production;
VCM, therefore, follows the PVC market trend very closely. Demand for VCM is
expected to grow at an average annual rate of about 3% during 2016–21.
During the past few years, the global VCM market had been growing at nearly 4%/year.
However, growth rates in the developed world had been slipping as these markets
matured while stronger demand growth has been seen in Asia, in particular China and
India.

1.5 LEADING PRODUCERS

The first large scale production units for this route were constructed by Dow Chemical
Co., Monsanto Chemical Co. and the Shell Oil Co. The complete changeover to the
exclusive use of ethylene as a feedstock became possible when the large-scale
oxychlorination of ethylene to 1,2-dichloroethane had been proven to be technically
feasible by Dow Chemical in the period 1955 – 1958. Since then, most plants now are
using integrated, balanced DC– EDC – Oxy – EDC –VCM processes and more than 90%
of the vinyl chloride presently produced in the Western World is derived from ethylene.
RIL, Finolex, Chemplast, DCW, Shriram and Vivanta are the major producers of PVC
resin and related products in India.

1.6. OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

The project aims at designing a process for production of vinyl chloride from ethylene
and chlorine. The objectives of the project are:

1. To design a setup for manufacturing Vinyl Chloride at 1000 tons/day.

2. To carry out the literature survey on the manufacture of Vinyl Chloride.
3. To select a suitable process to manufacture Vinyl Chloride
4. To carry out material and energy balance for the process.
5. To design the equipment involved in the process.
6. To evaluate the economic feasibility of the process.
7. To select the plant location and layout.

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Chapter2 Literature survey
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The literature survey of a compound consists of the different manufacturing processes.

The specifications and advantages of the selected process are listed in the following
chapter.

Vinyl chloride was first produced using the process of dehydrating ethylene dichloride
(EDC) with alcoholic caustic potash. However, the first effective industrial process
was based on the hydro chlorination of acetylene. Until the late 1940s, this process
was used almost exclusively.

However, as ethylene became more plentiful in the early 50’s, commercial processes
were developed to produce vinyl chloride from chlorine and ethylene via EDC,
namely, the balanced ethylene route.
All current production plants for vinyl chloride depend on the use of a C2
hydrocarbon feedstocks, specifically, acetylene, ethylene, or ethane. Commercial
operations using these compounds are confined to gas-phase processes.

2.1 Different Manufacturing Process

2.1.1 Vinyl Chloride from Ethane

Many attempts have been made to develop a process that will use ethane to directly
produce vinyl chloride. This is due to relative inexpensiveness of ethane. The major
problem associated with the use of ethane is its molecular symmetry. In particular, the
addition of chlorine to ethane gives rise to a wide product spectrum.

2.1.2 Vinyl Chloride from Acetylene

The process that produces vinyl chloride from acetylene employs the use of a catalyst.
Most of the time the catalyst used is mercuric chloride deposited on active carbon. In this
process the feed gases are purified, dried, and mixed at the entrance to the tubular fixed
bed reactors, which are packed with mercuric chloride on active carbon pellets as
catalysts.

2.1.3 Vinyl Chloride from Ethylene

Ethylene can be converted to vinyl chloride in a single stage, i.e., without isolating the
intermediate ethylene dichloride by either chlorination or oxychlorination routes, as is the
case with the balanced ethylene route. Direct chlorination routes require a high
temperature and a large excess of ethylene to minimize soot formation

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Chapter2 Literature survey
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2.2 BALANCED PROCESS OVERVIEW

Direct chlorination : CH2CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl Eq(1)
Oxy chlorination : CH2CH2 + 2 HCl + ½ O2 → ClCH2CH2Cl + H2O Eq(2)
EDC pyrolysis : 2ClCH2CH2Cl → 2 CH2CHCl + 2 HCl Eq(3)
Overall reaction : 2CH2CH2 + Cl2 + ½ O2 → 2 CH2CHCl + H2O Eq(4)

2.3 PROCESS SELECTION

The five main processes used in the production of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) are:
(1) direct chlorination of ethylene to form EDC, (2) oxychlorination of ethylene to form
EDC from recycled HCl and oxygen, (3) purification of EDC, (4) thermal cracking of
EDC to form VCM and HCl, and (5) the purification of VCM. These process is shown in
the Figure.2.1.

Figure. 2.1 Process flow sheet for the selected process

Ethylene and Cl2 combine in a homogeneous catalytic reaction to form EDC. Normally,
the reaction rate is controlled by mass transfer, with absorption of ethylene as the limiting
factor. Due to high selectivity, ferric chloride is the common catalyst of choice for
chlorination of ethylene. The catalytic reaction utilizes an electrophilic addition

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Chapter2 Literature survey
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mechanism. The catalyst polarizes chlorine (Eq.5) and then the polarized chlorine
molecule acts as an electrophilic reagent to add Cl to the double bond of ethylene (Eq. 6).

FeCl3 + Cl2 ↔ FeCl4-Cl+ Eq (5)

FeCl4-Cl+ + CH2CH2 → FeCl3 + ClCH2CH2Cl Eq(6)
The EDC product from then reactor is cooled to room temperature before sending it to the
storage vessel and then cracked in pyrolysis chamber to form VCM. The unconverted
EDC and formed VCM is sent to a quencher where the recycled EDC is added to
stabilize the mixture before sent to distillation columns for further purification.
Two distillation columns are used to separate vinyl chloride from EDC, HCl and
remaining by-products. The first column, HCl column, distills the hydrogen chloride
mixture to a pure overhead product. This HCl is recycled to the oxychlorination reactor.
The HCl column operates at a top tray pressure of 135 psig with a column pressure drop
of 10 psig. The bottoms product of the HCl column is fed to the second column, the VCM
column. The VCM column operates at a top tray pressure of 65 psig with a column
pressure drop of 10 psig. A VCM product of 99.9 wt% is produced as the overhead
product of the VCM column. The bottoms of the VCM column are recycled to the lights
column for re-purification.

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Chapter2 Literature survey
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Chapter 3 Thermodynamic feasibility
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The feasibility of a process is calculated by determining the thermodynamic parameters.
Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic property that predicts whether a process will occur
spontaneously at constant temperature and pressure. Gibbs free energy G is defined as
G=H-TS where H, T and S are enthalpy, temperature and entropy.
Change in Gibbs free energy G correspond to changes in free energy for processes at
constant temperature and pressure. The change in Gibbs free energy change is the
maximum non expansion work obtainable under these conditions. ΔG is negative for
spontaneous processes, positive for non-spontaneous process and zero for processes at
equilibrium. Thermodynamic data for all the components are given in Table 3.1.
The reactions are:
C2H4 + Cl2 50ᵒC, 2 atm C2H4Cl2 ( Direct Chlorination)

C2H4Cl 500ᵒC, 4atm C2H3Cl + HCl (Pyrolysis Furnace)

Table 3.1 Thermodynamic properties of the reactants and products

Component Boiling Molecular Enthalpy Enthalpy Gibbs Free
Point Weight H H Energy
(⁰C) (g/mol) (kJ/kmol) (kJ/kmol) ΔG⁰
(50ᵒC ,2atm) (500ᵒC ,4atm) (kJ/kmol)

Ethylene -103.9 28 53607.47 - 7505.35

Chlorine -34.6 71 0 - 0
Ethylene 83.47 99 -127814.75 -79220.547 -8256.55
dichloride
Hydrogen -85 36.5 - -78378.64 -95300
Chloride

Vinyl -12 62.5 - 64473.75 41950

Chloride

3.1. HEAT OF REACTION

The amount of heat generated or consumed in a chemical reaction depends on the
operating conditions. Heat of reaction can be calculated from
ΔHReaction = ∑ ΔHProducts - ∑ΔHReactants

3.1.1. Direct Chlorination

Reaction : CH2CH2 + Cl2 → ClCH2CH2Cl

ΔHReaction1 = (-127814.75 ) – (53607.47)
= -181422.22 kJ /kmol (Exothermic Reaction)

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Chapter 3 Thermodynamic feasibility
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3.1.2. Pyrolysis
Reaction: 2ClCH2CH2Cl → 2CH2CHCl + 2HCl
ΔHReaction2 = 64473.75-(-78378.64 – 79220.547)
= 65315.657 kJ /kmol (Endothermic Reaction)

3.2. FEASIBILITY
Gibbs Free Energy predicts the feasibility and equilibrium condition at constant
temperature and pressure.
ΔGReaction = ∑ ΔGProducts - ∑ΔGReactants

3.2.1. Direct Chlorination

ΔG⁰1 = -8256.55 - (7505.35) = -15465.82 kJ /kmol

∆ ° .
K1 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(− ) = = 514.0539
. ∗

∆ .
ln = − = −
.

K2 = 1.7765

∆𝐺 = −𝑅𝑇 ln(𝐾 ) = −8.314 ∗ 323 ∗ ln(1.7765)

= -1543.164 kJ /kmol (As ∆𝐺 is negative, reaction is feasible )

3.2.2 Pyrolysis

∆𝐺 = (41950 -95300) - (-8256.55)

= - 45439 kJ /kmol
K = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(− )
. ∗
= 92.26E+06
𝐾 −65315.657 1 1
ln = ∗ −
𝐾 8.314 298 773
K2 = 1E+15
∆𝐺 = −𝑅𝑇 ln(𝐾 ) = −8.314 ∗ 773 ∗ ln(1𝐸 + 15)
= - 221971.11 kJ /kmol (As ∆𝐺 is negative, reaction is feasible )

3.3 EXTENT OF REACTION (ε)

3.3.1. Direct chlorination

Reaction: CH2CH2 (A) + Cl2 (B) → ClCH2CH2Cl (C)

P = 2 atm, T = 50˚C, K2 = 1.7765

𝑦 = ; 𝑦 = ; 𝑦 =

𝐾 =

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Chapter 3 Thermodynamic feasibility
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𝐾 = 𝐾 𝑃 =

ε = 0.9983

3.3.2. Pyrolysis

Reaction: 2ClCH2CH2Cl (A) → 2CH2CHCl(B) + 2HCl (C)

P = 4 atm, T = 500˚C, K2 = 1015

𝑦 = ; 𝑦 = ; 𝑦 =

𝐾 = 𝐾 𝑃 = 405300

𝜀 = 0.9999

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Chapter 3 Thermodynamic feasibility
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Chapter 4 Material balance
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4.1 FLOWSHEET
Process flow sheet for direct chlorination method is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Process flow sheet

4.2 MATERIAL BALANCE

Basis: 1000 tons/day of vinyl chloride monomer
49666.97 kg/hr of vinyl chloride monomer
Percentage yield = 99%

C2H4 + Cl2 C2H4Cl2

C2H4Cl2 C2H3Cl + HCl

4.2.1 Chlorination Reactor

Material balance for inlet and outlet stream of chlorination reactor is shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Material balance for chlorinator reactor

Input (kg/h) Reacted Output (kg/h)

Ethylene 18855.22 18855.22 0
Chlorine 48051.708 47811.45 240.258(off gas)
EDC 0 0 66666.67
Total 66906.93 66666.67
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Chapter 4 Material balance
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4.2.2 Pyrolysis furnace
Percentage conversion per pass = 50-60%
Assumed percentage conversion = 55%
Let recycled EDC be X kg/hr
Total EDC entering furnace = (66666.67 + X) kg/hr
EDC decomposed = 0.55×(66666.67 + X) kg/hr
C2H3Cl (VCM) obtained = 0.55×(66666.67 + X)×(62.5/99) kg/hr
Final product is 41666.7 kg/hr of VCM
Assuming 1% process loss
(VCM) produced = 42016 kg/hr
0.347222(66666.67+X) = 42016.34 kg/hr
X(recycled EDC) = 54340.3892 kg/hr = 535.3535354 kmol/hr
Total EDC entering the furnace is 121007.059 kg/hr
Unconverted EDC is 54453.177 kg/hr
Material balance for inlet and outlet stream of pyrolysis furnace is shown in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Material balance for pyrolysis furnace

Input (kg/h) Reacted Output (kg/h)
VCM 0 0 42016.34
HCl 0 0 24537.34
EDC 66666.67 12213.4934 54453.17
Recycled EDC 54340.38
Total 121007.06 121007.06

4.2.3 Quencher
EDC sprayed in the quencher is taken of the same amount as of the product from furnace.
EDC used for quenching = 120000 kg/hr
= 1212.12 kmol/hr
Material balance for inlet and outlet stream in quencher is shown in Table 4.3. Outlet
stream contains components from inlet stream and recycled stream of EDC still.
Table 4.3 Material balance for quencher
Input(kg/h) Output(kg/h)
VCM 42016.34 175460
HCl 24537.34 42016.34
EDC 54453.18 24537.34
EDC (for quenching) 121007.1
TOTAL 242013.7 242013.7

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Chapter 4 Material balance
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4.2.4 HCL column
Material balance for inlet and outlet stream in HCl column, where major part of HCl is
removed is shown in Table 4.5. Mole fractions entering and leaving HCl column is shown
in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Mass fractions of compounds in HCl still
Feed Distillate Residue
HCL 0.101 0.978 0
VCM 0.173 0.008 0.192
EDC 0.725 0.013 0.808

D, XD
C2H3Cl (0.008)
C2H4Cl2 (0.013)
F, XF HCl (0.978)

C2H3Cl (0.173)
C2H3Cl (0.192)
C2H4Cl2 (0.725)
W, XW C2H4Cl2 (0.808)
HCl (0.101)
HCl (0)

Figure 4.2 Material balance in HCl still

Assuming 99% removal of HCl in the distillation column

Table 4.5 Material balance for HCl still

Input F Distillate D Residue W
(kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
EDC 175740 336.66 175403.349
VCM 42016.34 212.54 41803.79
HCl 24576.66 24576.71 0.0073
Total 242333 25125.91 217207.14
Toal (D+W ) = 242333

4.2.5 VCM COLUMN

Material balance for inlet and outlet stream in VCM column, where major part of VCM is
removed is shown in Table 4.7. Mole fractions entering and leaving VCM column is
shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Mass fractions of compounds in VCM still
Feed Distillate Residue
VCM 0.193 0.968 0.004
EDC 0.807 0.032 0.996

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Chapter 4 Material balance
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D, XD
F, XF C2H3Cl (0.968)
C2H3Cl (0.193) C2H4Cl2 (0.032)
C2H4Cl2 (0.807)
C2H3Cl (0.004)
W, XW
C2H4Cl2 (0.996)

Figure 4.3 Material balance in VCM still

Feed entering VCM column is from the bottom of HCL column, neglecting small
amounts of HCl. Assuming 99% removal of VCM in the distillation column.
Table 4.7 Material balance for VCM still
Input F Distillate D Residue W
(kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
EDC 175403.34 1314.522 174088.82
VCM 41803.8 41078.81 724.99
TOTAL 217207.14 42393.33 174813.82
Total(D+W)= 217207.149

4.2.6 EDC column

Material balance for inlet and outlet stream in VCM column, where major part of VCM is
removed is shown in Table 4.9. Mole fractions entering and leaving VCM column is
shown in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8 Mass fractions of compounds in EDC still

Feed Distillate Residue
EDC 0.996 0.997 0.744
VCM 0.004 0.003 0.256

D, XD

C2H3Cl (0.003)
C2H4Cl2 (0.997)
F, XF

C2H3Cl(0.256)
C2H3Cl (0.004)
C2H4Cl2(0.744)
C2H4Cl2((0.996)
W, XW

Fig 4.4 Material balance in EDC still

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Chapter 4 Material balance
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Table 4.9 Material balance for EDC still

Input F Distillate D Residue W
(kg/hr) (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
EDC 174088.83 173589.92 498.91
VCM 724.98 553.48 171.50
TOTAL 174813.82 174143.40 670.41
Total(D+W)= 174813.82
EDC used for quenching = 120000 kg/hr
EDC recycled to pyrolysis = 52999.65 kg/hr
TOTAL EDC = 172999.7 kg/hr

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Chapter 4 Material balance
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Chapter 5 Energy balance
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Energy balance of the equipment used in the process selected for the production of vinyl
chloride monomer depicting the Heat of reactions and the energy at the inlet and outlet
streams is mentioned in the following chapter.

5.1 PREHEATER

Figure 5.1 Preheater

Q = H = mCpΔT
Q = Heat energy/hr (kJ/hr)
CP = Specific heat(kJ/kg)
ΔT = Temperature difference (K)
Energy balance for inlet and outlet stream in preheater is shown in Table 5.1 and Table
5.2 respectively. Since the components are heated, the enthalpy of the outlet stream is
more than enthalpy of the inlet stream..
INLET:
Table 5.1 Energy balance of preheater (inlet)
In
Mass flow (kg/h) Cp(kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)= mCpΔT
C 2 H4 18855.22 1.485 25 700000.0425
Cl2 48051.708 0.475 25 570614.0325
Total energy in = 1270614.075

OUTLET:
Table 5.2 Energy balance of preheater (outlet)
Out
Mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hout (kJ/h)
C 2 H4 18855.22 1.55 60 1753535.46
Cl2 48051.708 0.48 60 1383889.19
Total energy out = 3137424.65
Preheater duty = Total energy out - Total energy in
= 1866810.57 kJ/hr = 518.55 kW

5.2 CHLORINATOR
C2 H 4
Chlorination
Cl2 C2H4Cl2
Figure 5.2 Chlorinator

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Chapter 5 Energy balance
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Energy balance for inlet and outlet stream in chlorinator is shown in Table 5.3 and Table
5.4 respectively. As the reaction is endothermic, heat contents of the outlet stream is
more. The difference between energy outlet and energy inlet gives heat of reaction,
neglecting heat losses.
INLET:
Table 5.3 Energy balance of chlorinator (inlet)
In
massflow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)
C 2 H4 18855.22 1.55 60 1753535.46
Cl2 48051.708 0.48 60 1383889.19
C2H4Cl2 - - - 0
Total energy in = 3137424.65
OUTLET:
Table 5.4 Energy balance of chlorinator (outlet)
Out
Mass flow (kg/h) Cp(kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hout (kJ/h)
C 2 H4 0 1.55 60 0
Cl2 240.258 0.48 60 6919.4304
C2H4Cl2 66666.67 0.758 60 3032000.152
Total energy out = 3038919.582

Hrxn = Total energy out - Total energy in

= 98505.06 kJ/h

5.3 COOLER

Energy balance for inlet and outlet stream in cooler is shown in Table 5.5 and Table 5.6
respectively.

INLET:
Table 5.5 Energy balance of cooler (inlet)
In
Mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)
C 2 H4 18855.22 1.55 60 1753535.46
Cl2 48051.708 0.48 60 1383889.19
C2H4Cl2 66666.67 0.758 60 3032000.152
Total energy in = 3137424.65

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Chapter 5 Energy balance
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OUTLET:
Table 5.6 Energy balance of cooler (outlet)
Out
Mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hout (kJ/h)
C 2 H4 18855.22 1.485 25 700000.0425
Cl2 48051.708 0.475 25 570614.0325
C2H4Cl2 66666.67 0.75 25 1250000.063
Total energy out = 2520614.138
Heat removed , q = Total energy out - Total energy in
= 2520614.138 - 3137424.65 = 616810.51 kJ/h
Water to be supplied, m = q/(4.2×(60-25)) = 7342.98 kg/h

5.4 FURNACE

Energy balance for inlet and outlet stream in furnace is shown in Table 5.7 and Table 5.8
respectively. Cracking of ethylene dichloride to give VCM and HCl as products i.e an
exothermic reaction occurs in the furnace.

INLET:
Table 5.7 Energy balance of furnace (inlet)
In
mass flow (kg/h) Cp(kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)
C2H4Cl2 121007 0.75 25 2268881.25
C2H3Cl - - - -
Cl2 - - - -
Total energy in = 2268881.25

OUTLET:
Table 5.8 Energy balance of furnace (outlet)
Out
mass flow (kg/h) Cp(kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hout (kJ/h)
C2H4Cl2 54453.18 1.01 500 27498855.9
C2H3Cl 42016.34 1.342 500 28192964.14
Cl2 24537.34 0.831 500 10195264.77
Total energy out = 65887084.81
Furnace duty = Total energy out - Total energy in
= 63618203.56 kJ/h = 17671.72321 Kw

5.5 QUENCHER
Energy balance for inlet and outlet stream of quencher is shown in Table 5.9 and Table
5.10 respectively.

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Chapter 5 Energy balance
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INLET:
Table 5.9 Energy balance of quencher (inlet)
In
mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)
C2H4Cl2 175460.037 1.01 500 88607318.69
C2H3Cl 42016.34 1.342 500 28192964.14
Cl2 24537.344 0.831 500 10195266.43
Total energy in= 116800282.8

OUTLET:
Table 5.10 Energy balance of quencher (outlet)
Out
massflow(kg/h) Cp(kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hout (kJ/h)
C2H4Cl2 175460.037 0.796 84 11731959.91
C2H3Cl 42016.34 1.144 84 4037602.209
Cl2 24537.344 0.81 84 1669520.886
Total energy out = 17439083.01

Heat removed = Total energy out - Total energy in = -99361199.82 kJ/h

5.6 HCL STILL

Energy Balance Equation:
FHf + Qb = WHw+DHD+Qc

F = Feed
W = Residue
D = Distillate
Hf = Enthalpy of Feed
Hw = Enthalpy of Residue
HD = Enthalpy of Distillate
Qc = Condenser duty
Qb = Reboiler duty
Tb = Bubble point

D, XD

F, XF

W, XW

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 Chapter 5 Energy balance
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Assuming R= 2.5
Q = H = mCpΔT
FHF = ∑ (mCpΔT) (Feed)
DHD = ∑ (mCpΔT) (Distillate)
WHw = ∑ (mCpΔT) (Residue)
Energy balance for inlet and outlet stream around HCl column is shown in Table 5.11 and
the respective condenser duty calculations for the mixture at bubble point are mentioned
in table 5.12
Table 5.11 Energy balance of HCl column

Feed
mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)
EDC(F) 175460373 0.796 84 11731959.93
VCM(F) 42016.34 1.144 84 4037602.209
HCL(F) 24537.344 0.81 84 1669520.886
F 242013.7213 FHF 17439083.03

Distillate

mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)

EDC(D) 336.66732 1.15 -31.32 -12126.08353
VCM(D) 212.5425 1.82 -31.32 -12115.4326
HCL(D) 24576.71436 2.6 -31.32 -2001331.004
D 25125.92418 DHD -2025572.52

Residue

mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)

EDC(W) 175403.349 1.64 172.3 49564075.1
VCM(W) 41803.79375 1.458 172.3 10501673.2
HCL(W) 0.0073 1.9 172.3 2.389801
W 217207.1501 WHw 60065750.7

Table 5.12 Condenser duty calculations(HCl column)

Condenser
L=RD (kg/hr) 62814.81045 kg/hr
V=(R+1)D (kg/hr) 87940.73463 kg/hr
Tb(K) 241.68 K
λv at Tb (kJ/kg) 1.07E+03 kJ/kg
Qc = V×λv(Tb) 9.44E+07 kJ/hr

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Chapter 5 Energy balance
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Reboiler : Qb = (V+(q-1)F)λv = 1.33E+08 kJ/hr
FHF+Qb = 1.51E+08 kJ/hr
DHD+WHW+Qc = 1.52E+08 kJ/hr
Heat losses = 1.61E+08 kJ/hr

5.7 VCM STILL

D, XD

F, XF

W, XW

Assuming R= 2.5
Q = H = mCpΔT
FHF = ∑ (mCpΔT) (Feed)
DHD = ∑ (mCpΔT) (Distillate)
WHw = ∑ (mCpΔT) (Residue)
Energy balance for inlet and outlet stream around VCM column is shown in Table 5.13
and the respective condenser duty calculations for the mixture at bubble point are
mentioned in table 5.14.

Table 5.13 Energy balance of VCM column

Feed
mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)
EDC(F) 175403.3586 1.64 172.3 49564077.85
VCM(F) 41803.7975 1.458 172.3 10501674.1
F 217207.1561 FHF 60065751.95
Distillate

mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)

EDC(D) 1314.522 1.24 37.81 61630.57526
VCM(D) 41078.8125 1.92 37.81 2982124.609
D 42393.3345 DHD 3043755.184

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 Chapter 5 Energy balance
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Residue

mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)

EDC(W) 174088.8366 1.58 161.2 44339730.3
VCM(W) 724.985 1.48 161.2 172964.021
W 174813.8216 WHw 44512694.3

Table 5.14 Condenser duty calculations(VCM column)

Condenser
L=RD (kg/hr) 105983.3363 kg/hr
V=(R+1)D (kg/hr) 148376.6708 kg/hr
Tb(K) 310.8 K
λv at Tb (kJ/kg) 1.93E+04 kJ/kg
Qc = V×λv(Tb) 2.86E+09 kJ/hr

Reboiler : Qb = (V+(q-1)F)λv = 3.49E+09 kJ/hr

FHF+Qb = 3.55E+09 kJ/hr

DHD+WHW+Qc = 2.91E+09 kJ/hr

Heat losses = 6.40E+08 kJ/hr

5.8 EDC STILL

D, XD

F, XF

W, XW

Assuming R = 2.5
FHF = ∑(mCpΔT) (Feed)
DHD = ∑(mCpΔT) (Distillate)
WHw = ∑(mCpΔT) (Residue)

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Table 5.15 Energy balance for EDC column

Feed

mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)

EDC(F) 174088.83 1.58 161.2 44339730.32
VCM(F) 724.985 1.48 161.2 172964.02
F 174813.82 FHF 44512694.35
Distillate

mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)

EDC(D) 173589.92 207.03 155.5 35938790.13

VCM(D) 553.482 256.02 155.5 141702.90
D 174143.404 DHD 36080493.04
Residue

mass flow (kg/h) Cp (kJ/kg) Temp (K) Hin (kJ/h)

EDC(W) 498.915 1.56 425.5 331169.89

VCM(W) 171.502 4.44 425.5 324005.36
W 670.417 WHw 655175.25

Energy balance for inlet and outlet stream around EDC column is shown in Table 5.15
and the respective condenser duty calculations for the mixture at bubble point are
mentioned in table 5.16.

Table 5.16 Condenser duty calculations(EDC column)

Condenser
L=RD (kg/hr) 435358.5107 kg/hr
V=(R+1)D (kg/hr) 609501.9149 kg/hr
Tb(K) 428.5 K
λv at Tb (kJ/kg) 1.12E+04 kJ/kg
Qc = V×λv(Tb) 6.82E+09 kJ/hr

Reboiler : Qb = (V+(q-1)F)λv = 1.33E+08 kJ/hr

FHF+Qb = 6.86E+09
DHD+WHW+Qc = 6.86E+09
Heat losses = 7.78E+06

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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Equipment design for the equipment in the process as per their respective flow rates and
feed handling requirements are mentioned in the following chapter.

6.1 REACTOR
We are considering packed bed reactor since we have gas phase heterogeneous reaction.
The rate equation of the reaction is -rA = kCACB (A- Ethylene, B-Chlorine). Since we are
taking Chlorine (B) in excess, rate depends on the limiting reactant, A . Rate equation is
approximated to -rA = kCA .
The reaction carried out in the reactor is
C2H4 + Cl 50˚C , 2 atm C2H4Cl2
The value of rate constant obtained from literature is 0.132 m3/(mol.s) . From the
performance equation of the reactor (assuming plug flow behaviour) , residence time is
calculated.
.
𝜏=𝐶 ∫ = 0.03761 ∫
. ∗ . ∗( )

𝜏 = 40.138 seconds
Catalyst volume = Volumetric flow rate of reactants×Residence time
= ( 1137.99 +1113.83)× 40.138 = 25.10 m 3
Assuming void fraction in the catalytic bed to be 0.35 ,
Total volume of catalyst = Catalyst volume/(1- void fraction )
= 25.10 /(1-0.35) = 38.62 m3
Allowing 30% space above and below the bed for vapour, Vc= 1.3×38.62=50.213 m3

Assuming L=3d, = 50.213

d = 2.52 m , L = 10.07 m
Length of the packed bed reactor = 10.07 m
Diameter of the packed bed reactor = 2.52 m
Assuming torispherical head
V = 0.513 ∗ 0.06L ∗ d =0.513×0.06×10.07 ×2.522h = 1.967 m3
Total volume of the reactor = Vc + Vh = 50.213 + (2×.967)= 54.14 m3
6.1.1.Thickness calculation
Shell Thickness
Based on internal pressure of 2 atm
Design Pressure, P = 1.1×2 = 2.2 atm = 2.2731 kgf / cm2

Thickness, 𝑡 = +𝑐

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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where, j = 0.85 (joint efficiency)
f = 16 kgf / cm2 (Steel (15Cr90Mo55) IS : 1570-1961)
C = 3 mm (corrosion factor)
2.2731 ∗ 2520
𝑡= + 3 = 5.107 𝑚𝑚
(200 ∗ 16 ∗ 0.85)

Head Design
Thickness of head, 𝑡 = +𝐶

where, 𝑊 =

Crown radius, Rc = 0.8d = 2.015 m

Knuckle radius, Rk = 0.06d = 0.151 m
.
.
𝑊= = 1.6628
2.2731 ∗ 2015 ∗ 1.6628
𝑡 = +3
200 ∗ 16 ∗ 0.85
𝑡 = 5.8 𝑚𝑚

6.2 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Tci=15˚
C
Thi=60˚C

Tho=25˚C

Tco=25˚C
Figure 6.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger

Physical properties of hot and cold fluid entering the STHE are shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Physical Properties of hot and cold fluid in STHE

DATA Units HOT FLUID COLD FLUID
Inlet Temperaure ℃ 60 15
Outlet Temperature ℃ 25 25
Specific heat J/Kg.℃ 1239 4314
Density Kg/(m^3) 1212 1011
Thermal Conductivity W/m℃ 0.122 0.6034
Viscosity Kg/m.s 0.000601 0.001002
Mass Flow Rate Kg/s 2.315 2.327
Heat Flow Rate W 100381.9 100381.9

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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Step 1: Heat Balance

𝑄 = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇
𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝐽
𝑚 × 4314 𝑘𝑔℃ × (25℃ − 15℃) = 2.315 𝑠 × 1239 𝑘𝑔℃ × (60℃ − 15℃)
𝑚 = 2.327𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Step 2: ΔTLMTD
Diagram
∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 = 60 − 25 = 35℃; ∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 = 25 − 15 = 10℃
∆𝑇 − ∆𝑇 35℃ − 10℃
∆𝑇 = = = 19.96℃
∆𝑇 35℃
ln ln
∆𝑇 10℃
Step 3: ΔTLMTD Corrected
𝑇 −𝑇 60 − 25 𝑇 −𝑇 25 − 15
𝑅= = = 3.5; 𝑆 = = = 0.22
𝑇 −𝑇 25 − 15 𝑇 −𝑇 60 − 15

From 1 (Shell) – 2 (Tube) pass graph, FT = 0.8115

∆𝑇 = ∆𝑇 × 𝐹 = 19.96℃ × 0.8115 = 16.12℃

Step 4: Allocation of Fluids

Tube Side →Cold Fluid (Water) → Water
Shell Side →Hot Fluid (Organic solvent) → Dichloroethane

Step 5: Find Heat Transfer Area (A)

Assume U based on allocated fluids,
Urange= 283.915 W/m2.oC – 851.745 W/m2.oC, therefore
Uassumed = 340.698 W/m2.˚C
Following,
𝑘𝑔 𝐽
𝑄 2.315 𝑠 × 1239 𝑘𝑔℃ × (60℃ − 15℃)
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 ⇒ 𝐴 = = = 18.19 𝑚
𝑈∆𝑇 340.698 𝑊 𝑚 ℃ × 16.12℃

Step 6: Tube Specification (Specifying Tube dimensions)

Available Tube sizes are ¾” & 1”. Assume 1” (OD), 16 BWG. (TEMA Standards)
do (OD) = ¾” = ¾ × 25.4 × 10-3 = 0.01905 m
di (ID) = 0.62” = 0.62 × 25.4 × 10-3 = 0.0157 m
Available Tube Length are 4 m, 4.8 m & 6 m. Assume L = 6 m
Assume Triangular Pitch (Pt = 1.25 × OD)
Pt = 1.25 ×¾” = 0.023812 m

Step 7: Number of Tubes

𝐴 18.19𝑚
𝐴 = 𝑁𝜋𝑑 𝐿 ⇒ 𝑁 = = = 50.68 ≈ 51 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
𝜋𝑑 𝐿 𝜋 × 0.01905 𝑚 × 6 𝑚

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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For 1 (Shell) - 2 (Tube) pass & Pipe OD ¾”, nearest maximum number of tubes, N = 66
tubes. Shell Diameter, DS = 10”.

Step 8: Heat Transfer Coefficient - Tube Side

Tube Side Cross-sectional Area (per pass):

𝑁 𝜋𝑑 66 𝜋 × (0.0157 𝑚)
𝐴 = = × = 0.006𝑚
𝑁 4 2 4

Mass Velocity,
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 2.315 𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺= = = 362.562 𝑚 𝑠
𝐴 0.006 𝑚
Reynolds’ Number,
𝑘𝑔
𝑑 𝐺 0.0157𝑚 × 362.562 𝑚 𝑠 = 5695.338
𝑁 = =
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
0.001002 𝑚𝑠
Prandtl’s Number,
𝐽 𝑘𝑔
𝐶 𝜇 4314 𝑘𝑔℃ × 0.00102 𝑚𝑠
𝑁 = = = 7.164
𝐾 0.6034 𝑊 𝑚℃
Heat Transfer Coefficient - Tube Side
ℎ𝑑
𝑁 = = 0.023𝑁 . 𝑁 .
𝐾
ℎ = 1957.947 𝑊 𝑚 ℃
Step 9: Heat Transfer Coefficient - Shell Side

Normally, the minimum baffle spacing is ⅕th the Shell Diameter, i.e.
𝐷 10"
𝐵𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 50.8 𝑚𝑚
5 5
However, generally one can assume minimum baffle spacing, lb = 152 mm = 0.152 m
𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 6𝑚
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠 = −1= − 1 = 38.47 ≈ 38 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 0.152 𝑚
Shell Diameter = 10” = 0.254
Equivalent Shell Diameter (based on triangular pitch),
1 1 𝑑
4 𝑃 (𝑃 sin 60°) − 𝜋
2 2 4
𝐷 =
1
2 𝜋𝑑
1 1 (0.01905 𝑚)
4× × 0.023812𝑚 × (0.023812 𝑚 × sin 60°) − × 𝜋 ×
2 2 4
𝐷 =
1
2 × 𝜋 × 0.01905 𝑚
𝐷 = 0.014 𝑚
Shell Clearance [gap between adjacent tubes] (C),
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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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𝐶 = 𝑃 − 𝑑 = 0.005𝑚
Shell Side Cross-sectional Area:
𝐷 𝐶𝑙 0.254 𝑚 × 0.005 𝑚 × 0.152 𝑚
𝐴 = = = 0.00772 𝑚
𝑃 0.023812 𝑚
Mass Velocity,
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 2.315 𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺= = = 297.7844 𝑚 𝑠
𝐴 0.00772 𝑚
Reynolds’ Number,
𝑘𝑔
𝐷 𝐺 0.014 𝑚 ∗ 297.7844 𝑚 𝑠 = 6964.835
𝑁 = =
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
0.000601 𝑚𝑠
Prandtl’s Number,
𝐽 𝑘𝑔
𝐶 𝜇 4314 𝑘𝑔℃ × 0.000601 𝑚𝑠
𝑁 = = = 6.104
𝐾 0.122 𝑊 𝑚℃

Nusselt’s Number,
ℎ 𝐷
𝑁 = = 0.36𝑁 . 𝑁 .
𝐾
ℎ = 742.216 𝑊 𝑚 ℃
Step 10: Dirt Factor

Based on Organic Solvent in Shell Side & Water in Tube Side,

Dirt Factor, RD = 0.003 h.ft2.oF/Btu = 0.003 × 0.1761 m2.oC/W = 0.000528 m2.oC/W

Step 11: Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient

1 1 1 1 1
= + +𝑅 = + + 0.000528 𝑚 ℃ 𝑊
𝑈 ℎ ℎ 1957.947 𝑊 𝑊
𝑚 ℃ 742.216 𝑚 ℃
𝑈 = 419.05 𝑊
𝑚 ℃
Since, Ucalculated (419.05 W/m2.oC)>Uassumed (340.698 W/m2.oC), design is approved.

Step 12: Pressure Drop – Tube Side

From NRe Vs jf chart, jf = 0.011
𝐿 𝑢
∆𝑃 = 𝑁 8𝑗 + 2.5 𝜌
𝑑 2
6𝑚 𝑘𝑔 (0.3586 𝑚⁄𝑠)
∆𝑃 = 2 8 × 0.011 × + 2.5 × 1011 𝑚 ×
0.0157 𝑚 2
∆𝑃 = 4.687 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Step 13: Pressure Drop – Shell Side

Assuming Baffle Cut = 25%, from NRe Vs jf chart, jf = 0.0119
𝐷 𝐿 𝑢
∆𝑃 = 𝑁 8𝑗 𝜌
𝐷 𝑙 2

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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0. .254 𝑚 6𝑚 𝑘𝑔 (0.247 𝑚⁄𝑠)
∆𝑃 = 1 × 8 × 0.0119 × × × 1212 𝑚 ×
0.0184 𝑚 0.014 𝑚 2
∆𝑃 = 3𝑘𝑃𝑎
6.3 CONDENSER

T=53.06˚C T=37.81˚C

Figure 6.2 Shell and tube condenser

Physical properties of hot and cold fluid entering the condenser are shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Physical Properties of hot and cold fluid in condenser
DATA Units VAPOUR WATER
Inlet Temperaure ℃ 53.06 20
Outlet Temperature ℃ 37.81 30
Specific heat J/Kg.℃ 4180
Density Kg/(m^3) 551 993
Thermal Conductivity W/m℃ 0.01326 0.62
Viscosity Kg/m.s 0.00001059 0.000734
Latent heat of vaporisation J/Kg 310800
Mass Flow Rate Kg/s 1.471990781 10.94485012
Heat Flow Rate W 457494.7348 457494.7348

Step 1: Heat Balance

𝑄 = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚 𝜆
𝐽
𝑚 × 4180 𝑘𝑔℃ × (30℃ − 20℃)
𝑘𝑔 𝐽
= 1.472 𝑠 × 310800 𝑘𝑔 × (53.03℃ − 37.81℃)
𝑚 = 10.945𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Step 2: ΔTLMTD
∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 = 53.03 − 37.81 = 15.22℃; ∆𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 = 30 − 20 = 10℃
∆𝑇 − ∆𝑇 15.22℃ − 10℃
∆𝑇 = = = 20.322℃
∆𝑇 15.22℃
ln ln
∆𝑇 10℃

Step 3: ΔTLMTD Corrected

𝑇 −𝑇 53.03 − 40 𝑇 −𝑇 37.81 − 20
𝑅= = = 1.525; 𝑆 = = = 0.302
𝑇 −𝑇 30 − 20 𝑇 −𝑇 53.03 − 20
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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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Normally, 1 (Shell) : 1 (Tube) pass is used, where LMTD correction factor (FT) can be
ignored. ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑇 × 𝐹 = 20.322℃ × 0.302 = 19℃

Step 4: Find Heat Transfer Area (A)

Assume U based on allocated fluids,
Urange = 113.57 W/m2.oC – 283.915W/m2.oC, therefore
Uassumed = 283.915W/m2.oC
Following,
𝐽
𝑄 457495 𝑠
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 ⇒ 𝐴 = = = 84.82 𝑚
𝑈∆𝑇 283.915 𝑊 𝑚 ℃ × 19℃

Step 6: Tube Specification (Specifying Tube dimensions)

Available Tube sizes are ¾” & 1”. Assume 1” (OD), 16 BWG. (TEMA Standards)
do (OD) = 0.01905 m
di (ID) = 0.01313 m
Available Tube Length are 4 m, 4.8 m & 6 m. Assume L = 5 m
Assume Triangular Pitch (Pt = 1.25 × OD)
Pt = 1.25 ×0.01905 = 0.023812 m

Step 7: Number of Tubes

𝐴 84.82 𝑚
𝐴 = 𝑁𝜋𝑑 𝐿 ⇒ 𝑁 = = = 283.45 ≈ 284 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
𝜋𝑑 𝐿 𝜋 × 0.01905 𝑚 × 5 𝑚
For 1 (Shell) - 2 (Tube) pass & Pipe OD 1”, nearest maximum number of tubes, N = 346
tubes.

Step 8: Heat Transfer Coefficient - Tube Side

Tube Side Cross-sectional Area (per pass):
𝑁 𝜋𝑑 346 𝜋 × (0.0131𝑚)
𝐴 = = × = 0.023𝑚
𝑁 4 2 4
Mass Velocity,
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 10.945 𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺= = = 473.231 𝑚 𝑠
𝐴 0.023 𝑚
Reynolds’ Number,
𝑘𝑔
𝑑 𝐺 0.0131 𝑚 × 473.231 𝑚 𝑠 = 8414
𝑁 = =
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
0.000734 𝑚𝑠
Nusselt’s Number,
ℎ𝑑
𝑁 = = 0.023𝑁 . 𝑁 .
𝐾
ℎ = 2859.51 𝑊 𝑚 ℃
Step 9: Heat Transfer Coefficient - Shell Side
Normally, the minimum baffle spacing is ⅕th the Shell Diameter, i.e.

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
____________________________________________________________________________________
𝐷 0.133𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 26.6 𝑚𝑚
5 5
However, generally one can assume minimum baffle spacing, lb = 200mm
𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 5𝑚
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠 = −1= − 1 = 24 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 0.2 𝑚

Equivalent Shell Diameter (based on triangular pitch),

1 1 𝑑
4 2 𝑃 (𝑃 sin 60°) − 2 𝜋 4
𝐷 =
1
𝜋𝑑
2
1 1 (0.01905 𝑚)
4 × 2 × 0.023812 𝑚 × (0.023812 𝑚 × sin 60°) − 2 × 𝜋 × 4
𝐷 =
1
2 × 𝜋 × 0.01905 𝑚
𝐷 = 0.014 𝑚

Shell Clearance [gap between adjacent tubes] (C),

𝐶 = 𝑃 − 𝑑 = 0.005 𝑚

Shell Side Cross-sectional Area:

𝐷 𝐶𝑙 0.1335 𝑚 × 0.005 𝑚 × 0.2 𝑚
𝐴 = = = 0.00533 𝑚
𝑃 0.023812 𝑚
Mass Velocity,
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 1.475 𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺= = = 275.97 𝑚 𝑠
𝐴 0.00533 𝑚
Reynolds’ Number,
𝑘𝑔
𝐷 𝐺 0.014 𝑚 × 275.97 𝑚 𝑠 = 363858
𝑁 = =
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
0.00001059 𝑚𝑠
Nusselt’s Number,
ℎ 𝐷
𝑁 = = 0.36𝑁 . 𝑁 .
𝐾

ℎ = 210.135 𝑊 𝑚 ℃
Step 10: Dirt Factor
Based on Low-Boiling Hydrocarbon in Shell Side & Water in Tube Side,
Dirt Factor, RD = 0.003 h.ft2.oF/Btu = 0.003 × 0.1761 m2.oC/W = 0.000528 m2.oC/W
Step 11: Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient
1 1 1 1 1
= + +𝑅 = + + 0.000528 𝑚 ℃ 𝑊
𝑈 ℎ ℎ 2859.51 𝑊 210.135 𝑊
𝑚 ℃ 𝑚 ℃
𝑈 = 289.409 𝑊 𝑚 ℃

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
____________________________________________________________________________________
Since, Ucalculated (289.409 W/m2.oC)> Uassumed (283.915 W/m2.oC), design is approved.
Step 12: Pressure Drop – Tube Side
From NRe Vs jf chart, jf = 0.013
𝐿 𝑢
∆𝑃 = 𝑁 8𝑗 + 2.5 𝜌
𝑑 2
5𝑚 𝑘𝑔 (0.477 𝑚⁄𝑠)
∆𝑃 = 2 8 × 0.013 × + 2.5 × 993 𝑚 ×
0.01313 𝑚 2
∆𝑃 = 9.55 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Step 13: Pressure Drop – Shell Side

Assuming Baffle Cut = 25%, from NRe Vs jf chart, jf = 0.012
𝐷 𝐿 𝑢
∆𝑃 = 𝑁 8𝑗 𝜌 = 0.88 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐷 𝑙 2

6.4 DISTILLATION COLUMN

Relative volatility,

α=

Vapour Pressure of C2H3Cl at 172.3 ℃

𝑃 = 6498.15 mmHg
Vapour Pressure of C2H4Cl2 at 172.3 ℃
𝑃 = 52105 mmHg
Therefore,
α= 8.01

y× = 𝛼𝑥
1 + (𝛼 − 1)𝑥

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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x-y graph from equilibrium data of vinyl chloride

Equilibrium data for VCM at the operating conditions is shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Equilibrium data for vinyl chloride monomer

x Y
0 0
0.1 0.472
0.2 0.697
0.3 0.817
0.4 0.884
0.5 0.927
0.6 0.953
0.7 0.972
0.8 0.984
0.9 0.993
1 1

XD= 0.98 Xf = 0.274

XW= 0.006
XD/R+1= 0.28
From graph:
Feed plate location = 5
no. of stages= 12
no. of plates= 11
Assuming 65% efficiency
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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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Actual no. of stages= 0.65×12 = 19
Feed plate location= 0.65×5 = 8
No. of trays = 19-1 = 18

6.4.1 Estimation of Diameter

ENRICHING SECTION
L : Liquid flow
G : Vapour flow
X : Mole fraction
Mavg : Average molecular weight
Csb : Flooding parameter
Unf : Flooding velocity
𝜎 : Surface Tension
P : parachor

Tb : Bubble point

ꝭL = ꝭvcmXvcm+ꝭedcXedc
ꝭvcm = 963.63 kg/m3
ꝭedc = 1217.61 kg/m3
Xvcm = 0.98
Xedc = 0.012
ꝭL =1212.58 kg/m3
ꝭv = PMavg/RT
Mavg = MvcmXvcm+MedcXedc
Mvcm = 62.5
Medc = 99
Mavg = 63.22
P = 111457.5 Pa
R = 8.314 J/mol k
Tb = -12 ˚C
ꝭv = 3.25 kg/m3
FLV = (L/G)×(ꝭv/ꝭL)^0.5
R = L/D
L = R×D =1676.35 kmol/hr

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Chapter 6 Equipment design
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G = 2346.89 kmol/hr
FLV = 0.037
. ꝭ
Csb = Unf× ×
ꝭ ꝭ

𝜎 = P (ꝭL-ꝭv)
(Ref. Perry Hand book edition 8th Pg.2-514 Table.2-360)
P = 100.23
ꝭL = 0.019gmol/cm3
ꝭv =5.14E-05 gmol/cm3

𝜎 = 1.92

𝜎 = 13.51 dyne/cm
(Ref. Perry Hand book edition 8th Pg.14-38 Fig.14-31)
Csb = 0.22
Therefore,
Unf = 3.92 ft/s
1.2 m/s
Operating velocity = 80%Unf
Operating velocity = 0.96 m/s
Flow area:
Area = G/operating velocity
G = 12.7 m3/s
Area = 13.26 m2
Di = (Area × 4/π) = 4.11 m

STRIPPING SECTION
ꝭL =ꝭvcmXvcm+ꝭedcXedc
ꝭvcm = 2.16 kg/m3
ꝭedc = 1149.75 kg/m3
Xvcm = 0.006
Xedc = 0.993
ꝭL = 1142.23 kg/m3
ꝭv =PMavg/RT
Mavg =MvcmXvcm+MedcXedc
Mvcm = 99
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Chapter 6 Equipment design
____________________________________________________________________________________
Medc = 62.5
Mavg = 62.74
P = 111457.5 Pa
R = 8.314 J/mol k
T = 83.47 ˚C
ꝭv = 2.36 kg/m3
FLV = (𝐿/G¯)×(ꝭv/ꝭL)^0.5
𝐿 = L+qF 𝑉
𝐿 = 1952.14 kmol/hr
𝐿 = 𝑉 +W
𝑉 = 182.06 kmol/hr
FLV = 0.49
. ꝭ
Csb = Unf× ×
ꝭ ꝭ

𝜎 = P(ꝭL-ꝭv)
(Ref. Perry Hand book edition 8th Pg.2-514 Table.2-360)
P = Parachor
P =100.23
ꝭL = 0.018 gmol/cm3
ꝭv = 3.76E-05 gmol/cm3
𝜎 ^ 1/4 = 1.82
𝜎 = 10.99 (Ref. Perry Hand book edition 8th Pg.14-38 Fig.14-31)

Csb = 0.14
Therefore,
Unf = 2.73 ft/s = 0.83 m/s
Operating velocity = 80%Unf
Operating velocity = 0.66 m/s
Flow area:
Area = 𝑉 /operating velocity
𝑉 = 1.34 m3/s
Area = 2.01 m2
Di = (Area × 4/π) = 1.60 m
6.4.2 Head Calculation
t : PdiC/200fj
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Chapter 6 Equipment design
____________________________________________________________________________________
f : allowable stress
c : chief factor
P : Design pressure (0.1× Operating pressure)
c =1
j = 0.85
E = 0.0457 mm
Di = 4110.063172 mm
P = 1.1 atm = 1.14 kgf/cm2
f = 16 kgf/mm2 (IS1570-1961 15Cr90Mo)
t = 1.72 mm
tmin = 3 mm

6.4.3 Thickness of column

t = Pdi/ (200fj-P)
P = 1.14 kgf/mm2
Di = 4110.06 mm
f = 16 kgf/mm2 (IS1570-1961 15Cr90Mo)
j = 0.85
t = 1.71752 mm
tmin = 3 mm
Table 6.4 Design specifications of distillation column

DATA
MATERIAL CARBON STEEL
HEAD THICKNESS 3
TTHICKNESS OF COLUMN 3
TRAY THICKNESS(mm) 10
CORROSION ALLOWENCE(mm) 3
NO OF TRAYS 19
TRAY SPACING(mm) 305
FEED PLATE LOCATION 5
VAPOUR AND LIQUID SPACE(mm) 250
TOTAL HEIGHT(m) 6.485
TOWER DIAMETER(m) 4.11
REBOILER DUTY(kW) 1.81E+05
CONDENSOR DUTY(kW) 2.86E+09

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Chapter 7 Cost estimation
______________________________________________________________________________________
Many engineering design projects are developed to provide sizing information from
which estimates of capital and operating costs can be made. Chemical plants are built to
make a profit, and an estimate of the investment required and the cost of production is
needed before the profitability of a project can be assessed Cost estimation may be
defined as the process of forecasting the expenses that must be incurred to manufacture a
product. Cost of various equipment is shown in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Cost of equipment

Cost No. of equipment Present cost(INR)

Preheater 2 3156058
Packed bed reactor 8 90744400
Process pump 1 912103
Storage tank 4 9600000
Furnace 1 9640000
cooler 8 12155884
Quencher 1 6726704
Distillation column 3 27021150
159956300.9
Total

7.1 DIRECT COST

Total purchased equipment (TPE) = 159956300.9 INR
Land = 4-8% TPE
Assume Land = 8% TPC
= 0.08×159956300.9
= 12796504.07 INR
Building = 50%TPE
=0.45×159956300.9
= 79978150.43 INR
Piping = 66%TPE
= 0.66×159956300.9
= 105571158.6 INR
Electrical installation = 10-15%TPE
Assume Electrical installation = 13%TPE
= 0.13×159956300.9
= 20794319 INR
Insulation cost = 8-9%TPE
Assume insulation cost = 9%TPE
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Chapter 7 Cost estimation
______________________________________________________________________________________
= 0.09×159956300.9
= 14396067 INR
Installation cost = 30%TPC
= 0.3×159956300.9
= 47986890.26 INR
Service facility and yard improvement
= 40-100%TPE
Assume Service facility and yard improvement
= 60%TPE
= 0.6×159956300.9
= 95973781 INR
Total direct cost (TDC) = 537453170.9 INR
Direct cost = 75%fixed capital Investment
Fixed capital cost (FCI) = 716604227.8 INR

7.2 INDIRECT COST

Engineering and supervision
Construction expenses
Contingency
Assume contingency
Total indirect cost (TIC)
Therefore,
Fixed capital investment
= 15%TDC
= 0.15×537453170.9
= 80617976 INR
= 10%TDC
= 0.1×537453170.9
= 53745317.09 INR
= 5-15%FCI
= 10%FCI
= 0.1× 716604227.8
= 71660422.78 INR
= 206023715.5 INR
= TDC+TIC =743476886 INR

7.3 WORKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Working Capital Investment = 10-20% of FCI

Assume Working Capital Investment WCI = 15% of FCI

= 0.15× 74347688 = 111521533 INR
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Chapter 7 Cost estimation
______________________________________________________________________________________
7.4 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Total Capital Investment = FCI +WCI
= 854998419.3INR

7.5 MANUFACTURING COST

Fixed Charges:
Depreciation = 10% of FCI + 3% of Building Cost
= 98341133.76 INR
Local Taxes = 4% of FCI
= 0.04×743476886
= 29739075.45 INR
Insurance = 0.6% of FCI
= 0.006×743476886
= 44608613.18 INR
Rent = 8-12% Value of Rented Land & Building
Assume Rent = 10 % Land
= 1279650.407 INR
Fixed Charges (FC) = 173968472.8 INR

7.6 DIRECT PRODUCTION CHARGES

Fixed Charges = 10-20% Total Product Cost
Assuming Fixed Charges = 15% of Total Product Cost TPC
= 1159789819 INR
Total Product Cost (TPC) = 1159789819 INR
Operating Labor = 5% of TPC
= 0.05×1159789819
= 173968472.8 INR
Raw Materials = 10-50% TPC
Assume Raw Material = 30% TPC = 0.3×1159789819
= 347936946 INR
Direct Supervisory & Clerical Labor
= 15% Cost of Operating Labor
= 26095271 INR
Utilities = 10-20% TPC
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Chapter 7 Cost estimation
______________________________________________________________________________________
Assume Utilities = 20%TPC
= 0.2×1159789819
= 231957963.7 INR
Maintenance & Repair is 5% of FCI
= 37173844.32 INR
Operating Supplies = 15% of Cost for Maintenance and Repair
= 5576076.648 INR
Laboratory Charges = 10-20% Operating Labor
Assume Laboratory Charges = 20 % of Operating Labor
= 34793694.56 INR
Patents &Royalties is 0 to 6% TPC
Assume Patents & Royalties = 6% TPC
= 0.06×1159789819
= 34793694.56 INR
Therefore, direct production cost is equal to the sum of all the above cost.
TOTAL DIRECT PRODUCTION COST
= 927089658 INR

7.7 PLANT OVERHEAD COST

Plant Overhead Cost = 50-70% Total expenses for Operating Labour, Supervision
& Maintenance
Assuming Plant Overhead = 60% of Total expenses for Operating Labour,
Supervision & Maintenance
= 1.42E+08
Therefore,
Manufacturing Cost = Fixed Charges + Direct Production Cost + Plant
Overhead Cost
MANUFACTURING COST = 1243400683 INR

7.8 GENERAL EXPENSES

Administrative cost = 5% TPC

Assume Administrative cost = 5%TPC
= 57989491 INR
Distribution & Marketing Cost
= 2-20% of TPC

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Chapter 7 Cost estimation
______________________________________________________________________________________
Assume Distribution & Marketing Cost to be 20% of TPC
= 231957963.7 INR
Research & Development Cost
= 2-5%TPC
Assume R&D cost to be 3 % of TPC
= 34793695 INR
Therefore, General Expenses are equal to the sum of all the above cost.
GENERAL EXPENSES, Tge = 324741149.2 INR

7.9 TOTAL PRODUCT COST

Total Product Cost = Tmc + Tge
= 1568141833 INR

7.10 GROSS EARNING/ INCOME

Whole sale selling price of VCM/ton
= 6550 Rs
Total Income = (Selling price) × (Quantity of Product Manufactured)
= 1965000000 INR (Assume 300 working days)
Gross Income = (Total Income) – (Total Production Cost)
= 1965000000 – 15681418
= 396858167.4 INR
Current Tax Rates = 45%
Taxes = 45% of Gross Income
= 0.45×396858167.4
= 178586175.3 INR
Therefore, Net Profit = Gross Income –Taxes
= 218271992.1 INR

7.11 RATE OF RETURN

Rate of return is a profit on an investment over a period of time, expressed as a proportion
of the original investment.
Rate of Return = Net profit × = 25.528 %

7.12 PAYOUT PERIOD

The payback period is the length of time required to recover the cost of an investment.
The payback period of a given investment or project is an important determinant of
whether to undertake the position or project, as longer payback periods are typically not

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Chapter 7 Cost estimation
______________________________________________________________________________________
desirable for investment positions. Appropriate payback period for a medium production
plant is 3-6 years. Calculated parameters of cost estimation in shown in Table 7.2.

Payout Period =

= 3.91 years
PAYOUT PERIOD = 3.91 years

Table 7.2 All costs involved

S.NO DESCRIPTION PRICE (INR)
1 TOTAL DIRECT COST 537453170
2 TOTAL INDIRECT COST 206023715

3 FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT 716604227

4 WORKING CAPITAL COST 111521533

5 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT 854998419

6 FIXED CHARGES 173968472

7 TOTAL GENERAL EXPENSES 324741149

8 MANUFACTURE COST 1243400683

9 TOTAL PRODUCT COST 1568141833
10 GROSS INCOME 396858167
11 NET PROFIT 218271992
12 PAY BACK PERIOD 3.91712382
13 RATE OF RETURNS 25.53%

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Chapter 8 Piping instrumentation and diagram
______________________________________________________________________________________
Instrumentation and process control engineering plays a vital role in controlling the
process for desired output from the plant. Instrumentation is provided to monitor the vital
process parameters during plant operations. They may be incorporated in automatic
control loops or used for the manual monitoring of process parameters. They may also be
a part of automatic computer data acquisition. Instruments monitoring critical process
parameters will be fitted with automatic pop-ups and enunciations to alert the operator at
critical and hazardous situations in prior.
The main objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes
are, to keep process parameters within the operating limit, so as to detect dangerous
situations that may develop due to process deviations and to provide alarms/buzzer and
automatic fail safe systems. And also to maintain the product composition within the
specified quality standards and to operate the plant at the lowest production cost.
The main objectives of designer when specifying instrumentation and process control are,
a. Monitor and control the process parameters within the operable range on real time
basis.
b. Maintaining the product quality within the specifications.
c. Ensure optimum production cost with integrated fail safe mechanisms.
Eliminating all the pit-falls that may rise due to manual intervention and properly taken
care of such situations and alert by prior signalling and controlling catastrophic failures
automatically before-hand.

8.1. INSTRUMENTATION
8.1.1 Flow measuring instruments

For measuring flow of combined feed to the reactor, mass flow meter will be used which
is sensitive in measuring and the measured readings will be fed back to the control
system. Flow measuring instruments are available in various categories like variable head
flow meter, electromagnetic flow meters, etc and in various ranges; in this process
stainless casing of the variable head flow meter is suitable for good results.

8.1.2 Temperature measurement

For measuring the temperature of flow streams in any equipment, resistance
thermometers or Thermocouples are used. Platinum- platinum rhodium thermocouples are
used in most industries, since thermocouples give excellent transmission accuracies than
other temperature measuring instruments. For measuring the temperature of the reactor
the same thermocouples are used.
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Chapter 8 Piping instrumentation and diagram
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8.1.3. Pressure Measurement
The bourdon tube measuring elements are used in combination with the differential
pressure transmitters with stainless steel internal components are used for the measuring
the reactor bed pressure drops in mm water column. Also electronic pressure transmitters
are also used for transferring the pressure reading to the panel at high accuracy.

8.1.4. Concentration measurement

The composition of the outlet stream can be analysed by HPLC chromatography, which
gives more accurate and fast feedback.

8.2. CONTROL SYSTEMS

For the equipment used, the following controls are required for safe and efficient
operation:

8.2.1. Flow controller

Flow controllers are used to control the flow of the stream. Flow controllers are used to
maintain specified molar ratios of the reactants. Flow controllers are used here while
pumping the feed to the pyrolysis furnace to maintain the flow rate of the reactants i.e.,
preheated ethylene and chlorine and also in the condensers of the distillation columns to
obtain the distilled products at required flowrates.

8.2.2. Temperature controller

These are devices that controls the passage of heat energy into or out of the space and
adjusts to the desired temperature. Air conditioners, space heaters, refrigerators, water
heaters, etc. are examples of devices that control temperature.
In the process temperature controllers are used while preheating to heat the reactants to
desired temperature, to cool the product formed to required temperature after the reaction
using a cooler, in the pyrolysis furnace so that cracking can take place at higher
temperatures in the furnace and in the reboilers of the distillation columns so that desired
temperature of the residues is obtained.

8.2.3. Pressure controller

Pressure controllers are controllers which quickly and automatically provide a pressure
based on the supply pressure. These maintain the consistency in the pressure. In the
distillation columns when the distilled products are removed, a constant pressure has to be
maintained in the condensers using pressure controllers.

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Chapter 8 Piping instrumentation and diagram
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8.2.4. Ratio controller
It is a controller where disturbances are measured and the ratio is held at a desired set
point by controlling one of the streams. The ratio controllers are used here to control the
feed ratio of ethylene and chlorine before heating so that it is sent to the reactor.

8.2.5. Level controller

Level controllers are instruments which monitor fluid levels in vessels, and to controls the
level as required. Level controllers are used in the packed bed reactor where level has to
be maintained so that the reaction takes place. These are also used in the storage vessel
where the level should be maintained so that the product formed should be stored and
overflow does not take place.

8.2.6. Interlocks of the reactor

Interlocks are control functions that prevent the normal operation of other control or
operating functions. They are used to ensure personnel or equipment safety or to protect
the operability of the process. Interlocks will often be used to prevent the pump from
operating if a valve is closed on either suction or the discharge side of the pump or if the
level of the tank feeding the pump is low. Interlocks do not take intermediate action, but
prevent either the operator or a control function from operating, are often referred to as
permissive. If interlocks are required for personnel safety, they should normally be
separate from the regulatory control system in order to protect against control system
failure.

8.2.7. Emergency Shutdown of the reactor system

Because of the instability of the exothermic reactions and the possibility of a runaway
reaction, the reactor is often equipped with an emergency shutdown system, as well as
other safety equipment, such as burst diaphragms and release containment systems. The
purpose of the emergency shutdown system is to stop the reaction in the event of a
runaway. The system may accomplish this by quickly reducing the temperature, injecting
some material into the reactor, which will reduce the rate of the reaction; or venting the
reactor to reduce the pressure. The emergency shutdown system must be highly reliable.

In almost all industries computer based distribution control systems and programmable
logic controllers with human interface systems are installed for easy control through
computers. In this system, the hardware requirements for pneumatic, electronic, and
microprocessor-based controllers are employed, all pneumatic signals in the range of 3 to

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Chapter 8 Piping instrumentation and diagram
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15 psig , the energy needed to operate these pneumatic components is a source of clean,
dry air at a pressure of about 20 psig.

8.2.8 Alarms
An extensive amount of the software in modern controllers is devoted to detecting and
reporting a problem in the form of an alarm. The alarm takes the form of a visual signal,
an audible signal (beeping horn), or the auction of a switch.

8.3. DATA STORAGE

Long term storage of the transients can be obtained easily with a digital computer; this
task is referred to as archiving. The automatic storage of critical process control variables
on disk or tape can be retrieved later to explain process operating difficulties. The
computer can also be used to automatically record or log the type and location of an
alarm, the time of a process alarm, the time of acknowledgement of an alarm, and the
time it was cleared by operator intervention.

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Chapter 9 Plant location and layout
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We have chosen Ratnagiri as our location for manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer. It
is located in the state of MAHARASHTRA in INDIA shown in Figure 9.1.

Figure. 9.1 Plant location

The reasons for selecting this location are listed below.

1) Geography and climate: Ratnagiri is a port city situated on the Arabian Sea coast in
the southwestern part of Maharashtra. It has an average elevation of 11 meters.

2) Transport - It has good railways and road connectivity. It is 330 Km north of Mumbai
Connected with road and rail links with JNPT Mumbai Vadodara.

3) Availability of labour - Local labour is easily available as it has many chemical

industries.
4) Present Industrial condition – Ratnagiri is an industrial area. Some of the renowned
industries names include JSW Group, Ultratech Cement, Finolex Group, VAV Life
Sciences, Georg Fischer, Gadre Marine. A nuclear project is also undertaken there named
Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project.
5) Thermal power supply – Ratnagiri Gas and Power Private Limited (RGPPL) is a joint
venture of NTPC Limited, GAIL and Government of Maharashtra. RGPPL owns India’s
largest gas based power plant and the LNG Gasification terminal at Dabhol. It’s three
power blocks supply a combined of 1967 MW of electricity to India’s western grid.

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Chapter 9 Plant location and layout
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9.1 PLANT LAYOUT

Plant layout can be defined as the physical location or configuration of departments,

workstations and equipment in the production process. It is well defined arrangements of
physical resources which are used to produce the product. Plant layout is placing the right
equipment, coupled with the right method, in the right place to permit the processing of
product in the most effective manner through the shortest possible distance and in the
shortest possible time.

Factors considered for plant layout are:

 Organization
 Location of departments.
 Type of product, method of production, production process, capacity.
 Convenience of operation and maintaince
 Space requirement for the machines, work area, material handling, storage and
other facilities.
 Health and safety considerations
 Future expansion

9.2 PLANT LAYOUT PROCEDURE

A number of procedures have been developed to facilitate the planning (Design) of plant
layouts. Following steps are generally considered in designing a plant layout.

The type of data and information required depends upon the nature of the layout
problems. In case planning a new plant layout, the data required will be very elaborate
and will cover the manufacturing particulars along with growth rate required. If the layout
problem is for making minor alterations in the layout, the data required will be limited to
manufacturing methods, sequence of operations, equipment involved etc.,

Product analysis consists of breaking down the product into sub-assemblies and the sub-
assemblies into their individual parts. Product analysis determines the operations
necessary for the production of each part. Production process is then analyzed.

Since the purpose of the flow pattern is to plan the movement of the raw material and
product parts in a straight line through the plant. Material flow pattern should be designed
to ensure minimum movement in terms of distance and time. Inter relationship between
the work areas is also planned while designing the individual operations or work areas.

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Chapter 9 Plant location and layout
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Similarly, the inter relationship between related groups of operations should be worked
out. At this stage, flow diagram also should be co coordinated with the material flow
pattern.
After installing the layout there may be possibility that it may not work as planned,
people may not follow the method they are supposed to, material does not arrive as
planned. it may result in delays. In such circumstances management should try to find out
the reasons for such delays, the activities which have to be taken care off and evaluate the
consequences. Action should be taken to rectify the mistakes, to minimize their effect on
the execution of the plant. Sample of the plant layout is shown in Figure 9.2.

Fig 9.2 PLANT LAYOUT

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Chapter 9 Plant location and layout
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Chapter 10 Health and safety
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Vinyl chloride is an OSHA- regulated material. Current OSHA regulations require that no
employed be exposed to vinyl chloride concentrations greater than 1 ppm over any 8
hours, or 5ppm averaged over any period not exceeding 15 min. monitoring is required at
all facilities where vinyl chloride is produced or PVC is processed. The monitoring may
be discontinued only when at least two when at least two consecutive determinations
made not less than five working days apart, show exposure at or below the action level of
0.5ppm contact with liquid vinyl chloride is prohibited. Chronic exposure to vinyl
chloride produced Raynaud’s syndrome, lysis of the distal bones of the fingers and a
fibrosing dermatitis. However, these effects are probably related to continuous intimate
contact with skin. Chronic exposure is reported to have produced a rare cancer of the liver
in a small number of workers after continuous exposure for many years to large amount
of vinyl chloride gas. Exposure to vinyl chloride can be readily reduced by feasible
engineering controls of poor practice to below the OSHA acceptable levels. Use of closed
systems or laboratory goods that have protection factors adequate to prevent worker
exposure are recommended whenever exposure is above the permissible OSGA limit and
cannot be reduced by feasible engineering practices, respirators are required and must be
used in accordance with a standard respirator program.
The danger comes during the production process. Three basic steps are necessary to the
production of vinyl chloride products.
First, the vinyl chloride, or monomer, is produced in a closed process. The vinyl chloride
monomer is then shipped as a compressed liquefied gas to plants/locations that produce
the polyvinyl chloride resin. Second, batches of vinyl chloride are polymerized by mixing
them with catalysts in giant vats or reactors. After drying, the polyvinyl chloride resins
are compounded by the addition of stabilizers, lubricants, and plasticizers. Third, the
polyvinyl chloride resins are fabricated into a myriad of finished products. This step
involves a large number of industrial processes.
Vinyl chloride is flammable when expected to heat, flame or oxidizing agents. Large fires
of the compared are very difficult to extinguish. Vapors represent a severe explosion
hazard.. Because of possible peroxides formation. Vinyl chloride should be transported or
handled under an inert atmosphere .However, stabilizer can be added to prevent
polymerization. Because of the world side production and transport of vinyl chloride the
higher temperature of certain climates may require that small amount of phenols or other
stabilizer be added to the vinyl chloride.

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Chapter 10 Health and safety
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10.1 Controlling the Hazard
The best method of controlling exposure to vinyl chloride is achieved through the
substitution of a less hazardous material. Where this is not possible, engineering controls
such as enclosure of the source of exposure and local exhaust ventilation should be
implemented. As a last resort, employers should introduce administrative controls and
provide personal protective equipment such as non-porous gloves, goggles, non-porous
aprons, sleeves, boots, and, where vinyl chloride levels cannot meet the OSHA Standard,
respiratory protection.
10.2 The OSHA Standard
The OSHA Standard applies to the manufacture, reaction, packaging, re-packaging,
storage, handling, or use of vinyl chloride in such operations as molding, extrusion,
mixing, and calendaring. The Standard does not apply to the handling or use of fabricated
products made of polyvinyl chloride such as thermos forming or blister packaging.

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 References
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PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.

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