OCTAVE LEVENSPIEL and KENNETH B.

BISCHOFF

Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago 16, III.

Backmixing in the Design of

Chemical Reactors
This article provides a useful perspective on the impor-
tance of backmixing in several types of reactors. Design
charts are given which set limits for the practicing engi-
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neer in the field of reactor kinetics and design

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reactors rests knowledge of two fac-
on
tors—the over-all rate at which the
reaction proceeds and the extent of
backmixing occurring in the reactor.
The first factor involves the determina-
tion of the rate equation, which for
homogeneous reactions may be found
most conveniently by using small scale
and the results of the studies reported in
many different ways.
In flow reactors backmixing, reaction
rate and degree of conversion are tied
together in a complex fashion. Because
the role of backmixing is difficult to
evaluate in such situations, much present
design is based on the assumptions that
no backmixing occurs or that the con-
nonbackmix flow, and is characterized
by the fact that flow through the reactor
is orderly and the residence times of all
fluid elements are alike. For this situa-
tion, the volume of reactor required to
effect a fractional conversion, x, of
reactant A is given by

laboratory batch equipment. As back-
mixing does not occur in such setups,
the effect of reaction rate may be isolated
and examined alone. Backmixing may
also be studied independently, as in
hydrodynamic studies in which the
progress of the fluid is examined as it
passes through the reactor vessel. Nu-
merous techniques have been employed
tents of the system are well mixed and
uniform in composition.
Complete Backmix and
Nonbackmix Reactors
The idealized situation in which there
is no backmixing is called plug flow,
piston flow, slug flow, tubular flow, or
where r is the reaction rate of A and F
is the feed rate of A into the reactor.
The other extreme in flow conditions is
characterized by so great an extent of
backmixing that any fluid in the reactor
has an equal chance of being found at the
reactor outlet. This idealized situation
is called complete or total backmix

VOL. 51, NO. 12 · DECEMBER 1959 1431

 Backmixing and Local single dimensionless group—“the local
Longitudinal Dispersion Number longitudinal dispersion number" defined
by D/ud, where D is the longitudinal
Flow patterns in reactors may vary dispersion coefficient.
greatly; however, the resulting back- In the local longitudinal dispersion
mixing may often be characterized by a number, u is the fluid velocity and d is

Ud-t

f = I- X =
FRACTION OF REACTANT REMAINING

Figure 1. The volume of a backmix

reactor is greater than that of the plug
flow reactor required for the same
duty. The size ratio rises rapidly with
increase in both fractional conversion
and reaction order
10
flow, stirred tank flow; the volume of
or
reactor required for conversion x of TURBULENT FLOW
reactant A is given by IN PIPES
Va -
Fx/r (2) 1

The progress of many reactions may be

udt
approximated by the simple rate law
r = kO (3)
where n is the order of the reaction. For
B
such cases, when fluid density remains
unchanged, the comparison of sizes of 0.1 _i_
reactors for a given feed rate is found from
10 10 10" 10
these equations to be
dt a p

io --!
i

PACKED BEDS
(4)
This result (Figure 1) shows that
except for a zero-order reaction the
D
udp LIQUIDS
complete backmix reactor always re-
quires a larger volume than a plug flow
reactor for a given feed rate, and that c GASES
the effect of backmixing becomes in-
creasingly important for higher reaction Ql
order and for approach to complete 10 10 io io2 io3
conversion of reactant. Hence approxi- dp Go
mations to ideality which may be per- H-

missible at low fractional conversions

would lead to large errors at high frac- i ; i

tional conversions. PACKED BEDS

D
Udp€ LIQUIDS
Partial Backmix Reactors
'
'

Because real reactor exhibits some

a
D 1

degree of backmixing, the required volume

1
| J_1_
for a given duty should lie somewhere be- 0.1 10 10 10
tween the two extremes given by Equa-
tions 1 and 2. The problem then is dp Go
twofold: to determine the extent of
backmixing by a quantitative measure Figure 2. Experimental findings on backmixing by numerous investigators
and then to use this measure with rate Local dispersion coefficients vary greatly with Reynolds numbers for flow in pipes (A and
data to determine the necessary reactor B) but are rather insensitive over wide ranges of Reynolds numbers for flow through packed
size. beds (C and D)

1432 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

 BACKMIXING IN REACTORS

some size characteristic—i.e., tube diam- fluidized bed or of vessel in an all-fluid where
eter for flow in pipes or particle size in reaction chamber. For vessels in which
+ (9)
4( ) (S)
-

packed beds. D/ud varies from 0 for the intensity of fluid mixing varies from V1
plug flow reactors to co for complete position to position, such as the spherical Figure 3, a graphical presentation of the
backmix reactors; an increase in D/ud reaction chamber or the vessel with large above result in useful form, was prepared
corresponds to a rise in the degree of end effects, the effective length has yet to
by combining Equations 1 and 8 and
backmixing. Dispersion groups in be determined.
compares sizes of reactors required for a
general are reciprocals of the correspond- If the local dispersion number may be
given feed rate for nonbackmix and
ing mass transfer Peclet groups. considered uniform throughout the re-
partial backmixing conditions.
For pipes and packed beds, D/ud actor, D/uL may easily be found. For a Second-Order Reactions. The effect
correlates simply with the dimensionless packed bed reactor of backmixing on reactor size require-
groups characterizing the flow condi- D/uL (D/udp)(dP/L)
=
(5) ment when a second-order reaction is
tions. Figure 2, A, is the correlation
for streamline flow in pipes; both
and for a tubular reactor taking place can be found by solving
D/uL =
(D/udt){dt/L) (6) Equation 7 for n 2. An analytical
—

Reynolds and Schmidt numbers affect solution for cases of reaction order other
the local dispersion number. This rela- than 1 is not known because of the non-
Chemical Reaction and Backmixing
tionship was obtained theoretically and linearity of the differential equation.
verified by three experimental runs (70). The differential equation governing
the fractional conversion of reactant as a Therefore, the differential equation was
Figure 2, B, the recommended correla- solved numerically on an IBM 650
tion for turbulent flow in pipes, is based function of axial distance / in a reactor
digital computer. A fourth-order
on numerous laboratory and field studies of length L is given by
with both liquids and gases. Prepara- Runge-Kutta method was used, and it
tion and detailed discussion of Figure 2, D%-4i~kc^n-° (7) was found that 25 increments were
sufficient for the desired accuracy. Be-
A and B, may be found elsewhere (7). in which / x is the fraction of
=
1
the problem was of a boundary
—

Figure 2, C, shows packed bed local reactant remaining (9).
dispersion numbers found by various First-Order Reaction. For a first-
investigators (7-4, 6, 8). The results order reaction, or 1, Equation 7 has
=
suggest a larger local dispersion number been solved (77) under the appropriate
for liquid systems as compared to gas sys-
boundary conditions corresponding to
tems. Figure 2, D. represents a compre- any homogeneous reactor vessel or any
hensive study of liquid dispersion in or- bed in which the
catalytic reactor
dered and randomly packed columns and intensity of backmixing is uniform (con-
shows two distinct regimes of flow (5). stant D/ud throughout). In dimension-
less form the solution relates the frac-
Reactor Longitudinal tional conversion with both the reactor
Dispersion Number dispersion number, D/uL, and the rate
group for the first-order reaction, kL/u.
Though D/udcharacterizes the intensity Thus
of backmixing at any point in a reactor, uL\
the “reactor longitudinal dispersion num- 4° exp
G xUi)
ber,” D/uL, must be used in conjunction / =
with the reaction rate equations to
determine the reactor size. L is some
(1 + af exp
cause
value nature rather than initial value—
i.e., both the slope, df/dl, and the ordi-
nate, /, were not knowm at either bound-
ary—the method of solution was neces-
sarily trial and error. The process was
started at the reactor outlet where the
slope was known to be zero (77). A
value of the ordinate at this position was
estimated and the Runge-Kutta method
was used to calculate back to the reactor
inlet boundary, at which point the
boundary condition
where /(0 + ) is the fraction of reactant
remaining just within the reactor en-
X
^
X
-

(8) trance, had to be satisfied to within a

given error of 0.01—i.e.. absolute values
of the length of fluid path (1
«)2exp(- \
-

measure 1
-

/(0 + ) + D/uL d J{0 + )/d{l/L) ab-

through the reactor. In cylindrical
reactors, this is measured most con-
veniently by the length of packed or

f l-X =
FRACTION OF REACTANT REMAINING
f = l-X FRACTION OF REACTANT REMAINING
=
=

Figure 3. The volume of an actual reactor with a given Figure 4. The volume of an actual reactor with a given
D/ui compared to that of the ideal reactor required for the D/uL compared to that of the ideal reactor required for the
same duty same duty
For a first-order reaction, analytical solution of the differential equation is For a second-order reaction, a numerical solution of differential equation
possible (7 7) was obtained on an IBM 650 computer

VOL. 51, NO. 12 · DECEMBER 1959 1433

solute values Z 0.01. If it was satisfied, Therefore, for the ideal case of plug flow Co =
initial concentration of reactant
the answers were punched out and a A, moles A/cu. ft.
¿To =
1.35 (3600) = 4860 hr."1
new set of values were calculated for dp
=
particle diameter in a packed
a different value of D/uL. If not For 12-Inch Reactor. The particle bed, ft.
satisfied, the initial assumed ordi- Reynolds number dt =
diameter of pipe or tubular
nate was corrected by the computer, and reactor, ft.
(0.25/12)(547) D =
longitudinal dispersion coeffi-
a new curve was calculated. This proc- dp Go/µ
(0.01 )(2.42) cient or the effective axial
ess was repeated until the boundary and from Figure 2, C, the local dispersion diffusion coefficient, sq. ft./
condition at the reactor inlet was satis- hr.
fied. The last corrected value of the reac-
number D/udp 0.55. At this point=

Dt =
molecular diffusion coefficient,
the unknown length, L, enters in both
tant concentration at the outlet was used
variables ¿T and D/uL, so the solution sq. ft./hr.
as the total conversion for plotting. D/ud =
local longitudinal dispersion
involves successive trials. number, a reciprocal Peclet
Figure 4 compares ideal and actual Assume to start that no backmixing
reactor sizes for a given feed rate. It was group for mass transfer, di-
occurs in this reactor. For this case mensionless
prepared by combining Equation 1 with D/uL
using the value of ¿T0 found above reactor longitudinal dispersion
=

the result of the trial and error numerical

vol. feed/hr. number, a reciprocal Peclet
analysis described above. ¿To = 4860 hr. ~4
group for mass transfer,
Fractional-Order Reaction. Inter- vol. reactor dimensionless
polation between Figures 3 and 4 allows 4000 f =
1 x, fraction of reactant A
—

estimation of reactor size to effect a (0.797)/, remaining, dimensionless

given conversion for fractional order Therefore the reactor depth F =
feed rate of A into reactor,
reactions involving a single reactant. moles A/hr.
L =
1.032 feet = 12.4 inches
Backmixing does not affect a zero-order
Go =
superficial mass velocity, lb./
Check the assumption of plug flow (hr.) (sq. ft.)
reaction.
made above. k =
reaction rate constant,
D/uL =
(D/udp)(dp/L) =

Example (C.55)(0.25/12.4) =
0.0111
l =
axial distance from entrance of
A gaseous material undergoes a com- From Figure 3
reactor, ft.
plex series of changes when in contact 1.03 s L =
length of pipe or reactor, ft.
with a solid catalyst. To investigate the V/Vo =
SV0/SV = 1
=
order of reaction as defined in
kinetics of this reaction a small labora- Therefore the assumption is justified, Equation 3
tory reactor is constructed consisting of a and L 12.4 inches.
= r =
reaction rate, rate of disappear-
1-inch schedule 40 pipe packed to a From this example, we see that back- ance of reactant A, moles A/
depth of 1.5 inches with solid Vi-inch mixing usually plays only a minor role in _ (hr.)(cu. ft.)
diameter catalyst pellets. For a feed SV =
F/VCo space velocity, hr.-1
large packed bed reactors, although it
rate of 2.7 cubic feet per hour or Go
u =
average velocity of flow, ft./hr.
may be significant in small laboratory-
=
V =
volume of reactor, cu. ft.
49 lb./hr.-sq. ft. the reactant is 99% reactors. x =
fraction of reactant A converted
decomposed. The reaction is of the into product, dimensionless
first order with respect to the reactant. Precautions e =
porosity, dimensionless
What depth of V4-inch diameter cat- µ =
viscosity, lb./(ft.) (hr.)
A number of precautions must be
alyst is required to yield a 99% decom- observed in applying this procedure in
p =
density, Ib./cu. ft.
position in a larger reactor to be con- the scale-up of process equipment.
structed of 12-inch schedule 30 pipe if the Subscripts
The first involves the isothermal require-
feed rate is 4000 cubic feet per hour or =
nonbackmix, slug or plug flow
ment. As heat effects depend on the
Go =
547 lb./hr.-sq. ft.? Additional situation
surface-volume ratio of the reactor,
information and assumptions: µ = m =
complete backmix or stirred
0.01 cp.; isothermal conditions through- scale-up will result in larger heat effects tank situation
and probably nonisothermal temperature
out and no net change in the number of
distributions which must be accounted
moles of material passing through the Literature Cited
for by a complex analysis or a mean
reactor; neglect any nonuniform flow reaction rate constant. Another pre- (1) Carberry, J. J., Bretton, R. H.,
patterns due to channeling at the pipe caution involves the unjudicious extra- A.I.Ch.E. Journal 4, 367 (1958).
wall. (2) Danckwerts, P. V., Chem. Eng. Sci. 2, 1
Solution. For 1-Inch Reactor. The polation of backmixing data from small (1953).
to large equipment. Gross flow pat-
particle Reynolds number (3) Deisler, P. F., Jr., Wilhelm, R. H.,
terns could vary considerably; this Ind. Eng. Chem. 45, 1219 (1958).
(0.25/12)(49) probably is the case between laboratory (4) Ebach, E. A., Ph.D. dissertation,
/µ _
'

42.2 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,

p
(0.01)(2.42) and industrial-sized fluidized units with
1957.
their different degrees of bypassing of the (5) Jacques, G. L., Vermeulen, T., U. of
From Figure 2, C, the local dispersion fluid in the form of bubbles. The
number Calif., Berkeley, Rept. UCRL-8029 (No-
degree of backmixing may' not be uni- vember 1957).
Dfudp = 0.5 form throughout a reactor because of (6) Kramers, H., Alberda, G., Chem. Eng.
Sci. 2, 173 (1953).
entrance effects, nonuniform cross sec- (7) Levenspiel, O., Ind. Eng. Chem. 50,
Thus the reactor dispersion number
tion, etc. This may be dealt with by 343 (1958).
DfuL (D/udp)(dp/L)
— =
using an average D/uL or going directly (8) McHenry, K. W., Jr., Wilhelm, R. H.,
to the distribution functions from which
A.I.Ch.E. Journal 3, 83 (1957).
(0.5)(0.25/1.5) = 0.0833
the D values are obtained. (9) Smith, J. M., “Chemical Engineering
Now from Figure 3 Kinetics,” Chap. 11, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1956.
Wo/SV =
V/Vo = 1.35 Nomenclature (10) Taylor, G. I., Proc. Roy. Soc. 219A,
186 (1953).
a = defined by Equation 9, dimen- (11) Wehner, J. F., Wilhelm, R. H.,
but for the experimental run
sionless Chem. Eng. Sci. 6, 89 (1956).
vol. feed/hr. A = reactant
gp, _

C concentration of A, moles A/ Received for review May 1, 1959

vol. reactor =

[2.7/(7.5 X 10"4)] = 3600 hr.-1 cu. ft. Accepted August 28, 1959

I 434 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY