CE 428 – HYDRAULICS (Lecture Notes)

Pipes & Pipes System

A pipe is a close conduit through which liquid or gases flow. In hydraulics, pipes are
understood to be conduits of circular cross-section.

Loss of Head in Pipes

In any flow through pipes, loss head occurs, the loss is caused by:

1. “Pipe Friction” along the straight sections of the pipe of uniform diameter and roughness.
2. Change in velocity or direction of flow.

Losses of these two types are referred to as:

1. Major loss – this is a continuous loss of head, hf , assumed to occur at a uniform rate along
the pipes as long as size and quality of pipe remain constant and commonly called the head loss
due to pipe friction.

hf = f L V2 Darcy – Weisbach Formula for head

D 2g loss due to friction

where: V = average velocity

f = friction factor
L = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe

2. Minor Losses – these consist of:

hc = loss of head due to contraction of cross-section area of the stream and resulting in the
increase of velocity. The head loss of the entrance to a pipe is a special case of loss due
to contraction.
he = loss of head due to enlargement of cross-section or due to an increase in the cross-
sectional area of the stream and resulting a decrease in velocity. The head loss at the
outlet end of a pipe where it discharges into a reservoir is a special case of loss due to
enlargement.
ho = loss of head due to obstructions, like gates, locks, or valves.
hb = loss of head due to bends or curves in the pipe.
Minor Losses Formulae:

hc = kc V2 ho = ko V2
2g 2g

he = ke V2 hb = kb V2
2g 2g

where: V = velocity of the smaller pipe

Hydraulic Radius (R)

- It is the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the stream over the welted perimeter.
R= A
P

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401

Wetted Perimeter (P)
- It is the line of intersection of the wetted surface of the conduit with a cross-
sectional plane.

R= D
4

R= D
4

Hydraulic Gradient (HG)

- also known as “pressure gradient”
- Is the graphical representation of the total potential energy flow. It is the line that
connects the water levels in successive piezometer tubes placed at intervals along
the pipe. Its distance from the datum plane is P/ϒ + z.
Characteristics of HG:
1. Slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to changes in
velocity or pressure.
2. For uniform pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure heads between any two
points is also equal to the head lost between these points.
Energy Gradient (EG)
- is above the HG, a distance equal to the velocity head at each section and is thus a
graphical representation with respect to a selected datum of the total energy head
and (velocity + pressure + elevation) which the liquid passes at all section of the
pipe.
Characteristics of EG:
1. Always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only rise with the pressure of
a pump.
2. The drop of the EG between any two points is the head lost between those points.
3. For uniform pipe cross-section, EG is parallel to the HG.
4. It is always above the HG by an amount equal to the velocity head, V2/2g.
5. Neglecting head loss, EG is horizontal.

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401