Assignment in

CE 512 – Structural Design II

(Timber Design)

Submitted by:

Rheajane P. Rioflorido

Submitted to:

Engr. Felix S. Licas

A Brief History of Timber as Construction Material

The importance of timber in the shaping of human history is paramount. For thousands of
years, it has remained one of the most valued natural resources. Today, timber trusses are used in the
construction of the large majority of residential homes, and it’s always interesting to look back on our
history and how certain discoveries and resources helped shape it. Let’s take a look at the history of
timber and construction through the ages.

Early Use: (Prior to Stone; Timber Ruled)

It’s quite difficult – if not, impossible – to ascertain how long timber has been used to build
shelter structures, given that it obviously far predates historical records and likely even language. In
all likelihood, humans in our modern form in the Paleolithic age would have used timber tens of
thousands of years ago frequently for tools and other purposes in day to day life. Prior to the Stone
Age, timber would have been the main resource from which to build just about anything and
everything. The crafting all manner of items crucial to survival, including weapons to hunt protect
ourselves with, canoes and rafts to move on water and of course shelter.

The image below is an artist’s interpretation of early human shelters, which were put together with
wood and stones. There is evidence to suggest that these temporary wood houses were prominent in
certain parts of Europe 40,000 years ago.

Not to mention, cutting down trees and using the timber for firewood is thought to have been crucial
for human existence in the first place. Needless to say, the use of timber was the most important
natural resource pre-civilization.

Timber Framing: Historically Popular Construction Material

Timber framing, whereby construction involves fitting cut-off pieces of timber together to create the
frame, is thought to have emerged in the Neolithic period, or the last period of the Stone Age.
Interestingly, the method of timber framing and the styles of structures that were built depended
greatly on the type of trees available in the region. There is evidence to suggest that timber framing
techniques were used all over Europe and in part of Asia during this time, where hardwood tree
including oak and maple, are in abundance. In comparison, in colder climates such as northern Europe
and parts of Russia, the log home was preferred, given that timber was quite tall in these areas. The
ready availability of timber in Euro Asia is considered as one of the contributing factors to the rise of
Western civilization.

In some ways, it’s quite amazing that the same material early humans were using thousands of years
ago is still one of the most important materials we use in the building of houses every day. Timber
remains the preferred material for the framing of residential homes for a variety of reasons including
the fact that it is readily available and renewable, it conducts heat and it’s inexpensive and easy to use.
Properties of Wood

Physical Properties

Density

Lesson 1 showed that wood is a porous material made up of cells of various kinds. Depending on the
nature of these cells, some woods have more or less solid wood substance for a given sized piece. If
you think of a brick of Swiss cheese (with all its holes) and an identical-size brick of cheddar, you can
guess that the cheddar brick contains more cheese. So with wood, the fewer holes (cells), the more
wood substance.

The amount of wood substance for a given volume determines density. Woods with more weight for a
given volume have a higher density than woods with less weight. Both weight and volume of wood
are affected by the amount of moisture it contains. Therefore, when specifying density it is important
to also state moisture conditions. For example, the density of air-dried balsam fir is 430. This means it
weighs 430 kg. per m3, at 12 percent moisture content - a standard for strength testing and density
measurement. By comparison, the density of red spruce is 450; and sugar maple, is 740, again both in
the air-dry condition.

Density is an excellent indicator of wood strength; the higher the density the stronger the wood.
However, a wood with a density of 600 may not be twice as strong as one with a density of 300. It
depends on the strength properties being discussed. For example, the amount of deflection of wood in
response to a load (modulus of elasticity), as in a joist or rafter, is an important strength property. The
actual breaking strength of the piece, rupture (modulus of rupture), is also important.

Growth Rate

It has been shown how rate of growth affects the mechanical properties of wood. But how does
growth rate affect density? There are no hard and fast rules applying to all species, on how growth
affects density. Individual species, or groups of species, must be considered to get some idea how rate
of growth affects density, and in turn, strength.

Growth rate affects the density of softwood differently for different species. In general, density values
fall off more severely with very rapid growth, than with very slow growth. The optimum being
something in between. The pulp and paper industry found out long ago that maximum yield of pulp
was not simply an expression of volume of wood per hectare but had a lot to do with growth rate of
the trees.

The effect of growth rate on density is easier to predict for hardwoods. Density of diffuse-porous
species - maples, birches, and beech -do not vary with growth except perhaps for extremely slow
growth. On the other hand, ring-porous species - oak and ash - show highest densities (and strength)
for moderately rapid growth. Very slow growth in this group results in marked reduction of density.
For hardwoods, strength is usually not a critical property.

Hardwoods are used more for their appearance and decorative features. However, for pallets, frame
stock, and timbers, strength is a factor.

Timber showing the greatest proportion of latewood - with thick-walled cells - has the highest density
and in turn strength. Both growth rate and percentage of latewood are used in certain grading rules for
some species. When safety factors are especially important such as for scaffolding or bridge work,
inspectors visually check the ends of timbers for percentage latewood.

Moisture Content

Free Water and Bound Water

Water exists in wood as either free water or bound water. Free water occurs within a cell cavity as a
liquid. It is the easiest and first to be removed during drying. This free water moves toward the end
surfaces through connecting cells, and laterally through the pits of neighbouring cells. It is evaporated
from the wood faces as well as the ends. The point at which all free water is removed from the cell
cavity is known as the fibre saturation point (fsp) and is reached at around 30 percent moisture
content.

Bound water is moisture absorbed within the cell wall. This water is molecularly bound to the wood
molecules of the cell. It is therefore much more difficult to remove than free water. Figure 9 shows
this process. Shrinkage takes place only when bound water is removed.

Effect of Moisture Loss on Strength

The loss of free water, down to the fsp, has no effect on the strength of wood. However, when bound
water begins to be removed, most strength properties increase. The increase in strength is directly
related to the amount of moisture removed. Thus, other things being equal, a spruce 2 x 4 (stud) is
stronger at 18 percent moisture content than one green from the saw.

Other Properties Affecting Strength

Slope of Grain

This refers to a deviation of the line of longitudinal cells, to a straight line parallel to the sides of the
piece of lumber. It may be caused by an abnormal growth pattern in the tree, or how the log was sawn.
It is usually expressed as a ratio; for example, 1 in 12 (finch of slope in 12-inches length). A slope of
grain of 1 in 6 results in a 60 percent reduction in bending strength (strength of a horizontal beam,
such as a floor joist, for example). A 1 in 16 slope causes only a 20 percent reduction (see Figure 7).
Most lumber grading rules specify the maximum slope of grain permitted in the grade.

Knots

Knots, common in sawn products, are caused by limbs on the tree stem. When a saw cuts through a
limb (or its stub) a knot remains. Depending on the angle of both the limb and the saw, a round knot,
an oval knot, or a spike knot (longitudinal) will result. For strength purposes knots are classified by
size, number, form, and quality. The first two classes are self-evident. Knot form and quality are
described as: tight, loose, intergrown, firm and rotten. Most grading rules take these factors into
account.

Shakes and Checks

These are separations occurring in the wood. Shakes parallel to the annual rings are called ring shake
and those in the heart of the tree and perpendicular to the annual rings are called star shake. In living
trees, both forms of shake are caused by wounds, but not all wounds result in shake. Factors that may
extend the formation of shake are, internal growth stresses, bending of the tree by wind and the
freezing of free water within the cells. Checks are generally produced in the rays of sawn-wood
products during drying. Depending on their severity, checks and shakes have a very great affect in
reducing the strength of wood.

Decay

Decay, or rot; is not permitted in wood used for structural purposes. Recognizing decay in wood is
very important. Most decay in wood is caused by fungi. Some of these mushroom like organisms (see
Figure 11) attack the wood, eventually destroying its cellular structure. Fungi may originate in the
growing tree or the wood may become infected after it is in use. Most fungi originating in the growing
tree do not continue to degrade the wood during use.

The most serious and common type of wood decay in softwoods in Canada is known as brown rot, or
brown cubical rot. It is caused by two fungi and proceeds very quickly under favourable conditions
for rot. These fungi cause most of the extensive losses from decay in wooden buildings in North
America. In hardwoods, the white rots are most common.

Stains, Molds, and Bacteria

Stains and molds in wood are not as serious as decay and are usually accepted in structural timber in
local markets. Stain may be caused by fungi and is often an indication of worse things to come.
Usually, molds and stain fungi merely give an unpleasant colour to the wood. One common example
is the sap staining fungi causing blue-stain in green wood. Bacteria, another type of organism that
attacks wood, and was once thought to result in little damage is now known to produce enzymes,
which cause shakes in red oak. During kiln drying of red oak affected by these bacteria,
honeycombing and serious checking may often develop.

Conditions Promoting Decay

To develop and cause wood damage, fungi requires food, air, moisture, and warmth. If any one of
these conditions is removed, the fungi will die or remain dormant. One of the most common
misconceptions and misused terms is `dry-rot'; often used to describe the brown cubical rot mentioned
earlier. The dry condition may be due to the time one observes the damage - long after the rot has
taken place and perhaps on a dry day. Decay will not proceed unless there is sufficient moisture
available. The critical moisture content below which fungi cannot function is 20 percent.

Characteristics of Wood

Wood is a I–41 fibrous tissue found in many plants. It has been used for centuries ice noth fuel and as
a construction material. It is composed of 2 natural composite of cellulose fibers (which are strong in
tension .) embedded in a matrix of lignin. Lignin resists compression. W md is produced as secondary
xylem in the stems of trees. In a living tree it transfers water and nutrients to the leaves and other
growing tissues. It has a support function, enabling woody plants to reach large sizes or to stand up
for themselves.

Formation

Wood is yielded by trees. A tree increases in diameter by the formation of new woody layers between
the existing wood and the inner bark. It envelops the entire stem, living branches, and roots.
Technically this is known as secondary growth. Secondary growth takes place by the cell division in
the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem, and subsequent expansion of the new cells.
Growth rings

In some areas like Pakistan, there are clear seasons. Here growth can occur in a discrete annual or
seasonal pattern, leading to growth rings. These rings can be clearly seen on the end of a log. These
are also visible on the other surfaces. If these seasons are annual these growth rings are called as
annual rings. Where there is no seasonal difference growth rings may be indistinct or absent. In some
cases, there are differences within a growth ring. Wood is divided into two types on the basis of type
of growth rings:

a) Early wood or springwood: The part of a growth ring nearest the center of the tree arc formed early
in the growing season. Growth is rapid during these seasons. They are composed of wider elements. It
is lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring. It is known 3S early wood or
springwood.

b) Late wood or summer wood; The outer portion formed later in the season is then known as fir:
latewood or summer wood.

Knots

A knot is a particular type of imperfection in a piece of wood. It will affect the technical properties of
the wood. It makes the wood imperfect. But knots may be exploited for artistic effect. In a
longitudinally sawn plank, a knot will appear as a roughly circular solid piece of wood. The grains of
the rest of the wood flow around this piece of wood. Within a knot, the direction of the wood (grain
direction) is up to 90 degrees different from the grain direction of the regular wood.

1. Heartwood and sapwood

a) Heart wood: Heartwood (or “xylem”) is wood that as a result of tylosis become more resistant to
decay. Tylosis is the deposition of chemical substances (a genetically programmed process). Once
heartwood formation is complete, the heartwood is dead. Some uncertainty still exists as to whether
heartwood is truly dead, as it can still chemically react to decay organisms. Usually heartwood looks
different; in that case it can be seen on a cross-section. Heartwood may (or may not) be much darker
than living wood. It may (or may not) be sharply distinct from the sapwood. However, other
processes, such as decay, can discolor wood, even in woody plants. The term heartwood derives from
its position and not from any vital importance to the tree. A tree can thrive with its heart completely
decayed.

b) Sapwood: Sapwood is the younger, outermost wood. In the growing tree it is living wood. Its
principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves. It also store up and give back
aecording to the season the reserves prepared in the leaves. All xylem tracheids and vessels have lost
their cytoplasm and the cells are therefore functionally dead in sapwood. All wood in a tree is first
formed as sapwood. The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the
volume of sapwood required. Hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker sapwood for
their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests. Sometimes trees grown in the open
may become of considerable size, 30 cm or more in diameter, before the formation of heartwood.
Some species begin to form heartwood very early in life. Therefore, they have only a thin layer of live
sapwood. But in others the change comes slowly. Thin sapwood is characteristic of such species as
chestnut, black locust, mulberry, osage-orange, and sassafras. But it is thick in maple, ash, hickory,
hackberry, beech, and pine. Some others never form heartwood.
Hard and soft woods

There is a strong relationship between the properties of wood and the properties of the particular tree
that yielded it. For every tree species there is a range of density for the wood it yields. There is a
rough correlation between density of a wood and its strength (mechanical properties). For example,
mahogany is a medium-dense hardwood. It is excellent for fine furniture crafting, making it useful for
model building. The densest wood may be black ironwood.

It is common to classify wood as either softwood or hardwood.

a) The wood from conifers (e.g. pine) is called softwood.

b) The wood from dicotyledons (usually broad-leaved trees, e.g. oak) is called hardwood.

These names are a bit misleading, as hardwoods are not necessarily hard, and softwoods are not
necessarily soft. The well-known balsa (a hardwood) is actually softer than any commercial softwood.
Conversely, some softwood (e.g. yew) are harder than many hardwoods.

Color

Some species show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood. In these species, natural
color of heartwood is darker than that of the sapwood. Very frequently the contrast is conspicuous.
This is produced by deposition of chemical substances in the heartwood. A dramatic color difference
does not mean a dramatic difference in the mechanical properties of heartwood and sapwood. Some
experiments on very resin( us Longleaf Pine specimens indicate an increase in strength, due to the
resin. It increases the strength when wood is dry. Such resin-sat irated heartwood is called fat lighter.
Structures built of fat lighter are r Dt attacked by termites. But they are very flammable. Stumps of
old ilngleaf pines are often dug and split into small pieces. These are sold as kindling for fires. Stumps
thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut. Abnormal discoloration of wood
often denotes a diseased condition, indicating unsoundness. The black check in western hemlock is
the result of insect attacks.

Structure

Wood is a heterogeneous, hygroscopic, cellular and anisotropic material. It is composed of cells.

Theircell walls are composed of micro-fibrils of cellulose (40% — 50%) and hemicelluloses (15% —
25%) impregnated with lignin (15% — 30%). The cells are mostly of one kind, tracheids. They are
much more uniform in structure than that of most hardwoods. There are no vessels (“pores”) in
coniferous wood such as one sees so prominently in oak and ash. The structure of hardwoods is more
complex. The water conducting capability is depends on vessels. In some cases (oak, chestnut, ash)
vessels are quite large and distinct. But in others (buckeye, poplar, willow) it is too small to be seen
without a hand lens. Such woods are divided into two large classes, ring-porous and diffuse-porous.

a) Ring porous species:. In ring-porous species, the larger vessels or pores are localized in the part
of the growth ring formed in spring. Thus they form a region of more or less open and porous tissue.
The rest of the ring, produced in summer, is made up of smaller vessels. It is composed of much
greater proportion of wood fibers. These fiber are the elements which give strength and toughness to
wood. But the vessels are a source of weakness. Such wood is present in ash, black locust, catalpa,
chestnut, elm, hickory, mulberry, and oak,
b) Diffused porous woods: In this case, the pores are evenly sized. Therefore, water conducting
capability is scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or row.
Examples of this kind of wood are basswood, birch, buckeye, maple, poplar, and willow. Intermediate
groups: Some species, such as walnut and cherry, are on the border between the two classes, forming
an intermediate group.

Early wood and latewood in softwood

In temperate softwoods there often is a marked difference between latewood and early wood. The
latewood will be denser than that .formed early in the season. When examined under a microscope the
cells of dense latewood are very thick-walled. They have very small cell cavities. But those formed
first in the season have thin walls and large cell cavities. The strength is in the walls, not the cavities.
Thus there is greater the proportion of latewood the greater the density and strength. In choosing a
piece of pine the principal thing to observe is the comparative amounts of early wood and latewood.
The width of ring is not nearly so important as the proportion and nature of the latewood in the ring.

a) Early v ad and latewood in ring-porous woods: In the case of the ring-porous hardwoods there
seems to exist a pretty definite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties.
Generally, if there is more rapid growth or the wider the rings of growth, the heavier, harder, stronger,
and stiffer the wood. This, it must be remembered, applies only to ring-porous woods such as oak,
ash, hickory, and others of the same group, and is, of course, subject to some exceptions and
limitations.

b) Early wood and latewood in diffuse-porous woods: In the diffuse-porous woods, the demarcation
between rings is not always so clear. In some cases, it is almost (if not entirely) invisible to the
unaided eye. Conversely, when there is a clear demarcation there may not be a noticeable difference
in structure within the growth ring. In diffuse-porous woods, the vessels or pores are even-sized, so
that the water conducting capability is scattered throughout the ring instead of collected in the early
wood. The effect of rate of growth is, therefore, not the same as in the ring-porous woods,
approaching more nearly the conditions in the conifers.

Monocot wood

Some structural material roughly resembles ordinary, dicot or conifer wood. These are produced by a
number of monocot plants. These also are called wood. Its example is bamboo. It is a member of the
grass family. It has considerable economic importance. Large culms are widely used as a building and
construction material. Another major plant group is called wood are the palms. Of much less
importance are plants such as Pandanus, Dracaena and Cordyline. With all this material, the structure
and composition of the structural material is quite different from ordinary wood.

10. Water content

Water occurs in living wood in three conditions, namely: I. In the cell walls In the protoplasmic
contents of the cells. As free water in the cell cavities and spaces. In heartwood it occurs only in the
First and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains from 8-16% of water in the cell walls.
The oven-dried wood also retains a small percentage of moisture. The water contents make the wood
softer and more pliable. A similar effect is in the softening action of water on paper or cloth. Within
certain limits, the greater the water content, the greater its softening effect.
Modulus of Elasticity

Elasticity implies that deformations produced by low stress are completely recoverable after loads are
removed. When loaded to higher stress levels, plastic deformation or failure occurs. The three moduli
of elasticity, which are denoted by EL, ER, and ET, respectively, are the elastic moduli along the
longitudinal, radial, and tangential axes of wood. These moduli are usually obtained from
compression tests; however, data for ER and ET are not extensive. Average values of ER and ET for
samples from a few species are presented in Table 4-1 as ratios with EL; the Poisson’s ratios are
shown in Table 4–2. The elastic ratios, as well as the elastic constants themselves, vary within and
between species and with moisture content and specific gravity.

The modulus of elasticity determined from bending, EL, rather than from an axial test, may be the only
modulus of elasticity available for a species. Average EL values obtained from bending tests are given
in Tables 4–3 to 4–5. Representative coefficients of variation of EL determined with bending tests for
clear wood are reported in Table 4–6. As tabulated, EL includes an effect of shear deflection; EL from
bending can be increased by 10% to remove this effect approximately.

This adjusted bending EL can be used to determine ER based on the ratios in Table 4–1.and ET.
Photos of Woods as Structural Members

Wood as Columns

Wood as beam

Wood as Slab
Wood as truss

Wood as framing