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Balancing Content and Language in Instruction: The Experience of Immersion Teachers
Author(s): LAURENT CAMMARATA and DIANE J. TEDICK

Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 96, No. 2 (Summer 2012), pp. 251-269
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
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Balancing Content and Language in
Instruction: The Experience of
Immersion Teachers
LAURENT CAMMARATA DIANE J. TEDICK
University of Alberta University of Minnesota
Education , Campus St. Jean Department of Curriculum and Instruction
1-94 McMahon 254 Peik Hall
8406, rue Marie-Anne Gaboury (91 St.) 159 Pillsbury Dr. SE
Edmonton, AB T6C 4G9, Canada Minneapolis, MN 55455
Email'.laurent. cammarata@ualberta. ca Email: djtedick@umn. edu
Research on immersion teaching has consistently shown that immersion teachers tend to focus
on subject matter content at the expense of language teaching. The response to that research
has often entailed suggestions for teachers on how better to integrate language and content
in their instruction. However, missing from the discussion are rich descriptions of the actual
experiences that immersion teachers have as they attempt to balance language and content in
their teaching. This phenomenological study aims to address this gap by exploring teachers'
lived experience with content and language integration. In this article, authors report on
findings suggesting that immersion teachers' experience with balancing language and content
is a multifaceted struggle involving issues related to teacher identity, stakeholder expectations,
and understandings regarding the relationship between language and content. Implications
for school-based support for immersion programs as well as calls for reform in immersion
teacher preparation and professional development are shared.
MANY COUNTRIES AROUND THE WORLD guage. That is, language is used as the vehicle
today have implemented language immersion
for teaching the subject matter content that com-
programs. These programs can take many prises
forms,the school curriculum of the local district.
have many variations, and are described Many
with challenges associated with the implemen-
terms like "one-way," "two-way," and indige-
tation of immersion programs point to the com-
nous immersion, partial/ total, early/late, and that balancing content and language rep-
plexity
50:50/90:10 (Fortune & Tedick, 2008). They are for immersion teachers. We have yet to
resents
geared toward responding to a wide varietyunderstand,
of so- however, what balancing content and
cietal challenges that may range from repairing
language really means for the teachers themselves.
injustices committed in the past as a result of colo-
Thus, a question such as the following demands
nization, as in the case of indigenous language im-
exploration: What is immersion teachers' expe-
mersion, to responding to needs stemming from
rience of attempting to balance content and lan-
the metamorphosis of societies into multiethnic,
guage in instruction? This is the overarching ques-
multicultural, and multilingual entities that must
tion guiding this study.1
find ways to cohabitate and collaborate with each
other.
Fundamental to the curriculum of immersion BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
programs is the integration of content and lan-
Immersion Definition and Main Models
The Modern Language Journal , 96, ii, (2012)
DOI: 10.1 111/j. 1540-4781. 2012.01330.x One of the most comprehensive definitions
0026-7902/ 1 2/25 1-269 $1 .50/0 of immersion to date is that provided by Lyster
©2012 The Modern Language Journal (2007):
252 The Modern Language Journal 96 (2012)
[Immersion is] a form of bilingual education
and "subtractive thatto describe transi-
bilingualism"
aims for additive bilingualism tional
by providing students
bilingual programs for language minority
with a sheltered classroom environment in which
children (which theyfor the continued
do not allow
receive at least half of their subject-matter instruc- of the children's
development and maintenance
tion through the medium of a language that they are
first language [LI]), Lambert (1984) clarifies:
learning as a second, foreign, heritage, or indigenous
language. In addition, they receive
To placesome instruction
[language minority] children in an initially
through the medium of [the majority language]
all-English instructional in would be to misap-
program
the community, (p. 8) 2 ply the immersion process in a harmful, subtractive
way. Their personal identities, their early conceptual
One-way (foreign language) immersion
development, pro-
their chances for competing or suc-
grams, which began in 1965 in
ceeding in Canada
schools or in with
occupations, and their in-
the St. Lambert experiment terest
(Lambert
in trying to8c Tucker,
succeed would all be hampered by
1972), are designed for a language majority program,
an immersion-in-English (e.g., (p. 26)
English-speaking) student audience, although in-
creasingly one-way immersion Cazden (1992) explains
classrooms are pop-that for these U.S.
ulated by learners who may "structured
not share English
the immersion"
same programs, the
term "immersion" was chosen "after the successful
home language though they often know the ma-
French programs
jority language of the community for English-speaking
(e.g., Dage- children
nais, 2008; Swain & Lapkin, in 2005).
Canada" (p.Originating
1). One might speculate that this
label was
in the United States, two-way deliberately selected
bilingual immer- to associate these
subtractive programs
sion programs "are an amalgam of one-way im- with the many successes of
the authentic immersion
mersion programs for majority language students model, which have been
and developmental bilingual documented
programs in myriad
forstudies for over 4 decades.
minor-
Continued 2008,
ity language students" (Genesee, use of "immersion"
p. 27). to Asidentify these
subtractive models runs
such, they target a combined student audience of the risk of damaging the
reputation of authentic
language minority (e.g., Spanish) and language immersion programs that
strive for additive
majority speakers. The principal aims bilingualism
of both and biliteracy.
one-way and two-way programs To trulyaredeserve
tothe label "immersion," edu-
promote
cational programs must
additive bilingualism and biliteracy, academichave the following char-
achievement, and intercultural acteristics (Fortune & Tedick, 2008, pp. 9-10):
understanding.
Indigenous immersion programs (a) instructional use of the enroll
typically immersion language
heritage language learners, (IL) to teach subject
children with matter
Nativefor at least 50%
American (or "First Nation" of the
orpreschool or elementary
Aboriginal) an-day (typically
cestry, though they are increasingly open to non-at the mid-
up to Grade 5 or 6); if continued
heritage learners. Indigenous dle/secondary
programs level, a minimum
mayofbe two year-long
one-way or two-way depending content on courses
theismakeupcustomary and, of during that
the student population. The time, all instruction
primary occurs in the of
purpose IL;3 (b) promo-
indigenous immersion programs is to revitalize and bi- or
tion of additive bi- or multilingualism
endangered Native languages multilingual
and culturesliteracy with sustained
while and enriched
promoting academic achievement instruction through
and atdevelop-
least two languages; (c) em-
ment of the majority language. ployment of teachers who are fully proficient in
Unfortunately, the term the language (s) they use is
"immersion" for also
instruction; (d) re-
often misapplied in educational settings. It is language in the
liance on support for the majority
not uncommon for educators to label a lan- community at large for language majority speak-
guage program "immersion" when the second ers and home language support for the minor-
ity language for language minority speakers (in
language (L2) is used exclusively for instruction.
two-way programs); and (e) clear separation of
So-called structured English immersion, created
teacher use of one language versus another for
when bilingual education programs for language
minority students became illegal throughsustained
legis- periods of time.
lation in the states of California, Arizona, and
Massachusetts, is a particularly inaccurateBenefits
label. of Immersion
Wallace Lambert, a key player in the Canadian
"St. Lambert Experiment," observed misappro- The benefits of immersion programs have long
been empirically documented. English-speaking
priation of the immersion term in the 1980s.
Coining the phrases "additive bilingualism" immersion
to de- students of various academic abil-
ities, regardless of ethnic or socioeconomic
scribe immersion for language majority students
Laurent Cammarata and Diane J. Tedick 253
backgrounds, are capable of TWI, research findshigh
achieving that learners
lev- who are dom-
els of functional proficiencyinantin in the
the IL at the start of the program may
immersion
language while at the same become
timedominant
achieving in English
aca-by the upper ele-
demically as well as or better
mentarythan and middle
nonimmer- school grades and at times
produceadministered
sion peers on standardized tests grammatically inaccurate
in utterances
English (Caldas 8c Boudreaux,(Fortune, 2001; Potowski,
1999; Genesee, 2007). In both one-
1987, 2004; Holobow, Genesee, 8c two-way
way and Lambert, programs,1991;
researchers have re-
Krueger, 2001; Lambert 8c Tucker, 1972;
ported increased studentSlaugh-
use of English even dur-
ter, 1997; Swain 8c Lapkin, ing
1982; Turnbull,
IL instructional Lap- 2001; Fortune,
time (Broner,
kin, 8c Hart, 2001). Research2001; Potowski,
finds 2007). Some
evidence immersion teach-
for
greater cognitive flexibilityers
(Bruck, Lambert,
of upper elementary 8creport concerns
grades
Tucker, 1976; Lazuruk, 2007), and
about better
teaching nonver-
advanced-level subject matter be-
bal problem-solving abilities among
cause students'foreign lan- is not strong
language proficiency
enough to engage
guage (one-way) immersion students the more complex
(Bamford 8c academic
Mizokawa, 1991). content (Fortune, Tedick, 8c Walker, 2008; Walker
A number of large-scale 8cstudies
Tedick, 2000).and
The samemeta-
concern is voiced
analyses of program effectiveness research
among secondary have
teachers, some of whom resort
revealed two-way immersion to(TWI)
teaching to be
in the the
LI so most
as not to interrupt subject
effective program model for matterlanguage minority
instruction (Hoare & Kong, 2008).
learners (Collier 8c Thomas, 2004; Lindholm- Many speculate that a lack of systematic atten-
Leary 8c Borsato, 2006; Rolstad, Mahoney, 8c Glass, tion to language development during subject mat-
2005; Slavin 8c Cheung, 2005; Thomas 8c Collier, ter instruction contributes to the less than optimal
1997, 2002). In general, research has shown levels of immersion language proficiency summa-
that language minority learners in TWI (typically rized earlier (e.g., Chaudron, 1986; Fortune et al.,
Spanish speakers but speakers of other languages, 2008; Harley, 1984; Hoare 8c Kong, 2008; Lyster,
as well) outperform over the long term their peers 2007; Lyster 8c Ranta, 1997; Swain, 1988). Previ-
who are educated only through the medium of ous studies on immersion teaching have revealed
English (e.g., Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Thomas 8c that subject matter teaching is the primary con-
Collier, 1997, 2002). Studies have further shown cern among immersion teachers (e.g., Fortune
that both language minority and majority learn- et al., 2008; Hoare, 2001; Walker 8c Tedick, 2000) .
ers achieve academically on a par with peers Although immersion teachers perceive that they
schooled in English and demonstrate high levels are "always teaching language," they do not con-
of academic achievement in their respective L2s sistently or systematically balance language and
(see Lindholm-Leary 8c Borsato, 2006; Lindholm- content in instruction (Fortune et al., 2008).
Leary 8c Howard, 2008, for reviews) . Scholars have offered many thoughtful sugges-
tions for helping teachers to achieve a balance be-
Immersion Challenges tween language and content to optimize the lan-
guage learning potential of immersion (e.g., Met,
Despite the well-documented and acclaimed 2008; Met 8c Lorenz, 1997; Snow, Met, 8c Genesee,
benefits of immersion, these programs do expe- 1989; Swain, 2001). For example, Snow, Met, and
rience a number of challenges. Primary among Genesee (1989) describe the need for immersion
them are documented deficiencies in the lan- and other teachers practicing content-based in-
guage proficiency acquired by immersion stu- struction (CBI), a curricular approach that em-
dents. Since the 1970s, studies have shown that phasizes the teaching of language through con-
while immersion students acquire native-liketent, re- to identify two types of language objectives
ceptive skills, their productive skills remain lack-(content-obligatory and content-compatible) to
ing. The language they acquire typically lacks maximize student language learning and use. Met
grammatical accuracy, lexical specificity and(2008) va- discusses the interdependence between
riety, and is less complex and sociolinguistically language, literacy, and academic achievement and
less appropriate (Harley, 1984, 1992; Mougeon, offers immersion teachers excellent strategies for
Nadasdi, 8c Rehner, 2010; Pawley, 1985; Salomone, building students' vocabulary and for maximiz-
1992; Spilka, 1976). Students' immersion lan- ing student language learning and use through
guage also becomes increasingly anglicized over collaborative work.
time (Lyster, 1987), and is limited to a more It may also be the case that L2 acquisition in
formal academic discourse style (Fortune, 2001; immersion may be improved by allowing for some
Potowski, 2007; Tarone 8c Swain, 1995). Even in
strategic use of the LI. Immersion programs have
Whereas most
traditionally adhered to separation of of the research thus far has fo-
instruc-
tional languages, particularly oncused
the on part
studentof
LI use in immersion, McMillan
teach-
and Turnbull
ers but also on the part of students (2009) recently
as they gain reported on a
small case study of princi-
L2 proficiency over time. The instructional two immersion teachers' LI
ple of language separation was initially articulated
use. They explored teachers' code-switching be-
by Lambert and Tucker (1972)haviorsin thein Grade 7 late French
context of immersion in
their evaluation of the St. Lambert French
Canada immer-
and linked those behaviors to the teach-
sion program. Others (e.g., Legarreta-Marcaida,
ers' beliefs and attitudes. They conclude with
1981; Milk, 1982; Wong Fillmore, a call 1982)
to rethinkcalled for
French-language-only policies
separation of instructional languages and recommendin bilingual
future research and professional
education largely in response to the negative
development im-
that will help teachers create per-
pact of concurrent translationsonalized approachesclass-
in bilingual to LI and L2 use in im-
rooms. Cummins (2007) points out that
mersion that the in- and theoretically
are pedagogically
structional principle of language separation "has
principled.
become axiomatic in the implementation These scholars whoofadvocate
sec- for some LI use
ond language immersion and most dual argue
in immersion language
that immersion learners in-
programs" (p. 223) . For some time evitablynow makethis axiom
cross-linguistic connections, and
has been challenged by researchers. that teachers should learn pedagogical strategies
Although relatively few studies to helpon LI use
students have
apply these connections in ways
been carried out in immersion contexts
that enhance both toLIdate,
and L2 learning. However,
some scholars have argued that LI use
precisely what may
form suchbe strategies should take
beneficial. Behan and Turnbull (1997) found and how they should be used in immersion teach-
that late French immersion Grade 7 learners ing to maximize L2 acquisition have yet to be
in Canada used LI for task management,fully in- understood. Clearly, much more research is
formation sharing, and vocabulary searches needed
and in this area.
concluded that "LI use can both support and This discussion on challenges and suggestions
enhance L2 development, functioning simultane-for optimizing the language learning potential
ously as an effective tool for dealing with cogni-
of immersion clearly demonstrates that the "con-
tent" that immersion teachers must know and
tively demanding content" (p. 41). Cohen (1994)
know how to teach is comprised of both subject
found that Spanish immersion 3rd to 5th graders
matter content (mathematics, social studies, etc.)
in the United States preferred English for cog-
nitive processing of mathematics problems pre-and language (functional linguistics) . Thus, their
"pedagogical content knowledge" (Shulman,
sented in Spanish. In a study with Grade 8 French
immersion students in Canada, Swain and Lapkin 1986, 1987) represents a dynamic amalgam of
(2000) found students to use the LI to move ways of representing and presenting both subject
the task along (sequencing, understanding, task matter content and language that make it compre-
management), focus their attention (vocabulary hensible to the learners and that elicit learners'
searches, retrieving grammatical information, ex- language use. Previous research strongly suggests
plaining), and interact interpersonal^ (off-task that most immersion teachers lack pedagogical
communication and disagreements). They con- content knowledge when it comes to language.
cluded that "judicious use of the LI can indeed However, what it takes for immersion teachers
support L2 learning and use" (p. 268). At the to systematically and meaningfully integrate lan-
same time, they cautioned that LI use should not guage in the context of their content teaching has
be "actively encouraged as it may substitute for, yet to be fully understood.
rather than support, second language learning" Despite the wealth of research findings on
(p. 268) . In a two-way immersion setting in New language development in immersion and other
York, Garcia (201 1 ) found that kindergartners en- scholarship to date, our understanding about
gage in "translanguaging," or hybrid practices of content and language integration in immersion
"languaging" bilingually (Garcia, 2009), to me- teaching remains incomplete. Missing are descrip-
diate understanding, construct meaning, include tions of immersion teachers' actual experience
and exclude other children, and show knowledge. with attempting to balance content and language
Garcia (2011) argues that students in bilingual in their instruction. We argue that our current
contexts, particularly Latino learners, " appropriate lack of knowledge regarding immersion teachers'
the use of language as they use their entire lin- actual lived experiences prevents us from fully un-
guistic repertoires flexibly" (p. 54, emphasis in derstanding the key issues at the core of content
the original) . and language integration.
The review of research suggests teachers learn tothatembed athefocus onna-

language in
ture of immersion teachers' experience
the context with
of subject matter at-
teaching.
tempting to attend to bothTwo previous studies
content and (Cammarata,
language 2009, 2010)
instruction is extremely complex, set out to explore important to
the CBI learning experience
study, and yet to be understood. of the group Focused
of K-12 FL teachers.
on im- To accom-
mersion teachers' experience, the
plish this goal, apresent study
reflective lifeworld research ap-
attempts to bridge this gap proachin our understand-
to phenomenological inquiry was adopted
ing by exploring the following interrelated
to gain a detailed ques-
description of the phenomenon
tions: What is it like for immersion teachers to under investigation. This particular approach to
attempt to balance content and language instruc- phenomenology builds on Husserl's (1936/1970)
tion? What does the experience of balancing con- original transcendental phenomenology and Mer-
tent and language in instruction really meanleau to Ponty's lifeworld phenomenology (Dahlberg
immersion teachers? et al., 2008). The principal aim of this form of
inquiry is to describe "the world the way it is expe-
THE STUDY
rienced by humans; what the world is and means
to humans" (p. 36) . In this way, phenomenology
Research Methodology and Study Context tries to answer fundamental questions regarding
human experiences.
We have adopted phenomenology as the re-
The study presented here aims at exploring the
search approach for this study because it livedis par-
experience of the immersion group of teach-
ticularly well suited for exploring human ers experi-
involved in the year-long PD program. Moving
ences and the meanings human beings attribute beyond the focus of the aforementioned studies,
to those experiences. Although phenomenology the goal of this particular exploration was to clar-
is not a unified tradition, its many variations
ifyshare
immersion teachers' experience of trying to bal-
a common view toward research by positing ancethat
the teaching of both content and language , a
balance that CBI and effective immersion teach-
science cannot be dissociated from the lifeworld,
that is, "the whole in which we live as historical
ing require. Because the questions asked here
creatures" (Gadamer, 1995/1960, p. 247, aswere
citedalso related to teachers' lived experience,
in Dahlberg, Dahlberg, & Nyström, 2008, the p. 35).
use of a reflective lifeworld research approach
In this study we tapped into the lived experi-
to phenomenological inquiry was again deemed
ence of three immersion teachers who had thepar-
most fitting methodology.
ticipated in a year-long professional development
(PD) program designed to expose both K-12 for-
Participant Selection
eign language (FL) teachers as well as immersion
teachers to a variety of ways to attend to Because
both phenomenological inquiry focuses on
content and language in curricular planning and experience since all human knowledge
human
is considered to be grounded in it (Husserl,
instruction, and expand teachers' understanding
of language and content as equally important in-
1936/1970 cited in Polkinghorne, 1989), it re-
structional foci. The year-long program targeted
quires the careful selection of participants who
have
different groups of teachers in different ways lived the experience under study. Thus,
over
6 years. From 2000 to 2006, the program evolved we invited only participants who had successfully
from providing instruction to a mixed cohort of this PD program, were teaching in an
completed
both K-12 FL and immersion teachers to immersion pro- context at the time of the study, and
viding instruction targeted to each group sepa-
were willing to share their personal experience
rately. This approach was deemed necessary be-
of attempting to balance language and content in
cause FL teachers approach curriculum develop- their teaching. Three immersion teachers were se-
ment from a decidedly language teaching perspec- lected: one (Teacher A) , a 4th grade teacher, rep-
tive whereas immersion teachers approach it from a one-way Spanish elementary program;
resented
a content teaching perspective. The naturethe of second
the (Teacher B) , a 7th/8th grade teacher,
PD program that specifically targeted traditional taught in a one-way French middle school contin-
K-12 FL teachers is described in detail elsewhere uation program; and the third (Teacher C) taught
(Cammarata, 2009, 2010). The same program was social studies in Grades 9-12 in a two-way Spanish
adapted to better respond to immersion teachers' high school continuation program.4 All the teach-
needs by incorporating immersion-specific readers had at least 5 years of teaching experience in
ing materials and emphasizing curriculum devel- immersion programs, with the most experienced
opment and instructional strategies that helped being the high school teacher, who, at the time
of the study, had over 20 yearsamples
of teaching experi-
and describe their experience as if they
ence with bilingual learners. were living it. Some of the questions we asked
were the following: "Could you give a precise ex-
Data Sources ample of a time when this happened?" "Can you
recall how this happened exactly?" "Can you try to
Data sources for the phenomenological study describe this episode as you lived it, as concretely
consisted of oral texts collected during two in- as you possibly can?" The goal of the interviews
terviews conducted with each of the three teach- was to elicit as much rich description from the
ers and a "lived experience description" (LED). teachers about their experience with balancing
Devised by van Manen (1997, 2003), the LED is language and content instruction as possible.
a written account similar to a journal entry that
aims to collect rich descriptions of people's ex- Research Procedure
periences. Participants were first directed to write
their LED following van Manen 's protocol (de- During the collection of texts as well as dur-
scribed in van Manen, 1997, pp. 63-66) prior to ing the analysis process, bracketing,5 a concept
the first interview. Because the experience under central to phenomenological research, was used
study is somewhat abstract and, therefore, diffi-to help us remain "sensitive to the text's alterity"
cult to articulate, we decided to begin the data-(Gadamer, 2002, p. 269). In other words, bracket-
collection process by asking participants to share,ing helps phenomenological researchers remain
in the comfort of their own homes and at their true to the "text." More than a simple technique,
own pace, one specific episode of their experience it is a method or stance that acts as the engine
with attempting to balance content and language of the research inquiry. Bracketing directs re-
that still remained vivid in their memory. The LED searchers into a critical analysis process whereby,
was collected and analyzed prior to interviews after
to sustained and concerted efforts to attend to
extract incidental as well as potentially essentialand set aside preconceived knowledge or assump-
constituents (themes) that could be further ex- tions about the phenomenon under investigation,
plored in follow-up interviews. Approximatelythey 4 can remain "aware of [their] own bias, so
to 6 weeks lapsed between the collection of LEDs that the text can present itself in all its otherness
and the first interview, and 2 to 3 months between and thus assert its own truth against [their] own
the first and second interviews. fore-meanings" (Gadamer, 2002, p. 269). Brack-
Interviews were conducted following an open- eting during the data-collection phase involved
ended protocol appropriate for phenomenology, self-introspection by the interviewer prior to the
which is described at length elsewhere (e.g.,first interview to ensure scientific openness to the
Dahlberg et al., 2008; van Manen, 1997). In-lived experience under study while conducting in-
terviews in lifeworld research can be described terviews. The goal was to help separate the inter-
as a focused "open dialogue" (Dahlberg etviewer's al., experience from research participants'
2008) and, as is the case for all data-gathering experiences by making visible personal assump-
procedures used in phenomenology, they aim tions
at and biases (i.e., preconceived knowledge
collecting rich descriptions of lived experiences. about the experience under scrutiny) and, thus,
Within this context, researchers must "craft re- help neutralize their potential impact during data
search questions that open up that experience. collection.
Such questions, because they are authentic, al- After interviews were transcribed, the texts were
low for unexpected answers to emerge" (Dahlberg analyzed using Giorgi 's (1997) approach to phe-
nomenological text analysis, which we adapted
et al., 2008, p. 190) . Interviews typically began with
discussion of the LED as the springboard forto ad-suit the particular needs of this study. First,
ditional description of the experience. Teachers we analyzed the texts independently to deter-
were asked first to describe why they chose a mine par- essential constituents, or themes, a process
ticular experience to describe in the LED. They that van Manen (1997), building on Husserl 's
proceeded in a very dynamic manner, with ques- (1936/1970) thoughts, describes as the identi-
tions emerging from the content of participants' fication of "the universal or essential quality of
descriptions. Examples of follow-up questions a we
theme [so as] to discover aspects or qualities
asked to help participants unpack importantthat no- make a phenomenon what it is and with-
tions pertaining to their lived experience were out which the phenomenon could not be what
the following: "Could you tell me more about it it?"is" (p. 107). To accomplish this goal, we en-
"What does/did it really mean to you in this con- gaged in repeated independent readings both at
text?" Frequently, teachers were asked to givethe ex-macro level (whole texts) and micro level
(parts/sentences) so as to isolate lenges that,emerging ex-
if well negotiated, can guide teachers
periential constituents, searching for their
toward reshaping those that
own professional identity.
"may recur as commonalities The or possible
following com-
presentation of findings describes
monalities in the various descriptions five key constituents,we [had] that, consid-
or dimensions,
gathered" (van Manen, 1997, eredp. 93). During
altogether, thisteachers' expe-
define immersion
process we also engaged in bracketing rience as a whole: by remain-
ing consciously aware of our prior knowledge and

biases as we independently conducted 1. Identity transformation
the analy- - seeing themselves as
sis of text. We frequently asked content and language
ourselves teachers;
questions
such as "What do I know or think I know about im- 2. External challenges - facing time constraints,
mersion teachers' attempts to balance language lack of resources, district pressures, and other fac-
tors that are outside of the teachers' control;
and content? Have I allowed that knowledge to
influence my identification of this constituent or 3. On my own - experiencing a growing sense
of isolation;
is this constituent clearly emerging in the text as
key to the experience? What examples in the text 4. Awakening - developing an increased aware-
lead me to understand this truly as a key compo- ness of the interdependence of content and lan-
nent of the experience?" and so on. guage; and
After our individual analyses were complete, we 5. A stab in the dark - having difficulty identify-
ing what language to focus on in the context of
shared them, engaging in discussion and refin-
content instruction.
ing our interpretations using imaginative variation
to probe and evaluate the strength of our com-
bined analysis. A method for discovering essen- Detailed Description of the Constituents
tial features of a particular phenomenon, imag-
inative variation consists of modifying parts of a Constituent 1 - Identity Transformation. At the
core of immersion teachers' experience of balanc-
phenomenon to see if it still remains identifiable
ing content and language in instruction lies the
after it has been transformed by asking questions
such as "Is this phenomenon still the same if weneed for them to revisit and reshape their teach-
imaginatively change or delete this theme from identity - that is, envisioning themselves not
ing
the phenomenon? Does the phenomenon with-only as content teachers, but as language teachers
as well. Immersion teachers in the United States
out this theme lose its fundamental meaning?"
and around the world must be licensed as con-
(van Manen, 1997, p. 107).
Thus, data analysis involved both independent tent teachers or have demonstrated expertise in
content - for elementary teaching, they typically
and collaborative processes. During collaboration
we were pleased to discover that we had indepen-hold a license in elementary education and, at
dently identified the same constituents - it wassecondary levels, they typically hold a license to
during the process of collaboration that we cameteach a subject matter, such as social studies or
mathematics. Some states in the United States
to agreement on how to label them. The discovery
that we independently identified the same con- require that immersion teachers complete bilin-
stituents (and many of the same quotes to support gual certification. Research has shown that immer-
sion teachers see themselves as content teachers
them) served to strengthen the credibility of the
findings. The following section represents the re-due to their licensure and to the fact that they
and their students are held accountable above all
sult of our collaborative analysis, which includes a
for content (subject matter) achievement (e.g.,
description of the essential aspects (constituents)
of immersion teachers' experience of balancing Fortune et al., 2008; Hoare & Kong, 2008;
Silver,
content and language in their practice, along with 2003; Walker & Tedick, 2000). The fol-
accompanying supporting quotes.6 lowing quote was shared by a participant who
was commenting on her experience in the PD
FINDINGS program. It illustrates that the reshaping of a
teacher's identity can occur in a number of ways,
Immersion teachers' attempt at balancing including
con- a broadening of the way one might per-
ceive his or her role as an immersion teacher.
tent and language in instruction is an experience
lived as a process of awakening , a pedagogical jour-
It was helpful just to see myself more as a language
ney whose success is intricately linked to the [teacher].
quest . .besides an elementary teacher, that we're
and challenge of figuring out what language teaching
to fo- language through content, but it still is a
cus on in the context of content instruction. This
type of language teaching. And just being acquainted
journey is a difficult one, comprised of many chal- and having to work with those language standards. . .it
Chief
broadened my view of myself asamong the external challenges
a teacher. (Teacheris lack of
A, Int #2, p. 4) 7 time because it is linked to all other external chal-
lenges. Having to attend to language in the con-
The reshaping of one's identity means accept-
text of content instruction and taking the time to
ing the challenge that reinventing oneself repre-
do so is perceived as an extra demand that takes
sents and perceiving the journey as a necessary
a huge toll on teachers. For immersion teachers,
means to better oneself as a (content) teacher. It
the issue resides in the difficulty of finding room
is seeing one's role as not only a content teacher
within an existing curriculum, which requires the
but also a language teacher and grasping those
coverage of specific subject matter content and
two dimensions as two sides of the same coin, one
associated concepts, to incorporate any other in-
not being able to function without
structional the
concerns such as a other. It
more intent focus
implies the need to revisit one's own beliefs re-
on language. One participant described this ap-
garding immersion teachers' roles. As one study
proach as follows.
participant put it, "I really think. . .being an im-
mersion teacher is saying:My'Yeah,whole goal inI'm
math isagetting
content
my students to un-
teacher and I'm a language derstand
teacher math concepts.
and . .I[toneed
incorporate
to language]
I would have to take (Teacher
integrate those two to be effective'" the time to figure C,out what
are my [language objectives] .. .it just doesn't come
Int #1, p. 57).
like that. . .I'm multiplying fractions. . .but when the
The transformation of one's identity in the ex-
school day starts, it's so quick, and the time that I have
perience of attempting to balance language and with each class is so short. . . (Teacher B, Int #2, p. 4)
content begins with the realization that being an
immersion teacher means standing at the far end In this quote, the teacher speaks to both a lack
of the content-driven side of the CBI continuum of planning time ("I would have to take the time to
(Met, 19998) . It means being able to locate oneself figure out") and a lack of instructional time ("and
on the continuum and acknowledging that this ex- the time I have with each class is so short") . Lack of
treme characterizes one's instructional identity as instructional time becomes much more challeng-
an immersion teacher. It also means being open to ing at the middle and high school levels as the
revisiting one's identity and to envisioning immer- number of minutes per content class is small, par-
sion teaching in a different way. One participant ticularly when compared to the elementary school
clearly described this process. day and the flexibility elementary teachers often
I found that really valuable to think about. . .my own have to devote more or less time to a subject area
teaching practice, that I'm really at this really far end throughout the instructional day.
of this continuum on the content side. . .But I can put External challenges imposed on immersion
myself way down there and say, "oh, I need to really teachers take the shape of clear expectations in
bring myself to the middle," [between content and terms of content coverage. In the context of im-
language] because that's where, I think, it's an impor- mersion education, the pressures these expecta-
tant part to tend to the language pieces, and especially tions impose on teachers can be so high that they
at the higher level that I'm teaching at, that's harder
may act as a barrier that prevents them from at-
to discern because there's so much complex language
tending to language instruction even if they desire
that we're asking them to do implicitly. (Teacher C,
Int #1, p. 57)
to do so. As one participant explained:
Constituent 2: External Challenges . This con- [U.S. history] content is so demanding and so full of
stituent refers to challenges that are external expectations that I felt a lot of pressure to not take off
my content hat long enough to pay any attention to
to the teachers but that impact their lived ex-
language in a meaningful way that I was always kind of
periences. The attempt to balance content and
out of breath just trying to keep up with the content
language in instruction is lived by immersion expectations. (Teacher C, Int #1, p. 63)
teachers as difficult because of many external
challenges - lack of both planning and instruc- Having to attend to language in the context of
tional time, lack of resources, district expectations content instruction and taking the planning and
for content coverage, and lack of accountabil- instructional time to do so is perceived as an extra
ity for language acquisition. Many of these have demand that impacts the little class time available.
been identified previously in immersion teacher The immersion teachers are already struggling to
research (e.g., Fortune et al., 2008; Walker & make the required content fit in the limited class
Tedick, 2000), but the findings of this study time available with increasing demands placed on
enrich our understanding of these issues be- them related to content standards. The expecta-
cause they emerge directly from teachers' actual tion from the district, school administrators, and
experiences. parents is that immersion learners will keep pace
with their nonimmersion peers

I wonder ifwhen it that
due to the fact comes tohave to
I do not really
content learning. be accountable to anyone in terms of the [immersion]
language acquisition of my students, that I don't push
The other part of it is there's myself
a lot as hard
of as pressure
I did when I first
fromstarted teaching.
the district to make sure that (Teacher B, LED) . .are getting
students.
good instruction in math. . .and so you just gotta keep
going forward, forward, forward, Each one andof these
youexternal
don'tchallenges
have adds
to the difficulties inherent to immersion educa-
any extra time. (Teacher B, Int #2, p. 4)
tion and leads immersion teachers to perceive the
Balancing content and language in content
need to balance instruction
and language instruction
is also more work because of limited resources. as unrealistic or impossible to do well in their ed-
The attempt to balance content and language
ucational contexts.
ends up being lived as a difficult challenge be-

[To balance language and content] is still not entirely
cause of the absence of available support inrealistic
the as an immersion teacher because there are
form of materials and resources teachers cansotap
many things going on that when you sit down to
into, such as materials specifically designed toplan.
in- . .to look at language standards and [content]
tegrate language and content, clear language stan-
standards it's difficult. . .it's just time. (Teacher A, Int
dards, curricular roadmaps, and PD programs #1,de-
p. 32)
signed to meet the unique needs that immersion
Constituent 3: On My Own. Intricately linked to
teachers have. The absence of resources, again,
external pressures and challenges from the com-
impacts the time that teachers have. As one par-
munity (district, schools/programs, parents) to
ticipant explained:
focus on content is an increased feeling of iso-
lation experienced by immersion teachers. This
It's that extra, extra step, sometimes being an immer-
feeling
sion teacher figuring all that you have to translate orof isolation is primarily influenced by the
absence of collégial support and makes the expe-
that there are materials you can use with this [because
there are no materials designed for us] . (Teacher
rienceA,of trying to balance content and language
Int#l, p. 6) a frustrating one. Lack of respect and understand-
They let the immersion schools figure out how to
ing, or both, as well as lack of support from others
make things work on [their] own without much sup-
(colleagues, the program, the district) lead teach-
port/guidance from the district in terms of resources.
ers to describe themselves as isolated within their
(Teacher A, LED)
instructional contexts.
Another teacher underscored the amount of This isolation is experienced in particular by

energy and time needed to resolve issues related teachers in middle and high school programs,
to lack of materials: "[I spend time] re-aligning where the immersion program becomes a strand
[curriculum] and then translating - I've trans- within a much larger, English-medium school. De-
lated over 50 pages this year" (Teacher B, Intpending
#2, on the content for which they are respon-
p. 34). sible, be it math, social studies, or science, the
immersion teacher must follow the district cur-
Another external challenge relates to the lack
riculum and collaborate as needed with other
of attention given to immersion language (IL)
development at the program and district level. (nonimmersion) content teachers. One study par-
In contrast to teacher and student accountabil- ticipant, a math teacher, explains her feelings of
ity when it comes to content achievement, isolation,
im- underscoring that it stems in part from
mersion teachers and students are seldom held the fact that the other math teachers in her school
accountable for acquisition of the IL. In otherdo not have to consider how to attend to language
instruction while teaching math:
words, students' L2 proficiency is rarely assessed
at the classroom or program level, particularly in
I find lots of times that if I want to get rid of that feeling
one-way programs, but their content learning and like I'm an island, I'm the one who needs to go to my
English-language development are evaluated with English-speaking math teachers. They're not gonna
both standardized and classroom-based measures. come to talk to me about it or anything. And they don't
This lack of accountability for acquisition of the need to; theyjust keep turning the pages [of their pro-
IL acts as an external challenge, as it makes it vided curriculum] . They don't think. . .honestly, they
difficult for teachers to exceed common content are not thinking at all about how I can incorporate
language into my lesson. Not at all. (Teacher B, Int
expectations, that is, to be motivated to engage in
#2, p. 32)
the difficult undertaking that the teaching of both
content and language represents. As one study As teachers described their isolation they used
participant explained: two compelling analogies: "I just feel a little bit
into(Teacher
like I am an island out there" their instruction
B, Int #1, (at no cost
of content) . like a single can-
p. 9); "I'm sort of on my own,
As revealed,in
dle kind of thing that's blowing this the
awakening - a growingthat
wind, realiza-
tion of the content
might go out" (Teacher C, Int #2, p. 8) . The lastand language connection -
emerges
words in the second analogy, clearly in the high a
describing school
lightteacher in
but
much lessby
danger of being extinguished so in the others. It may
outside be that the
forces,
higherin
underscore the risks involved the grade, the more heightened
attempting totheen-
cog-
gage with both content and nitivelanguage
demand of the content in and an theenvi-
linguistic
sophistication
ronment that does not support of the discourse
this of that content,
instructional
and perhaps thereferring
balancing act. The other analogy, likelier that teacherstowill see
thethe
interdependence between
teacher's experience of attempting to balancelanguage and content.
lan-
guage and content without Thisbenefiting
awakening may also befrom linked to years
ade- of
experience in immersion
quate collégial support, illustrates the teaching;
feelingin this study,
of
the high schoolit
being different and the isolation teacher was the one who had had
generates.
Constituent 4: Awakening. more
In thethan 20 midst
years of experience
of under-in immersion
and bilingual settings.
going an identity transformation, feeling the pres-
sures of external challenges, The 4thand
grade teacher demonstrates in the fol-
experiencing
lowing statement
feelings of isolation, immersion that she is developing
teachers experi-a begin-
ning awareness of the
ence a growing sense of" awakening ," language-content
an increased connec-
tion.
awareness of the interdependence of language
and content. It is through their actual experience
[The students] notice it's harder, especially reading
of attempting to balance content and language in
content areas, there's a lot of vocabulary and things
their instruction that teachers become more "lan-
that are much more difficult than the Spanish they
guage aware" (Hoare, 2001). That
use when is, they
they're speaking with friends begin
or in class. So
to see that as the cognitivethey'll
demands ofbit academic
sometimes whine a little if we have to look at
content grow, so, too, do the linguistic
the social demands,
studies book, but we just acknowledge that
and if students do not have itstrong language
is difficult but that profi-
we're giving them skills to use to
ciency, they will not be able make
to itaccess
easier becauseor
they're going to need to
engage know
the
that [language] when
content as they move up through the theygrade
get into the upper grades.
levels.
(Teacher A, Int #2, p. 26)
Schleppegrell (2004) discusses linguistic demand
as it relates to genre, using science and social stud-
Her words suggest that her students are begin-
ies content areas to illustrate. For example, differ-
ning to understand that academic language and
ent scientific genres (e.g., procedure, procedural
social language are different. Although she does
recount, report, and explanation) require differ-
not go into detail, the teacher acknowledges the
ent levels of lexical and grammatical control.
need to teach specific "skills" to help students ac-
cess the more cognitively challenging content that
Each of these science genres has its own develop-
ment, with more rudimentary is presented in more linguistically
realizations atcomplex
lower text.
grade levels and more developed As shown in her following words,
realizations asthe middle
stu-
dents gain proficiency with theschool teacher
science appearsconcepts
to be skeptical about
andthe
connection
the language that construes them. between genres
These language and become
content. She
increasingly challenging, lexically
experiences dense,
inklings thatnominalized
language might be "get-
and abstract. . . [and] students
tinghave difficulty
in the way" produc-
but remains unconvinced, and
ing the more advanced genres...believes that(p. 117,
if she emphasis
just focuses more on the
added)
math concepts, the students will eventually come
around. She sees language as an "extra" that she
We might speculate that L2 cannotlearners would
devote time to because doing have
so would
even more difficulty accessing and producing
take away from the content instruction that her
more challenging genres as they advance through
students need to "get" the concepts. She falls short
the grade levels. Thus, for immersion teachers,
of understanding that, in this case, focusing on
learning how to balance content and language
language would not be "extra" but would help
in instruction means, on one hand, becoming in-
her students to access the concepts she desper-
creasingly conscious of the intricate relationship
ately wants them to understand and retain.
between content and language and, on the other,
struggling to decipher theI have an advanced
exact math class as well.
nature of . .some of them
this
relationship so as to find aarepractical way
just so struggling, if I go any fasterto add
they won't get
the concepts at all. Iand
this extra language layer effectively don't know how much of the
seamlessly
French is getting in the way, I don't some of the how
know language pieces that might come up. . .It
much
is just. . .1 don't know. . .. it's very just didn't happen.
frustrating And so this was one of those "aha"
because
they don't keep up with the rhythm moments
thatfor me that was,
I should be I think, really valuable to
step back and on
going at. So to even think about language say okay,
top what
of is missing here? (Teacher
C, Int#l,
that, you know. . .1 would just be really p. 17) if they
grateful
could retain the concepts. (Teacher B, Int #2, p. 6)
As she continues to recall this specific teaching
event and others
In contrast to the other two teachers, the like
highit, she shares:
school teacher demonstrated Iaseemore sophisti-
more clearly now. . .the need for this other kind
cated level of awareness when it came to under-
of melding of content and language for the benefit
standing the interdependence between language of the kids. . .My awakening was starting to happen
and content. In the following excerpts, she is re- before [the PD program], but I really felt I got it at
counting a specific classroom event wherein the that point professionally. (Teacher C, Int #1, p. 29,
students were asked to work in pairs to prepare emphasis added)
for a "Socratic seminar" in the class. They were to
At the same time, she understands that balanc-
find an article about a controversial topic that all
ing content and language in her teaching is far
students in the class would have to read, prepare
from easy. Although awareness may be a first step,
a quick oral presentation on the topic of the arti-
it takes much more pedagogical savoir faire to
cle, and create higher-order questions - in the top
make it happen.
three categories of Bloom's (1956) taxonomy -
to facilitate a discussion with their classmates. Perhaps my biggest reflection is that it is easy to focus
on only content or only language, but it is a real chal-
The task of creating higher-order questions chal-
lenge to effectively intertwine the two and do both
lenged the students in ways that the teacher did
well at the same time. (Teacher C, LED)
not anticipate. Instead of creating the kind of
questions needed to spark debate, the students Constituent 5: A Stab in the Dark. It is the nature
created basic factual-level questions about the
of this particular pedagogical difficulty - that is,
reading. integrating language and content instruction -
that this final constituent, "a stab in the dark,"
They weren't getting to that sort of debate level or that
controversy . . . , that higher level thinking you have portrays. Despite the levels of awareness that im-
mersion teachers develop when it comes to un-
to do. And I realized that I hadn't attended to the
derstanding
language needs to help the kids learn how to construct the critical connection between lan-
guage and content, they struggle to find the exact
higher order questions. (Teacher C, Int #1, p. 11)
language they need to bring students' attention to
She later described her puzzled reaction to as the
they teach content. In other words, they have
low-level questions the students had prepared and
difficulty identifying what language to focus on,
her emerging realization that the students'figuring lin- out how and when to integrate that lan-
guistic challenges were getting in the way. guage in the context of content instruction, and
I mean [this content] was something that theydeciding

were how to follow up on the language in
really familiar with, I felt, to get at this highertheir
levelassessment strategies. They experience their
attempts to find the right language and attend to
questioning idea. Was it conceptual? Was it language?
Was it both? I think it was probably both, to beitfair.
meaningfully in their content instruction as tak-
But I think that the language part was holding theming
back
"a stab in the dark.n Determining how content
from being able to do it in Spanish conceptually. (Teacher
and language interrelate, how they are interwo-
C, Int#l, p. 17, emphasis added)
ven, and what binds them together is at the center
of immersion teachers' concerns and what chal-
She went on to explain that because she had
lenges them most. The way language and content
come to better understand the language-content
interconnect
connection as a result of her participation in the appears mysterious and hard to pin-
point
year-long PD program, she believed that she was and leads teachers to question their own
ability
attending to language more in the context of her to balance the two.
content instruction. So she was surprised when There seem to be so many loose ends that I am not
she realized that the students still did not have quite sure where to begin. . .1 do not really know what
the language they needed to successfully com-
exactly I am supposed to be focusing on in terms of
plete the task she had assigned. language. (Teacher B, LED)
I think. . .it caught me off guard because I didn't The

following quote, in which the teacher
ex-
pect this to be an issue for the kids, and I thoughtrefers
to the need to identify both content-
I had
obligatory
done all my leg work, and I thought I'd attended to and content-compatible language
(Snow, Met, 8c Genesee, 1989), teachers are to learn

a key how to effectively
concept em- balance
phasized in the PD program, language and content
further in their instruction, impor-
illustrates
this struggle. tant changes need to take place. First, a change
in belief systems related to immersion is needed.
Looking at a lesson and saying "what
Far too often, is programs
immersion the are presented
language. . .that they have to know here, the content-
as a "two for one" approach (Lightbown & Spada,
obligatory language? And based on how I am go-
2006), that is, the assumption that when language
ing to conduct my lesson, what is the kind of lan-
is used as the vehicle to teach content, children
guage that they are going to need to use that would
be compatible? And oh, and then learn the content and
what's my they acquire language with-
objec-
out a particular
tive for the content?". . .[is] the language focus on language
that I am itself. Adher-
ence
picking out. . .the same as my to the two for down
colleagues' one proposition
the is one reason
why so
hall?. . .That was a big struggle and language instruction
I would is often
just arbi- considered an
"extra"
trarily say . .1 think they should in immersion
practice this classrooms;
particu- language is typi-
lar structure" but that was a stab in the dark. . . (Teacher
cally seen as an optional instructional component
B, Int #1, p. 25, emphasis added)
because of the belief that it will surface naturally
as an outcome of content instruction.
This description of struggle and uncertainty
This is not the case; second languages are
when it comes to finding the language is echoed
not learned by osmosis, as decades of research
by other study participants:
studies in one-way immersion contexts have con-
focusing in and deciding what sistently
aspectsshown (e.g., Chaudron,
to focus on and 1986; Genesee,
then also deciding what specific language
1987, 2004; pieces
Harley, 1984, -
1992; Lyster, 1987, 2007;
how to make the language more central,
Mougeon et al., I2010;
think that
Pawley, 1985; Spilka, 1976;
was hard. . .1 think just because I hadn't
Swain, had
1988). Recent a lot
TWI of revealed that
research
experience with pulling out, "Ok, what are the specific
by Grade 8 even native Spanish-speaking students
language skills that I can teach from this book or with
were not able to produce accurate grammatical
this activity? What would be the language skills that
forms in Spanish all of the time (Potowski, 2007) .
they would need to know?" (Teacher A, Int #1 , p. 28)
Howard, Christian, and Genesee
I need to stop and really pay attention not even at
(2004) found
thatlevel,
a lesson level but at an activity whereas "What
Spanish speakers
are thein TWI developed
language pieces? What am I askingmore balanced
kids to levels
do?"of bilingualism
And I and biliter-
acy, English
think to some degree for a secondary speakers continued
teacher. . .there to perform better
is an extra level of challenge because the
in English activities
than in Spanish. that
As for indigenous
we're asking students to do are language
so complex in terms
acquisition, of
the stakes could not be
the thinking process and the level that we're asking
higher - these programs aim to revitalize en-
them to do things, that I still struggle with what is
dangered languages and cultures - stakeholders
really the essential language piece that to
cannot afford they have
have their to
immersion students
have to be able to do that. . . (Teacher C, Int #1, p. 7)
acquire inaccurate or sociolinguistically inap-
This struggle should not propriate
come as forms of the language. Nevertheless,
a surprise
although
given that immersion teachers are weexpected
know that optimal
to be language learn-
ing in
and prepared to be, first and immersion requires
foremost, content careful attention
to form
teachers. As content teachers, they within
arethe typically
meaning-driven context of
unaware of the "content" ofspecific content instruction,
language teaching parents,
- community
members, school leaders,
grammatical structures, morphological rules,teachers,
andand students
themselves continue
so on - with some having experienced to believe
limited in the "two for
for-
one"use
mal study of the language they promise.
forSuch a belief is very likely linked
instruction.
to the limited understanding
Furthermore, rarely are immersion teachersabout ex-what it means
to learn a language,
posed to specific strategies for balancing language which in particular appears
and content in their teacher to plague individuals in the
preparation United States.
pro-
grams or district-mandated PD Second, as the findings Thus,
workshops. of this study clearly
they lack pedagogical content suggest, more program-based
knowledge support for teach-
(Shul-
man, 1986, 1987) when it comes ers is needed if a balance of language and con-
to language.
tent is to become a pedagogical reality. Such sup-
IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY port could be provided in many forms, including
the availability of expert curriculum coordinators
to support curriculum development and instruc-
The findings of this study clarify the nature
tion, increased planning time (during the sum-
of immersion teachers' struggles as they attempt
mer and academic year) , and the development of
to integrate language and content. If immersion
strong mentorship programs andacquisition

second language opportunities
and language teach-
for collaboration. Program administrators
ing and content teaching strategies. need
However,
to be aware of how language instruction
whether teachers are prepared inmust
these programs
be integrated functionallytoand
integrate language and content with
meaningfully meaningfully
content instruction and in should
instruction support
(along the lines teach-
of approaches dis-
cussed in more detail),
ers in developing language-specific is unclear, andfor
objectives thus far
their daily classroom practice.
the bilingual Teacher
certificates tendevalua-
to be required only
tions should also embed this
of TWI as aninexpectation.
teachers some states, notably California
Published materials and textbooks that balance and Texas. An exception is the state of Utah, which
language and content are also needed. Curric-requires all its immersion teachers to complete a
ular frameworks, such as the one being devel-dual language immersion endorsement.
oped by the Oregon Chinese Flagship Program Preparation programs must be designed that
(Bacon, Hakam, & Yin, 2008), which provides ameet state licensure requirements and incorpo-
language scope and sequence connected to con-rate attention to the specific knowledge and skills
tent outcomes, as well as clear and high-challengethat immersion teachers need. Requiring an ad-
language benchmarks and well-developed assess- ditional certificate beyond the initial (elementary
ments, are also critically needed. It should be or content area) teaching licensure puts a bur-
emphasized that resources such as these must be den on immersion teachers and their finances.
developed at the program level and whenever pos- Moreover, PD programs need to target the spe-
sible nationally for broad dissemination. These cific needs of the immersion teacher audience.
levels and types of support will help teachers to It should be noted that some immersion-specific
combat feelings of isolation as they attempt to teacher preparation and PD programs exist.9 Ex-
bring a stronger focus on language to their con- isting and new programs alike should ensure that
tent teaching and should aid in meeting somethey guide teachers in developing an awareness
of the external challenges that make balancing lan-
and understanding of the interdependence of lan-
guage and content so elusive. guage and content and help them develop the
Finally, and most importantly, the findings of pedagogical content knowledge to transfer this
this study point to the need to revisit teacher awareness and understanding to their curriculum
preparation and PD opportunities for immer-design and instruction.
sion teachers. In the United States, the required How should teacher preparation and PD pro-
generic teacher education programs (elemen-
grams help immersion teachers learn how to
tary education, secondary subject matter content)
embed this focus on language during content
do not prepare immersion teachers well for the
instruction? What language needs to be taught
in immersion classrooms? Snow, Met, and Gene-
unique context of immersion education. They re-
inforce immersion teachers' view of themselves as see (1989) proposed that CBI teachers identify
content teachers alone, leading them to question
language objectives in two categories - content-
their identity as teachers when they are encour-
obligatory language (essential for learning the
aged to focus on language in the context of their
content of the lesson) and content-compatible
content instruction. These preparation programslanguage (additional language that can be incor-
do not help immersion teachers understand the porated into the lesson to increase language ac-
critical connection between language and con-quisition). Typically, content-obligatory language
is more academic in nature and less transferable
tent, and thus do not help them develop that sense
of awakening regarding the interdependence be- to other contexts, whereas content-compatible
tween language and content. Nor do these genericlanguage tends to be language that students need
programs help them develop the skills immer- to negotiate tasks and interact. As such, it is
sion teachers need to find the language, knowmore social in nature and transferable to other
contexts. Important sources for both content-
when and how to focus in on it during instruction,
and, finally, how to follow up on it in assessment
obligatory and content-compatible language are
(Fortune et al., 2008; Met & Lorenz, 1997) , that is,
the texts that teachers use to teach the con-
pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1986, tent (children's literature, textbooks, Internet re-
1987) as it relates to language. This lack of knowl-
sources) . In teacher education and PD programs,
edge leads them to their only recourse - takingimmersion
a teachers should learn how to analyze
classroom texts to maximize their content and lan-
stab in the dark to identify essential language for
their lessons. A few states require TWI teachers
guage learning potential. Drawing on a number
to hold bilingual credentials (typically in additionof sources, Fortune and Tedick (n.d.) developed
to other licenses), which involve content about a text analysis form that asks teachers to identify
learning should
key content and cultural concepts inchange
thethroughout
text, the instruction
genre of the text with its of a particular topic.
discourse and Thelinguistic
wide part at the top
of the and
features, and the vocabulary hourglass emphasizes meaning
language struc- and knowl-
edge construction (learning through
tures in the text (both content-obligatory and language).
As the hourglass narrows,
content-compatible) that students need the tofocus shifts to lan-
learn
to understand the content guage
of and itself, engage
where a teacher
with might bring stu-
the
dents'
text.10 This form serves as an attention to a language
instructional detail, such as a
scaffold
spelling or phonemic
to help teachers find the language theypattern,
should a grammar
in- point,
an overall text structure, or the connectives and
clude in their lesson objectives.
In addition to identifying conjunctions
language used to create
througha coherent text. It
analysis of the textual inputis here where students
students learnreceive,
will about the language
"in the context
immersion teachers are advised by of the overall(1993)
Harley meanings being
made and the
to choose target language features for instruc- curriculum knowledge being con-
structed" (Gibbons,
tion that (a) differ in nonobvious ways 2002,
fromp. 134).ma-
Then, as the
hourglassdifferent
jority language features (e.g., widens again at thewaysbottom, thetoteacher
say "know" in Spanish and hasFrench
students apply - their
saber,understandings
cono- of the
cer and savoir, connaître language
); (b) are detail irregular
by returning to and meaning and
knowledge construction,
infrequently surface in classroom that is, learning
interaction, or through
both (formal/informal forms language.
of It is this three-phase
"you"); (c) process
do not that repre-
carry a heavy communicative sents language
load learning.
and are This process
there- is very sim-
ilar to the pedagogical
fore easily ignored (e.g., irregular framework
endings for immersion
mark-
ing gender, la mano [the advocated
hand]); by Cummins and (1998,
(d) n.p.):
may
create confusion with or annoy native speakers
(e.g., differential use of "to 1 . be"
Focus on and message
"to have" in
2. Focus on language
Spanish and French). In addition, it is appropri-
ate to attend to language issues3. Focus only
on [language]
when use learn-
ers are cognitively and meta-linguistically capa-
ble of benefiting from the Thus, form-focused instruction
instruction and when (or focus on
form) in the context of authenti-
the language feature is meaningfully, the meaning-driven im-
mersion
cally linked to and supportive ofclassroom
the is what is needed
content and what
being
taught. should be embedded in teacher preparation pro-
What should language and content integration grams and PD for immersion teachers. Consider-
look like in immersion curriculum design and able debate on the effects of form-focused instruc-
instruction? Decontextualized, isolated grammar tion exists in the field, with inconsistent research
lessons that do not emphasize the relationship of results that vary due to degrees of instructional
forms to their communicative or academic func- explicitness and types of language features taught
tions appears to have minimal impact on immer- (e.g., Doughty & Williams, 1998; Lightbown &
sion students, whose exposure to the IL is pre- Spada, 2006; Norris & Ortega, 2000). Research
dominantly message oriented and content based in immersion contexts has been somewhat less in-
(Swain, 1996). Nevertheless, Gibbons (2002) ar- consistent, with most studies reporting significant
gues that "there is a place for children to learn improvement in students' language as a result of
about language, as well as to learn it and to learn form-focused treatments (for a review, see Lyster,
through it" (p. 132). She emphasizes that a fo- 2007). These studies have focused on grammati-
cus on language as "object" - that is, explicit in- cal interventions (e.g., targeting a form that had
struction about phonics, spelling, grammar, an so been identified as an ongoing area of difficulty for
on - must happen for L2 learners "in ways that do learners, such as gender, verbs, pronouns) as well
not compromise interactive and meaning-driven as sociolinguistic features (use of pronouns in for-
classroom practices" (p. 132). Gibbons proposes mal and informal contexts) . Used in tandem, both
that teachers keep three principles in mind as "proactive" and "reactive" approaches to form-
they embed more of a focus on language in their focused instruction in immersion classrooms can
instruction: be effective and complementary. Proactive ap-
proaches involve planning for and carrying out
1 . Move from whole to part.
language-focused content instruction, whereas re-
2. Move from meaning to form.
active approaches are unplanned, spontaneous
3. Move from familiar to unfamiliar, (p. 133)
ways that teachers bring learners' attention to lan-
She further proposes the idea of an hourglassguage forms, such as through the use of corrective
image to illustrate how the focus of teaching and feedback strategies.
Drawing on classroom-based research,

research-based Lyster
guidelines for helping learners use
(2007) presented an excellent volume
their LI to increase describ-
their language awareness in
ing a "counterbalanced" approach positive ways thatthat
ultimatelyintegrates
enhance their L2 pro-
content-based and form-focused instructional ficiency. Recommending to immersion teachers
that they begin to allow for LI use without such
strategies. In the context of summarizing immer-
guidelines may well lead to unintended outcomes
sion research findings, he offers a rich repertoire
of strategies for enhancing the language acquisi-
and have a detrimental impact on immersion pro-
tion potential of CBI. Recommended strategiesgramin-results as they relate to both language acqui-
sition and academic achievement.
clude language awareness tasks to focus students
In sum, the findings of this study suggest that
on noticing language forms (a critical first step
before expecting them to produce the forms), reforms are needed in belief systems related to
immersion, program-level support for immersion
content-based tasks, form-focused tasks, practice
teachers, and teacher preparation and PD pro-
activities, and negotiating form through the provi-
grams. Balancing content and language in instruc-
sion of helpful corrective feedback, among other
tion, a curricular and instructional necessity that is
approaches to solving the language and content
essential to the implementation of successful im-
integration puzzle. The strategies described by
mersion programs, will remain difficult or even
Lyster (2007) should be used in the ways sug-impossible as long as such reforms elude us.
gested by Gibbons (2002) and Cummins (1998)
to ensure that the lesson flows from a focus on NOTES
meaning (the whole, familiar) to a focus on form
(part, unfamiliar) and back to a focus on mean-
]We are grateful to Tara Fortune for the insightful
ing through language use. This approach ensures
comments and feedback that she provided on an ear-
that the language forms are linked to their func-
lier draft of this article and to the anonymous reviewers
tions and to the meaning-driven content instruc-
who offered comments and very helpful suggestions for
tion that defines the immersion classroom. revision on an earlier draft.
During form-focused instruction, the teacher 2We have slightly modified the original definition to
may provide explicit instruction, that is, instruc- be more inclusive of the two-way model and its combined
tion that includes rule explanation (DeKeyser, student population.
1995; Norris 8c Ortega, 2001) when children are It should be noted that the United States is unique
developmentally ready for it. All children benefit in allowing middle/secondary programs with only two
subject matters offered in the IL to qualify as immersion.
from "visible" or "explicit" pedagogies that
In other countries, typically 50% or more of subject mat-
foreground the patterns and relationships in the lan- ter instruction is needed throughout the preK-12 and
guage and practices being taught. It is not enough postsecondary levels in order for programs to receive
just to have "standards" that students need to meet. the immersion designation.
Teachers need to be informed about the linguistic 4We are indebted to the three teachers who agreed to
challenges of those standards and have tools for un- participate in this study. Heartfelt thanks to all of you.
Bracketing is to be understood here as "the restrain-
raveling the linguistic complexities that they repre-
sent. (Schleppegrell, 2004, p. 157) ing of one's pre-understanding in the form of personal
beliefs, theories, and other assumptions that otherwise
A functional approach to language teaching in would mislead the understanding of meaning and thus
limit the research openness" (Dahlberg et al., 2008, pp.
the context of content instruction, with explicit
129-130). Bracketing is directly linked to the notion
rule explanation when circumstances warrant it,
of phenomenological reduction, a methodological device
is what we advocate for immersion teacher prepa- developed by Husserl (1936/1970) to ensure that re-
ration and PD programs. searchers remain "fully present to the concrete instance
Some of the pedagogical strategies previously of the phenomenon as presented by the subject's de-
suggested may further enhance the language scription" (Giorgi, 1997, p. 240).
learning potential of immersion programs if com- This phenomenological report departs from conven-
bined with strategic andjudicious LI use. Yet, what tional protocols used with phenomenological descrip-
precisely constitutes "judicious" LI use in immer- tive lifeworld research. The protocol calls for the disso-
sion? How might strategic LI use need to vary de- ciation of the description of the findings - conceived as a
descriptive account of the essential characteristics of the
pending on context (e.g., one-way, two-way, differ-
phenomenon under study - from the discussion of the
ent international contexts) and learner variables
findings themselves, in which interpretations and links
(age, cognitive level, proficiency level, motivation to relevant scholarship are woven. In contrast with other
to learn L2) , and so on? We argue that much more forms of qualitative inquiry, descriptive phenomenology
immersion-specific research is needed in this area requires this separation because it posits that (a) there
and that teachers would benefit from explicit, is a distinction between description and interpretation,
college/Certificates/Languagelmmersion.html)
and (b) one must precede the other so as to facilitate the , both
of which target one-way,
bracketing of preconceived judgments two-way, and indigenous
and prejudices,
an essential move if we are to immersion
let the teachers. Courses in Minnesota's certificate
phenomenon un-
der study show itself as it really program
is. have been offered
Dalhberg etonline
al. since in fall 2010, al-
(2008)
help us understand the importance lowing for ofparticipation
this move from aroundby the
de- United States
scribing the rationale for adoptingand internationally.
such Additional
a stance: examples
To of available
ensure that the meaning that PD is programs
unveiled include: Dual Language
belongs to ofthe New Mexico's
phenomenon, the researcher must Summer Critical
stay Institutes
"with the(www.dlenm.org),
empir- the na-
ical original data that are given tional
by Dual
theU Training Program (www.dualu.org/),
informant" and and
San Diego State
cultivate the "ambition to be honest to University's
and stay Dual Language
close toCertificate
program (http://edweb.sdsu.edu/PLC/programs/
the data" (p. 241). In sum, providing a faithful descrip-
tion of the meaning of the phenomenon is an essential
policy_studies_prof_dev_certs.htm#dual_language),
though these programs
first step in the descriptive lifeworld research tend to target and attract TWI
analysis
process. Readers should be aware teachers only.
that the current ar-
ticle is the product of a compromise 10The text analysis
as it blendsform can be de- accessed on-
scription and interpretation into line at: http://www.carla.umn.edu/cobaltt/modules/
one narrative in order
to align with space limitations. curriculum/
It shouldta_form.html.
also be noted
that this article represents another departure from pure
phenomenological descriptive lifeworld research in that
quotes are linked to the speaker and data source. Typi-
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Balancing Content and Language in Instruction: The Experience of Immersion Teachers

Author(s): LAURENT CAMMARATA and DIANE J. TEDICK

National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations, Wiley are collaborating

The review of research suggests teachers learn tothatembed athefocus onna-

ing consciously aware of our prior knowledge and

with their nonimmersion peers

ends up being lived as a difficult challenge be-

Another teacher underscored the amount of This isolation is experienced in particular by

I mean [this content] was something that theydeciding

I think. . .it caught me off guard because I didn't The

(Snow, Met, 8c Genesee, 1989), teachers are to learn

strong mentorship programs andacquisition

Drawing on classroom-based research,

Met, M., 8c Lorenz, E. (1997). Lessons from U.S. im-

Lightbown, P., 8c Spada, N. (2006). How languages Polkinghorne,

Existential-phenomenological Swain, M. (2001). Integrating

Tarone, E., & Swain, M. (1995). A sociolinguistic per-

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