Norbert Wiener

Norbert Wiener (November 26, 1894 – March 18, 1964) was an American
Norbert W iener
mathematician and philosopher. He was a professor of mathematics at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). A child prodigy, Wiener later became
an early researcher in stochastic and mathematical noise processes, contributing
work relevant to electronic engineering, electronic communication, and control
systems.

Wiener is considered the originator of cybernetics, a formalization of the notion of

feedback, with implications for engineering, systems control, computer science,
biology, neuroscience, philosophy, and the organization of society.

Contents
Biography
Youth
Harvard and World War I
After the war Born November 26,
During and after World War II
1894
Awards and honors
Columbia,
Doctoral students
Missouri, U.S.
Work
Wiener equation Died March 18, 1964
Wiener filter (aged 69)
In mathematics Stockholm,
In popular culture Sweden
Publications Nationality American
See also Education Tufts College,
Notes B.A. 1909
Further reading Harvard
External links University, Ph.D.
1913
Known for
Biography Awards Bôcher Memorial
Prize (1933)
National Medal of
Youth
Science (1963)
Wiener was born in Columbia, Missouri, the first child of Leo Wiener and Bertha
Scientific career
Kahn, Jews[3] from Poland and Germany, respectively. Through his father, he was
related to Maimonides, the famous rabbi, philosopher and physician from Al Fields Mathematics
Andalus, as well as to Akiva Eger, chief rabbi of Posen from 1815 to 1837.[4] Leo Cybernetics
had educated Norbert at home until 1903, employing teaching methods of his own Institutions Massachusetts
invention, except for a brief interlude when Norbert was seven years of age. Earning Institute of
his living teaching German and Slavic languages, Leo read widely and accumulated Technology
a personal library from which the young Norbert benefited greatly. Leo also had Thesis A Comparison
ample ability in mathematics and tutored his son in the subject until he left home. In Between the
his autobiography, Norbert described his father as calm and patient, unless he Treatment of the
(Norbert) failed to give a correct answer, at which his father would lose his temper. Algebra of
Relatives by
He became an agnostic.[5]
Schroeder and
After graduating from Ayer High School in 1906 at 11 years of age, Wiener entered that by
Tufts College. He was awarded a BA in mathematics in 1909 at the age of 14, Whitehead and
whereupon he began graduate studies of zoology at Harvard. In 1910 he transferred Russell[1]
to Cornell to study philosophy. Doctoral
Karl
advisors
Schmidt[1]
Harvard and World War I Other academic Josiah Royce[2]
The next year he returned to Harvard, while still continuing his philosophical advisors
studies. Back at Harvard, Wiener became influenced by Edward Vermilye Doctoral
Huntington, whose mathematical interests ranged from axiomatic foundations to Amar Bose
students
engineering problems. Harvard awarded Wiener a Ph.D. in 1912, when he was Colin Cherry
merely 17 years old, for a dissertation on mathematical logic, supervised by Karl Shikao
Schmidt, the essential results of which were published as Wiener (1914). In that Ikehara
dissertation, he was the first to state publicly that ordered pairs can be defined in
Yuk-Wing Lee
terms of elementary set theory. Hence relations can be defined by set theory, thus the
Norman
theory of relations does not require any axioms or primitive notions distinct from
Levinson
those of set theory. In 1921, Kazimierz Kuratowski proposed a simplification of
Wiener's definition of ordered pairs, and that simplification has been in common use
ever since. It is (x, y) = {{x}, {x, y}}.

In 1914, Wiener traveled to Europe, to be taught byBertrand Russell and G. H. Hardy at Cambridge University, and by David Hilbert
and Edmund Landau at the University of Göttingen. During 1915–16, he taught philosophy at Harvard, then was an engineer for
General Electric and wrote for the Encyclopedia Americana. Wiener was briefly a journalist for the Boston Herald, where he wrote a
feature story on the poor labor conditions for mill workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts, but he was fired soon afterwards for his
[6]
reluctance to write favorable articles about a politician the newspaper's owners sought to promote.

Although Wiener eventually became a staunch pacifist, he eagerly contributed to the war effort in World War I. In 1916, with
America's entry into the war drawing closer, Wiener attended a training camp for potential military officers, but failed to earn a
commission. One year later Wiener again tried to join the military, but the government again rejected him due to his poor eyesight. In
the summer of 1918, Oswald Veblen invited Wiener to work on ballistics at the Aberdeen Proving Groundin Maryland.[7] Living and
working with other mathematicians strengthened his interest in mathematics. However, Wiener was still eager to serve in uniform,
and decided to make one more attempt to enlist, this time as a common soldier. Wiener wrote in a letter to his parents, "I should
consider myself a pretty cheap kind of a swine if I were willing to be an officer but unwilling to be a soldier."[8] This time the army
accepted Wiener into its ranks and assigned him, by coincidence, to a unit stationed at Aberdeen, Maryland. World War I ended just
days after Wiener's return to Aberdeen and Wiener was discharged from the military in February 1919.[9]

After the war

Wiener was unable to secure a permanent position at Harvard, a situation he blamed largely on anti-semitism at the university and in
particular on the antipathy of Harvard mathematician G. D. Birkhoff.[10] He was also rejected for a position at the University of
Melbourne. At W. F. Osgood's suggestion, Wiener became an instructor of mathematics at MIT, where he spent the remainder of his
career, becoming promoted eventually to Professor. There is a photograph of him prominently displayed in one of the hallways, often
used in giving directions.
In 1926, Wiener returned to Europe as a Guggenheim scholar. He spent most of his time
at Göttingen and with Hardy at Cambridge, working on Brownian motion, the Fourier
integral, Dirichlet's problem, harmonic analysis, and theTauberian theorems.

In 1926, Wiener's parents arranged his marriage to a German immigrant, Margaret

Engemann; they had two daughters. His sister,Constance, married Philip Franklin. Their
daughter, Janet, Wiener's niece, married Václav E. Beneš.[11]

Many tales, perhaps apocryphal, were told of him at MIT, especially concerning his
Norbert Wiener was regarded as
absent-mindedness. It was said that he returned home once to find his house empty. He
a semi-legendary figure at MIT
inquired of a neighborhood girl the reason, and she said that the family had moved
elsewhere that day. He thanked her for the information and she replied, "That's why I
stayed behind, Daddy!"[12]

In the run-up to World War II (1939–45) Wiener became a member of the China Aid
Society and the Emergency Committee in Aid of Displaced German Scholars.[13] He
was interested in placing scholars such as Yuk-Wing Lee and Antoni Zygmund who had
lost their positions.[14]

During and after World War II

During World War II, his work on the automatic aiming and firing of anti-aircraft guns
caused Wiener to investigate information theory independently of Claude Shannon and
to invent the Wiener filter. (To him is due the now standard practice of modeling an
information source as a random process—in other words, as a variety of noise.) His anti-
aircraft work eventually led him to formulate cybernetics.[15] After the war, his fame
helped MIT to recruit a research team in cognitive science, composed of researchers in
neuropsychology and the mathematics and biophysics of the nervous system, including
Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts. These men later made pioneering
contributions to computer science and artificial intelligence. Soon after the group was
formed, Wiener suddenly ended all contact with its members, mystifying his colleagues.
This emotionally traumatized Pitts, and led to his career decline. In their biography of
Wiener, Conway and Siegelman suggest that Wiener's wife Margaret, who detested
McCulloch's bohemian lifestyle, engineered the breach.[16] Norbert (standing) and Margaret
(sitting) Wiener at the
Wiener later helped develop the theories of cybernetics, robotics, computer control, and International Congress of
automation. He discussed the modeling of neurons with John von Neumann, and in a Mathematicians, Zurich 1932

letter from November 1946 von Neumann presented his thoughts in advance of a
meeting with Wiener.[17]

Wiener always shared his theories and findings with other researchers, and credited the contributions of others. These included Soviet
researchers and their findings. Wiener's acquaintance with them caused him to be regarded with suspicion during the Cold War. He
was a strong advocate of automation to improve the standard of living, and to end economic underdevelopment. His ideas became
influential in India, whose government he advised during the 1950s.

After the war, Wiener became increasingly concerned with what he believed was political interference with scientific research, and
the militarization of science. His article "A Scientist Rebels" for the January 1947 issue of The Atlantic Monthly[18] urged scientists
to consider the ethical implications of their work. After the war, he refused to accept any government funding or to work on military
projects. The way Wiener's beliefs concerning nuclear weapons and the Cold War contrasted with those of von Neumann is the major
theme of the book John Von Neumann and Norbert Wiener.[19]
Wiener was a participant of the Macy conferences. He died in March 1964, aged 69, in Stockholm, from a heart attack. Wiener and
his wife are buried at the Vittum Hill Cemetery inSandwich, New Hampshire.

Awards and honors

Wiener was a Plenary Speaker of theICM in 1936 at Oslo and in 1950 at Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Wiener won the Bôcher Memorial Prizein 1933 and the National Medal of Sciencein 1963, presented by President
Johnson at a White House Ceremony in January , 1964, shortly before Wiener's death.
Wiener won the 1965 U.S.National Book Award in Science, Philosophy and Religionfor God & Golem, Inc.: A
Comment on Certain Points where Cybernetics Impinges on Religion .[20]
The Norbert Wiener Prize in Applied Mathematicswas endowed in 1967 in honor of Norbert Wiener by MIT's
mathematics department and is provided jointly by theAmerican Mathematical Societyand Society for Industrial and
Applied Mathematics.
The Norbert Wiener Award for Social and Professional Responsibility awarded annually by CPSR, was established
in 1987 in honor of Wiener to recognize contributions by computer professionals to socially responsible use of
computers.
The crater Wiener on the far side of the Moon is named after him.
The Norbert Wiener Center for Harmonic Analysis and Applications, at the University of Maryland, College Park, is
named in his honor.[21]
Robert A. Heinlein named a spaceship after him in his 1957 novelCitizen of the Galaxy, a "Free Trader" ship called
the Norbert Wiener mentioned in Chapter 14.

Doctoral students
Shikao Ikehara (Ph.D. 1930)
Sebastian Littauer (Sc.D. 1930)
Dorothy Walcott Weeks (Ph.D. 1930)
James G Estes (Ph.D. 1933)
Norman Levinson (Sc.D. 1935)
Henry Malin (Ph.D. 1935)
Bernard Friedman (Ph.D. 1936)
Brockway McMillan (Ph.D. 1939)
Abe Gelbart (Ph.D. 1940)
Amar Bose (Sc.D. 1956)
Colin Cherry (Ph.D. 1956)
Donald G. Brennan (Ph.D. 1959)[22]

Work
Information is information, not matter or energy.

— Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the
Machine

Wiener was an early studier of stochastic and mathematical noise processes, contributing work relevant to electronic engineering,
electronic communication, and control systems. It was Wiener's idea to model a signal as if it were an exotic type of noise, giving it a
sound mathematical basis. The example we give our students nowadays is that English text could be modeled as a random string of
letters and spaces, where each letter of the alphabet (and the space) has an assigned probability. But Wiener dealt with analog signals,
where such a simple example doesn't exist. Wiener's early work on information theory and signal processing was limited to analog
.[23]
signals, and was largely forgotten with the development of the digital theory

Wiener originated cybernetics, a formalization of the notion of feedback, with many implications for engineering, systems control,
computer science, biology, philosophy, and the organization of society.
Wiener's work with cybernetics influenced Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead, and through them, anthropology, sociology, and
education.[24]

Wiener equation
A simple mathematical representation of Brownian motion, the Wiener equation,
named after Wiener, assumes the current velocity of a fluid particle fluctuates
randomly.

Wiener filter
For signal processing, the Wiener filter is a filter proposed by Wiener during the
1940s and published in 1942 as a classified document. Its purpose is to reduce the
amount of noise present in a signal by comparison with an estimate of the desired
noiseless signal. Wiener developed the filter at the Radiation Laboratory at MIT to In the mathematical field of probability,
predict the position of German bombers from radar reflections. It is necessary to the "Wiener sausage" is a
predict the future, because by the time the shell reaches the vicinity of the target, neighborhood of the trace of a
the target has moved, and maybe has changed direction slightly. They even Brownian motion up to a time t, given
by taking all points within a fixed
modeled the muscle response of the pilot, which led eventually to cybernetics. The
distance of Brownian motion. It can be
unmanned V1's were particularly easy to model, and on a good day, American
visualized as a cylinder of fixed radius
guns fitted with Wiener filters would shoot down 99 out of 100 V1's as they the centerline of which is Brownian
entered Britain from the English channel, on their way to London. What emerged motion.
was a mathematical theory of great generality---a theory for predicting the future
as best one can on the basis of incomplete information about the past. It was a
statistical theory that included applications that did not, strictly speaking, predict the future, but only tried to remove noise. It made
use of Wiener's earlier work onintegral equations and Fourier transforms.[25] [26]

In mathematics
Wiener took a great interest in the mathematical theory of Brownian motion (named after Robert Brown) proving many results now
widely known such as the non-differentiability of the paths. Consequently, the one-dimensional version of Brownian motion was
named the Wiener process. It is the best known of the Lévy processes, càdlàg stochastic processes with stationary statistically
independent increments, and occurs frequently in pure and applied mathematics, physics and economics (e.g. on the stock-market).

Wiener's Tauberian theorem, a 1932 result of Wiener, developed Tauberian theorems in summability theory, on the face of it a chapter
of real analysis, by showing that most of the known results could be encapsulated in a principle taken from harmonic analysis. In its
present formulation, the theorem of Wiener does not have any obvious association with Tauberian theorems, which deal with infinite
series; the translation from results formulated for integrals, or using the language of functional analysis and Banach algebras, is
however a relatively routine process.

The Paley–Wiener theorem relates growth properties of entire functions on Cn and Fourier transformation of Schwartz distributions
of compact support.

The Wiener–Khinchin theorem, (or Wiener – Khintchine theorem or Khinchin – Kolmogorov theorem), states that the power spectral
density of a wide-sense-stationary random process is the Fourier transform of the corresponding autocorrelation function.

An abstract Wiener space is a mathematical object in measure theory, used to construct a "decent", strictly positive and locally finite
measure on an infinite-dimensional vector space. Wiener's original construction only applied to the space of real-valued continuous
paths on the unit interval, known as classical Wiener space. Leonard Gross provided the generalization to the case of a general
separable Banach space.
 iener and Stefan Banach at around the same time.[27]
The notion of a Banach space itself was discovered independently by both W

The Norbert Wiener Center for Harmonic Analysis and Applications (NWC) in the Department of Mathematics at the University of
Maryland, College Park is devoted to the scientific and mathematical legacy of Norbert Wiener. The NWC website highlights the
research activities of the Center. Further, each year the Norbert Wiener Center hosts the February Fourier Talks, a two-day national
conference displaying advances in pure and applied harmonic analysis in industry
, government, and academia.

In popular culture
His work with Mary Brazier is referenced in Avis DeVoto's As Always, Julia.[28]

ward winner The Three Body Problem by Liu Cixin.[29]

A character named after him appears briefly in the Hugo A

Publications
Wiener wrote many books and hundreds of articles:[30]

1914, "A simplification in the logic of relations".Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 13: 387–390. 1912–14. Reprinted in van
Heijenoort, Jean (1967). From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931 . Harvard
University Press. pp. 224–7.
1930, Wiener, Norbert (1930). "Generalized harmonic analysis". Acta Math. 55 (1): 117–258.
doi:10.1007/BF02546511.
1933, The Fourier Integral and Certain of its ApplicationsCambridge Univ. Press; reprint by Dover, CUP Archive
1988 ISBN 0-521-35884-1
1942, Extrapolation, Interpolation and Smoothing of Stationary iTme Series. A war-time classified report nicknamed
"the yellow peril" because of the color of the cover and the dif
ficulty of the subject. Published postwar 1949MIT
Press. http://www.isss.org/lumwiener.htm])
1948, Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine . Paris, (Hermann & Cie) & Camb.
Mass. (MIT Press) ISBN 978-0-262-73009-9; 2nd revised ed. 1961.
1950, The Human Use of Human Beings. The Riverside Press (Houghton Mifflin Co.).
1958, Nonlinear Problems in Random Theory. MIT Press & Wiley.
1964, Selected Papers of Norbert Wiener. Cambridge Mass. 1964 (MIT Press & SIAM)
1964, God & Golem, Inc.: A Comment on Certain Points Where Cybernetics Impinges on Religion . MIT Press.
1966, "Norbert Wiener 1894–1964". Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 72 (1 Part 2): 1–33. 1966.doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-
1966-11450-7. Published in book form.
1966, Generalized Harmonic Analysis and T auberian Theorems. MIT Press.
1993, Invention: The Care and Feeding of Ideas. MIT Press. 1993. ISBN 0-262-73111-8. This was written in 1954
but Wiener abandoned the project at the editing stage and returned his advance. MIT Press published it
posthumously in 1993.
1976–84, The Mathematical Work of Norbert Wiener. Masani P (ed) 4 vols, Camb. Mass. (MIT Press). This contains
a complete collection of Wiener's mathematical papers with commentaries.
Fiction:

1959,The Tempter. Random House.

Autobiography:

1953. Ex-Prodigy: My Childhood and Youth. MIT Press.

1956. I am a Mathematician. London (Gollancz).
Under the name "W. Norbert":

1952 The Brain and other short science fiction inTech Engineering News.

See also
List of things named after Norbert Wiener
Notes
1. Norbert Wiener (https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=25222)at the Mathematics Genealogy
Project
2. Leone Montagnini, Harmonies of Disorder – Norbert Wiener: A Mathematician-Philosopher of Our Time, Springer,
2017, p. 61.
3. "Norbert Wiener" (http://www.nndb.com/people/229/000103917/). NNDB. Retrieved March 25, 2014.
4. Leone Montagnini, Harmonies of Disorder: Norbert Wiener: A Mathematician-Philosopher of Our Time, Springer
(2017), p. 4
5. "On June 2, 1964, Swami Sarvagatananda presided over the memorial service at MIT in remembrance of Norbert
Wiener – scion of Maimonides, father of cybernetics, avowed agnostic – reciting in Sanskrit from the holy books of
Hinduism, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita." , Conway & Siegelman 2005, p. 329
6. Conway & Siegelman 2005, p. 45
7. Conway & Siegelman 2005, pp. 41–43
8. Conway & Siegelman 2005, p. 43
9. Conway & Siegelman 2005, pp. 43–44
10. Conway & Siegelman 2005, pp. 40, 45
11. Franklin biography (http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Franklin.html). History.mcs.st-and.ac.uk.
Retrieved on 2013-11-02.
12. Adams, Hass & Thompson 1998, p. 8
13. Masani, Pesi R. (2012-12-06),Norbert Wiener 1894–1964 (https://books.google.com/books?id=anD0BwAAQBAJ&p
g=PA167), Birkhäuser, p. 167, ISBN 978-3-0348-9252-0, retrieved 2016-03-20
14. McCavitt, Mary Jane (September 2, 2009),Guide to the Papers of Norbert Wiener (https://libraries.mit.edu/archives/r
esearch/collections/collections-mc/pdf/mc22.pdf)(PDF), Massachusetts Institute of Technology Libraries, p. 15,
retrieved 2016-03-20
15. Conway & Siegelman 2005, p. 12
16. Conway & Siegelman 2005, pp. 223–7
17. Letters to Norbert Wiener inJohn von Neumann: Selected Letters, edited by Miklós Rédei, in History of
Mathematics, Volume 27, jointly published by the American Mathematical Society and the London Mathematical
Society, 2005
18. Wiener, Norbert (January 1947)."A Scientist Rebels" (https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/theatlantic/access/66236828.ht
ml?FMT=CITE&FMTS=&type=current). Atlantic Monthly. p. 46.
19. Heims 1980
20. "National Book Awards – 1965" (http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1965.html). National Book Foundation. Retrieved
2012-03-05.
21. "Norbert Wiener Center for Harmonic Analysis and Applications"(http://www.norbertwiener.umd.edu/). University of
Maryland, College Park.
22. Mandrekar, V.; Masani, P. R., eds. (1997). Proceedings of Symposia in Applied Mathematics V
ol 52: Proceedings of
the Norbert Wiener Centenary Congress 1994. Providence, Rhode Island: Michigan State University . p. 541. ISBN 0-
8218-0452-9.
23. John Von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death, Steve Joshua
Heims, MIT Press, 1980
24. Heims, Steve P. (April 1977). "Gregory Bateson and the mathematicians: From interdisciplinary interaction to societal
functions" (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1520-6696%28197704%2913:2%3C141::AID-J HBS230013020
5%3E3.0.CO;2-G/abstract). Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 13 (2): 141–159. doi:10.1002/1520-
6696(197704)13:2<141::AID-JHBS2300130205>3.0.CO;2-G(https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6696%28197704%291
3%3A2%3C141%3A%3AAID-JHBS2300130205%3E3.0.CO%3B2-G) . PMID 325068 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
ubmed/325068).
25. John Von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death, Steve Joshua
Heims, MIT Press, 1980, p.183
26. Norbert Wiener, Extrapolation, Interpolation and Smoothing of Stationary iTme Series, MIT Press, 1949. Originally
published as a classified document in 1942
27. "Note on a paper of M. Banach".Fund. Math. 4: 136–143. 1923. See Albiac, F.; Kalton, N. (2006). Topics in Banach
Space Theory. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. 233. New York: Springer. p. 15. ISBN 0-387-28141-X.
28. Reardon, Joan. As Always, Julia. Houghton Mif
flin, 2010. 223.
29. Liu, Cixin (2015). The Three Body Problem. Chongqing Publishing Group.ISBN 9787229100605.
30. A full bibliography is given by the Cybernetics SocietyPublications of Norbert Wiener(http://www.cybsoc.org/wiener.
htm)

Further reading
Adams, Colin; Hass, Joel;Thompson, Abigail (1998). How to Ace Calculus: The Streetwise Guide. New York: W.H.
Freeman and Company.
Almira, J. M. (2009). Norbert Wiener. Un matemático entre ingenieros [Nobert Wiener. A mathematician between
engineers] (in Spanish). Madrid: Nivola Libros Y Ediciones Sl.ISBN 978-84-92493-49-4.
Bluma, Lars (2005). Norbert Wiener und die Entstehung der Kybernetik im Zweiten W eltkrieg: eine historische
Fallstudie zur Verbindung von Wissenschaft, Technik und Gesellschaft(Ph.D.). Münster. ISBN 3-8258-8345-0.
OCLC 60744372.
Bynum, Terrell W. "Norbert Wiener's Vision: The impact of "theautomatic age" on our moral lives"(PDF).
Conway, Flo; Siegelman, Jim (2005).Dark Hero of the Information Age: in search of Norbert W iener, the father of
cybernetics. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-7382-0368-8.
Faucheux, Michel; Wiener, Norbert (2008). le Golem et la cybernetique. Editions du Sandre.
Gleick, James (2011). The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York: Pantheon Books.
Grattan-Guinness, Ivor(2000). The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940 . Princeton University Press. pp. 290,
296, 394, 395, 410,419–422, 427, 442, 528, 531, 536, 538, 567.ISBN 1400824044.
Hardesty, Larry (July–August 2011)."The Original Absent-Minded Professor - An MIT institution, Norbert Wiener did
seminal work in control theory and signal processing". MIT News.
Heims, Steve J. (1980).John Von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and
Death. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-08105-9.
Heims, Steve J. (1993).Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America. The Cybernetics Group, 1946–1953 .
MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-58123-X.
Ilgauds, Hans Joachim (1980).Norbert Wiener. Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler , Techniker und
Mediziner. 45. Teubner..
Masani, P. Rustom (1990). Norbert Wiener 1894–1964. Birkhauser.
Montagnini, Leone (2017).Harmonies of Disorder. Norbert Wiener, A Mathematician-Philosopher of our time. New
York - Berlin - Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-50656-2.

External links
Norbert Wiener Center for Harmonic Analysis and Applications
Norbert Wiener and Cybernetics– Living Internet
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Norbert Wiener", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of
St Andrews.
Norbert Wiener at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Dr Norbert Wiener at Find a Grave
[1] - Norbert Wiener in Encyclopedia o Com

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