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Neutral Conductor Overloading
• Overloaded neutral current are usually only a local problem inside a building, for
example, at a service panel.
• Typical electronic ballast should not have a third harmonic component exceeding
30% of the fundamental.
• The neutral current magnitude should always be less than the phase current
magnitude in circuits supplying fluorescent lighting load.
• It is sufficient to make the sizes of neutral conductors the same as the phase
conductors.
• Computer systems have shifted from three-phase to single-phase power
supplies.
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The possible solutions to neutral conductor overloading include the following:
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Example_ Solution
A commercial building is being served by 480 V so that its fluorescent lighting loads can
be supplied by a line-to-neutral voltage of 277 V. It is observed that the third harmonic
components are much lower. For instance, typical electronic ballast used with the
fluorescent lighting should not have a third harmonic component exceeding 30% of the
fundamental.
For this worse-case analysis, determine the following:
a. The approximate rms value of the phase current in per units
b. The approximate rms value of the neutral current in per units
c. The ratio of the neutral current to the phase current
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Example Solution
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Capacitor Banks and Power Factor Correction
• capacitor banks used in parallel with an inductive load provide this load with
reactive power.
• They reduce the system’s reactive and apparent power and, therefore, cause its
PF to increase.
• Furthermore, capacitor current causes voltage rise that results in lower line
losses and voltage drops loading to an improved efficiency and voltage
regulation.
where
P is the real power delivered by the system and absorbed by the load
Q1 is the load’s reactive power
Q2 is the system reactive power after the capacitor bank connection
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Capacitor Banks and Power Factor Correction
• As it can be observed from the following equation, since a low PF means a high
current,
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Short-Circuit Capacity or MVA
where
• I3ϕ is the total three-phase fault current in A
• kVL−L is the system phase-to-phase voltage in kV
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Short-Circuit Capacity or MVA
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System Response Characteristics
• All circuits containing both capacitance and inductance have one or more natural
resonant frequencies.
• When one of these frequencies corresponds to an exciting frequency being
produced by nonlinear loads, harmonic resonance can occur.
• Voltage and current will be dominated by the resonant frequency and can be highly
distorted.
• The response of the power system at each harmonic frequency determines the true
impact of the nonlinear load on harmonic voltage distortion.
• Somewhat surprisingly, power systems are quite tolerant of the currents injected by
harmonic producing loads unless there is some adverse interaction with the system
impedance.
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System Impedance
• Since at the fundamental frequency power systems are mainly inductive, their
equivalent impedances are also called the short-circuit reactance.
• In utility distribution systems as well as industrial power systems, capacitive effects
are frequently ignored.
where
• Rsc is the short-circuit resistance
• Xsc is the short-circuit reactance
• kVL−L is the phase-to-phase voltage, kV
• MVAsc(3ϕ) is the three-phase short-circuit MVA
• The inductive reactance
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Bus Voltage Rise and Resonance
• after the switch is closed, the equivalent (short-circuit) impedance of the system
(or the source) is
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Bus Voltage Rise and Resonance
Xs=Xc
Xc/h=hXs h=(Xc/Xs)^1/2
h= fr/f1
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Bus Voltage Rise and Resonance
• Assuming that 𝑉𝑠 remains constant, the phase voltage rise at the bus due to the
capacitor bank connection is
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Bus Voltage Rise and Resonance
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Bus Voltage Rise and Resonance
• From the following equation, one can observe that a 0.04 per unit rise in bus voltage
due to the switching on a capacitor bank results in a resonance at
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Example
A three-phase 12.47 kV, 5 MVA capacitor bank is causing a bus voltage increase of 500
V when switched on. Determine the following:
a. The per unit increase in bus voltage
b. The resonant harmonic order
c. The harmonic frequency at the resonance
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Harmonic Amplification
• At the resonance,
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Harmonic Amplification
• the hth harmonic capacitor voltage (or the capacitor voltage at resonance) can be
expressed as
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𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶
𝜔=1/ 𝐿𝐶
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Harmonic Amplification
• From Equations
• One can observe that harmonics corresponding or close to the resonant frequency
are amplified.
• The resulting voltages highly exceed the standard voltage rating, causing capacitor
damage or fuse blowouts. The amplification factor can also be expressed as
ℎ𝑟 = 𝑋𝑐 /𝑋𝑠
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Harmonic Amplification
According to ANSI/IEEE Std.18-1992, shunt capacitors can be continuously operated in
a harmonic environment provided that
1. Reactive power does not exceed 135% of rating
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Example
A three-phase wye–wye connected 138/13.8 kV 50 MVA transformer with an
impedance of 0.25% + j12% is connected between high- and low-voltage buses.
Assume that a wye-connected switched capacitor bank is connected to the low-voltage
bus of 13.8 kV and that the capacitor bank is made up of three 4 Mvar capacitors.
Assume that at the 138 kV bus, the short-circuit MVA of the external system is 4000
MVA and its X/R ratio is 7. Use a MVA base of 100 MVA and determine the following:
a. The impedance bases for the HV and LV sides
b. The short-circuit impedance of the power system at the 138 kV bus
c. The transformer impedance in per units
d. The short-circuit impedance at the 13.8 kV bus in per units
e. The X/R ratio and the short-circuit MVA at the 13.8 kV bus in per units
f. The reactance of the capacitor per phase in ohms and per units
g. The resonant harmonic order
h. The characteristic impedance in per units
i. The amplification factor 27
Example Solution
a. The impedance bases for the HV and LV sides
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Example Solution
c. The transformer impedance in per units
e. The X/R ratio and the short-circuit MVA at the 13.8 kV bus in per units
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Example Solution
f. The reactance of the capacitor per phase in ohms and per units
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Resonance
• Series resonance occurs in a series RLC circuit that has equal inductive and
capacitive reactances, so that the circuit impedance is low and a small exciting
voltage results in a huge current.
• Similarly, parallel RLC circuit has equal inductive and capacitive reactances, so that
circuit impedance is low and a small exciting current develops a large voltage.
• The resonance phenomenon, or near-resonance condition, is the cause of the most
of the harmonic distortion problems in power systems. Therefore, at the resonance,
• The resonance can cause nuisance tripping of sensitive electronic loads and high
harmonic currents in feeder capacitor banks.
• In severe cases, capacitors produce audible noise, and they sometimes bulge.
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Resonance
• Parallel Resonance
– Occurs when the power system presents a parallel combination of power system
inductance and PF correction capacitors at the nonlinear load.
– The product of the harmonic impedance and injection current produces high harmonic
voltages.
– the highest voltage distortion is at the nonlinear load.
• Series Resonance
– Occurs when the system inductance and capacitors are in series, or nearly in series, with
respect to the nonlinear load point.
– The highest distortion is at a remote point, perhaps miles away or on an adjacent feeder
served by the same substation transformer.
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Series Resonance
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Series Resonance
• As a result, the impedance of the circuit at the resonance is then purely resistive and
is only equal to R. That is,
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Example
A series RLC circuit has XL = 0.2 Ω, XC = 1.8 Ω, and Q = 100. Determine the following:
a. The harmonic order of the series resonance
b. The reactance of the circuit at the resonance
c. The value of R
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Parallel Resonance
• the impedance is
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Parallel Resonance
Here, the critical damping takes place at Q = 0.5 or R = 0.5Xr. Quality factor determines the sharpness of the
frequency response. Q varies considerably by location on the power system. It might be less than 5 on a
distribution feeder and more than 30 on the secondary bus of a large step-down transformer. 38
Example
For a given parallel RLC circuit having XL = 0.926 Ω, XC = 75 Ω, and Q = 5, determine the
following:
a. Its harmonic order
b. Its circuit reactance at the resonance
c. The value of R
• In the presence of harmonics, the resonance takes place when the source (or
system) reactance Xsr is equal to the reactance of the capacitor XCr at the tuned
frequency, as follows:
where
XC1 is the reactance of the capacitor at the fundamental frequency
Xs1 is the inductive reactance of the source at the fundamental frequency
Ls1 = Ls is the inductance of the source at the fundamental frequency
C1 = C is the capacitance of the capacitor at the fundamental frequency
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Effects of Harmonics on the Resonance
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Effects of Harmonics on the Resonance
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Effects of Harmonics on the Resonance
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Example
A 34.5 kV three-phase 5.325 Mvar capacitor bank is to be installed at a bus that has a
short-circuit MVA of 900 MVA. Investigate the possibility of having a resonance and
eliminate it. Determine the following:
a. The harmonic order of the resonance.
b. The capacitive reactance of the capacitor bank in ohms.
c. Design the capacitor bank that will trap the resultant harmonic by adding a reactor in
series with the capacitor. Find the required reactor size XL.
d. The characteristic reactance.
e. Select the filter quality factor as 50 and find the resistance of the reactor.
f. The impedance of this resultant series-tuned filter at any harmonic order h.
g. The rated filter size.
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Example Solution
a. The harmonic order of the resonance due to the interaction between the capacitor
bank and the system is
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Example Solution
e. Since Q = 50,
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Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
equivalent circuit. 47
Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
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Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
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Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
• The below figure shows the system frequency response as capacitor size is varied in
relation to transformer as well as in the case of having no capacitor.
• If one of the peaks lines up with a common harmonic current produced by the load,
there will be a much greater voltage drop across the apparent impedance than the
case of no capacitors.
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Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
• However, the alignment of the resonant harmonic with the common source
harmonic is not always problematic.
• Often, the damping provided by resistance of the system is sufficient to prevent any
catastrophic voltages or currents, as shown in the figure below
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Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
• As one can see, even a 10% resistance loading has a considerable effect on the peak
impedance.
• Because of this fact, if there is a considerable length of lines or cables between the
capacitor bus and the nearest upstream transformer, the resonance will be
suppressed.
• Since the resistances of lines and cables are significantly large, catastrophic
harmonic problems due to capacitors do not appear often on distribution feeders.
Therefore, resistive loads will damp resonance and cause a significant reduction in
the harmonic distortion.
• However, very little damping is achieved if any from motor loads, since they are
basically inductive.
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Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
• On the contrary, they may increase distortion by shifting system resonant frequency
closer to a significant harmonic.
• But small fractional-horsepower motors may contribute considerably to damping
because of their lower X/R ratios.
• The worst resonant conditions take place when capacitors are installed on
substation buses where the transformer dominates the system impedance and has a
high X/R ratio, the relative resistance is low, and associated parallel resonant
impedance peak is very high and sharp.
• This phenomenon is known to be the cause of the failure in capacitors,
transformers, or load equipment.
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Example
A three-phase wye–wye-connected transformer with X = 10% is supplying a 40 MVA
load at a lagging PF of 0.9. At the low-voltage bus of 12.47 kV, three-phase wye-
connected capacitor bank is to be connected to correct the PF to 0.95. A distribution
engineer is asked to investigate the problem, knowing that the short-circuit MVA at the
345 kV bus is 2000 MVA. Use a MVA base of 100 MVA and determine the following:
a. The current bases for the HV and LV sides of the transformer in amps
b. The impedance bases for the HV and LV sides in ohms
c. The short-circuit reactance of the system at the 345 kV bus in per units and ohms
d. The short-circuit reactance of the system at the 12.47 kV bus in per units and ohms
e. The short-circuit MVA of the system at the 12.47 kV bus in per units and MVA
f. The real power of the load at the lagging PF of 0.9 in per units and MW
g. The size of the capacitor bank needed to correct the PF to 0.95 lagging in per units and Mvar
h. The resonant harmonic order at which the interaction between the capacitor bank and system
inductance initiates resonance
i. The reactance of each capacitor per phase in per units and ohms
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Example Solution
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Example Solution
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Example Solution
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Example Solution
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