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7 Prenatal Care
KEY TERMS LEARNING OBJECTIVES
amniocentesis On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
biophysical profile 1. Explain the goals of early prenatal care.
chorionic villus sampling 2. Explain to a pregnant woman what to expect during the first prenatal visit.
cordocentesis
3. List components of the history taken at the first prenatal visit.
doula
4. Describe physical examination performed at the first prenatal visit.
estimated date of confinement
estimated date of delivery 5. List the laboratory tests completed during the first prenatal visit.
gravida 6. Describe methods for estimating the due date, and use Nagele’s rule to cal-
microcephaly culate the due date.
multigravida 7. Recognize factors that put the pregnancy at risk.
Nagele’s rule 8. Describe components of subsequent prenatal visits.
nulligravida 9. For each fetal assessment test, outline the nursing care and implications.
parity
10. Identify common nursing diagnoses for a pregnant woman.
percutaneous umbilical blood
sampling 11. Choose appropriate nursing interventions for the pregnant woman, includ-
sonogram ing interventions to relieve anxiety, relieve common discomforts of
teratogens pregnancy, teach self-care, maintain safety for the woman and fetus, and
prepare the woman for labor, birth, and parenthood.
12. Evaluate the effectiveness of nursing care given during pregnancy.
EARLY PRENATAL care is crucial to the health of the heavy emphasis on teaching throughout the pregnancy.
woman and her unborn baby. In fact, the best strategy is At each prenatal visit, it is the role of the nurse to screen
for the woman to seek care before she conceives. A recent the woman, monitor vital signs, perform other assess-
study found that birth outcomes for women who receive ments as delegated by the primary care provider (PCP),
no prenatal care are two to four times worse than out- answer questions, and provide appropriate teaching.
comes for the general population (Taylor, Alexander, &
Hepworth, 2005). According to the National Center for ASSESSMENT OF MATERNAL
Health Statistics (2007), 84% of mothers received pre- WELL-BEING DURING PREGNANCY
natal care in the first trimester in 2004. Although this First Prenatal Visit
statistic falls short of the Healthy People 2010 goal that Ideally, the first prenatal visit occurs as soon as the
90% of pregnant women will begin care in the first woman thinks she might be pregnant. Often, the event
trimester, it does show a significant increase compared that signals the woman to seek care is a missed or late
with 1990, when only 75.8% of women received early menstrual period. She also may be experiencing some of
prenatal care (Women’s Health USA, 2005). the signs associated with pregnancy, such as nausea, fa-
The goal of early prenatal care is to optimize the health tigue, frequent urination, or tingling and fullness of the
of the woman and the fetus and to increase the odds that breasts. The utmost question on the woman’s mind, re-
the fetus will be born healthy to a healthy mother. Early gardless of whether the pregnancy was planned or not, is
prenatal care allows for the initiation of strategies to pro- “Am I pregnant?” If the woman obtained a positive
mote good health and for early intervention in the event a pregnancy test at home, she will want to confirm the re-
complication develops. As a nurse and trusted health care sults. If she did not, then she may feel anxious, nervous,
provider, you play a large role in teaching women about excited, or any number of emotions until the practitioner
the importance of early and continued prenatal care. confirms the diagnosis of pregnancy.
Assessment of maternal and fetal well-being is the fo- The first prenatal visit is usually the longest because
cus of prenatal care. Nursing responsibilities include a the baseline data to which all subsequent assessments are
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compared are obtained at this visit. The woman may not a nulligravida, whereas a woman who has had more
be mentally prepared for all the questions and tests that than one pregnancy is a multigravida.
must be done, particularly because her main goal at the Once the total number of pregnancies has been deter-
first visit is to determine whether she is, in fact, pregnant. mined and recorded, the next part of the obstetric history
The major objectives of this visit are to confirm or rule out is parity. Parity, or para, communicates the outcome of
a diagnosis of pregnancy, ascertain risk factors, determine previous pregnancies. If a gravida 1 delivers a live-born
the due date, and provide education on maintaining a infant, or an infant who is past the age of viability
healthy pregnancy. These objectives are met through his- (⬎20 weeks), her obstetric status is gravida 1, para 1.
tory taking, a physical examination, laboratory work, and Nonviable fetuses that deliver before the end of 20 weeks’
teaching. Refer to The Nursing Process for Prenatal Care gestation are abortions (either spontaneous or induced) and
at the end of the chapter for discussion of teaching topics. do not count in the parity. For example, if a woman had a
pregnancy that ended at 17 weeks, another at 26 weeks,
History and another at 40 weeks, and she is currently pregnant,
The history is one of the most important elements of the her obstetric status is gravida 4 para 2 abortus 1. Parity
first prenatal visit. The woman may fill out a written refers to the outcome of the pregnancy and is counted as
questionnaire, and the nurse or physician will then con- 1, even if the woman delivers twins or triplets.
firm the answers. Some practitioners prefer to obtain the One of the most common methods of recording the
history exclusively by face-to-face interview. Whatever obstetric history is to use the acronym GTPAL. “G”
method is chosen, review the history thoroughly and re- stands for gravida, the total number of pregnancies. “T”
port any abnormal or unusual details. There are several stands for term, the number of pregnancies that ended at
parts to the history, including chief complaint, reproduc- term (at or beyond 38 weeks’ gestation); “P” is for
tive history, medical–surgical history, family history, and preterm, the number of pregnancies that ended after 20
social history. weeks and before the end of 37 weeks’ gestation. “A”
represents abortions, the number of pregnancies that
Chief Complaint ended before 20 weeks’ gestation. “L” is for living, the
The chief complaint is usually a missed menstrual pe- number of children delivered who are alive at the time of
riod. Ask the woman about presumptive and probable history collection. Some PCPs further divide abortions
signs of pregnancy. into induced and spontaneous and note multiple births
and ectopic pregnancies. Box 7-1 defines terms associ-
Reproductive History ated with the obstetric history.
Note the time of menarche, as well as a summary of the It is important to obtain information regarding com-
characteristics of the woman’s normal menstrual cycles. plications that may have occurred with other pregnan-
Common questions include, “Are your periods regular?” cies. A problem the woman had in a previous pregnancy
“How frequently do your periods occur?” Note the first may manifest itself again in the current pregnancy or
day of the last menstrual period (LMP) if the woman
knows this information.
The obstetric his-
tory is a part of the Here’s a tip Box 7-1 ❚ OBSTETRIC HISTORY TERMS
reproductive history. If another person accom-
Review details of each panies the woman, find ■ Gravida: Total number of pregnancies a woman
pregnancy, including a tactful way to sepa- has had, including the present pregnancy.
history of miscarri- rate them for at least ■ Para: The number of fetuses delivered after the
part of the history col-
ages or abortions and lection. There may be point of viability (20 weeks' gestation), whether
the outcome of each details in the woman’s or not they are born alive.
pregnancy (i.e., how reproductive history that ■ Nulli (null or none), primi (first or one), and
many weeks the preg- she won’t be willing to multi (many): Prefixes used in front of the terms
nancy lasted and reveal in the presence of others, “gravida” and “para” to indicate whether or not
such as history of abortion.
whether or not the Ensuring privacy will increase the the woman has had previous pregnancies and
pregnancy ended with accuracy of the history. deliveries.
a living child). ■ GTPAL: Acronym that represents the obstetric
The obstetric history is recorded in a specific format history.
that is a type of medical shorthand. The word “gravid” Gravida
means pregnant. Gravida refers to the number of preg- Term deliveries
nancies the woman has had (regardless of the outcome). Preterm deliveries
For example, a woman who has had one pregnancy is a Abortions
gravida 1, whereas a woman who has had five pregnancies Living children
is a gravida 5. A woman who has never been pregnant is
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Risk Assessment
The risk assessment takes into account all of the informa-
tion gathered from the history, physical examination, and
laboratory tests. Many factors put a pregnancy at risk.
These factors include a negative attitude of the woman to-
ward the pregnancy (e.g., an unwanted pregnancy), seek-
ing prenatal care late in the pregnancy, and maternal sub-
stance abuse (alcohol, tobacco, or illicit drugs). A history
of complications with previous pregnancies or poor out-
comes, and the presence of maternal disease also put the
current pregnancy at risk. Social factors that increase the
risk of poor outcomes include inadequate living conditions
and domestic violence or physical abuse. If the woman is
unaware of the adverse effects of tobacco and alcohol, the
benefits of folic acid, or the risk of HIV, the pregnancy is ■ Figure 7-2 The licensed practical/vocational nurse meas-
at increased risk for complications and poor outcomes. ures the blood pressure at a prenatal visit.
Age also plays a factor. Young teens and women older than
35 years of age are at higher risk for a complicated preg-
At each office visit, the practitioner measures the fun-
nancy. An unplanned pregnancy or a pregnancy when the
dal height in centimeters (Fig. 7-3). This measurement
woman is unsure of her LMP date may also be at risk.
provides a confirmation of gestational age between
weeks 18 and 32. In other words, between weeks 18 and
32, the fundal height in centimeters should match the
Test Yourself number of weeks the pregnancy has progressed. For ex-
✔ Which obstetric term indicates the number of preg- ample, if the woman is 18 weeks pregnant, the fundal
nancies a woman has had? height should measure 18 cm. If there is a discrepancy
between the size and dates, the practitioner usually or-
✔ List four laboratory tests that are routinely ordered
ders a sonogram to determine the cause of the discrep-
during the first prenatal visit.
ancy. A fundal height that is larger than expected could
✔ Explain how to calculate the due date using Nagele’s mean, among other things, that the original dates were
rule. miscalculated, that the woman is carrying twins, or that
there is a molar pregnancy (see Chapter 17).
The woman undergoes screening at particular times
Subsequent Prenatal Visits during the pregnancy. Sometime between 15 and 20
weeks’ gestation, a maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein
Traditionally, the practitioner sees the woman once
(MSAFP) should be drawn (see the discussion in the
monthly from weeks 1 through 32. Between weeks 32
and 36, prenatal visits are biweekly. From week 36 until
delivery, the woman is seen weekly. Current research
shows that fewer visits for low-risk pregnancies and
more visits for at-risk pregnancies may be more benefi-
cial overall than a rigid adherence to the traditional
schedule of visits (Lockwood, 2007). In any event, en-
courage the woman to keep her appointments and main-
tain regular prenatal care throughout the pregnancy.
Most subsequent visits include specific assessments.
Weight, blood pressure (Fig. 7-2), urine protein and glu-
cose, and fetal heart rate (FHR) are all data that you may
collect. At every visit, inquire regarding the danger signals
of pregnancy (discussed in the Nursing Process for Pre-
natal Care). Ask the woman about fetal movement, con-
tractions, bleeding, and membrane rupture. Normally the
practitioner does not repeat the pelvic examination until ■ Figure 7-3 The certified nurse midwife measures the fun-
late in the pregnancy, close to the expected time of delivery. dal height.
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Test Yourself
■ Figure 7-4 Ultrasound is used to identify fetal and
✔ How often does the woman with an uncomplicated placental structures during pregnancy.
pregnancy have prenatal office visits from weeks 1
through 32?
least 10 times in 2 hours (Wyatt & Rhoads, 2006). If it
✔ What purpose does measuring the fundal height takes longer than 2 hours for the fetus to move 10 times,
serve during prenatal visits? or if the woman cannot get her baby to move at all, she
✔ List the time during pregnancy when screening for should immediately call her health care provider. The
gestational diabetes normally occurs. practitioner will order tests to determine the well-being
of the fetus.
Ultrasonography
ASSESSMENT OF FETAL WELL-BEING Ultrasound is the gold standard in the United States to
DURING PREGNANCY determine gestational age, observe the fetus, and diag-
Throughout the pregnancy, the PCP may order tests to nose complications of pregnancy (Fig. 7-4). Because it ap-
assess the well-being of the fetus. Some are screening pears to be a safe and effective way to monitor fetal well-
tests, which means they are not diagnostic. If an abnor- being, the procedure is performed frequently. One result
mal result occurs with a screening test, the practitioner of monitoring virtually every pregnancy with ultrasound
orders additional diagnostic testing. The discussion that is that most parents know the gender of the child before
follows describes some of the most common tests and he or she is born. Many sonographers take a still picture
procedures. Not every woman will receive every test, al- of the fetus and provide this to the parents, if desired.
though some screening tests are recommended for all As stated earlier in the chapter, ultrasound uses high-
pregnant women, at certain points during the pregnancy. frequency sound waves to visualize fetal and maternal
structures (Fig. 7-5). The developing embryo can first be
Fetal Kick Counts
A healthy fetus moves and kicks regularly, although the
pregnant woman usually cannot perceive the movements
until approximately gestational week 16 to 20. The prac-
titioner or the nurse instructs the woman to monitor her
baby’s movements on a daily basis. Instruct the woman
to choose a time each day in which she can relax and
count the baby’s movements. Each kick or position
change counts as one
movement. Using a
special form or a Don’t forget.
blank sheet of paper, “Routine” for you as a
instruct the woman nurse is not at all rou-
to note the time she tine for the woman.
She will need careful
starts counting fetal explanation of all pre-
kicks and then keep natal tests. This includes
counting until she routine testing that
counts 10 move- occurs as part of prenatal ■ Figure 7-5 Fetus viewed via ultrasound. The outline of
ments. A healthy care and tests performed the fetal head and trunk can be clearly seen in the
for other reasons.
fetus will move at transverse position.
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woman into lithotomy position in stirrups. The practi- cytomegalovirus, varicella zoster, human parvovirus,
tioner cleans her vagina and cervix with povidone-iodine and HIV. Through the technology of cordocentesis, the
or other antiseptic fluid. Using ultrasound guidance, the fetus with thrombocytopenia can receive weekly infu-
practitioner inserts a small catheter into the woman’s sions of platelets until delivery. The fetus with hemolytic
vagina and through the cervix. Placental tissue is then disease can receive exchange transfusions (part of the fe-
extracted into a syringe to obtain fetal cells for chromo- tus’ blood is withdrawn and the same amount replaced
somal analysis. Sometimes the practitioner uses a trans- with healthy blood). The fetus with an infection can be
abdominal approach with a needle, similar to the proce- treated with antibiotics or receive other therapies, de-
dure for amniocentesis. The woman usually experiences pending upon the type of infection. The blood obtained
minimal discomfort and may resume normal activities from cordocentesis can also be sent for rapid chromoso-
after the test. RhoGam should be administered after the mal studies. Results are back within 48 to 72 hours. The
procedure to Rho(D)-negative women. risks associated with PUBS are approximately the same
One advantage of CVS testing is that the results are as those of amniocentesis.
available in 7 to 10 days, much faster than with amnio-
centesis. Another advantage is that testing can occur ear- Nonstress Test
lier in the pregnancy. However, there are disadvantages The nonstress test (NST) is a noninvasive way to moni-
to this technique. First, some studies demonstrate a tor fetal well-being. Usually around 28 weeks and on-
higher rate of pregnancy loss with transcervical CVS ver- ward, the fetal nervous system is developed enough so
sus transabdominal CVS and second-trimester amnio- that the autonomic nervous system works to periodically
centesis (Ghidini & McLaren, 2006). A second potential accelerate the heart rate. Therefore, the practitioner can
disadvantage is that there is no amniotic fluid in a CVS observe FHR accelerations using an EFM.
sample; therefore, the amniotic alpha-fetoprotein cannot The woman requires no special preparation other than
be evaluated, as it can with amniocentesis. This means placement of EFM (see Chapter 10 for in-depth discussion
the woman would need to have MSAFP levels drawn at of fetal monitoring). She may or may not have an event
16 to 18 weeks’ gestation to test for neural tube defects. marker to hold.2 If she uses one, she must push the button
(A woman who has amniocentesis performed does not every time she feels the fetus move. The nurse or practi-
need the MSAFP test because amniocentesis results re- tioner evaluates the fetal monitor tracing after 20 minutes.
port the fetal alpha-fetoprotein level, which is a more ac- Generally, if there are at least two accelerations of the fetal
curate predictor of spinal defects than maternal serum heart in a 15 ⫻ 15 window (i.e., the fetal heart accelerates
levels.) The third disadvantage of CVS is that there is a at least 15 beats above the baseline for at least 15 seconds),
small risk that the cells taken from the placenta will be the NST is said to be “reactive,” provided that the baseline
different from fetal cells. If this happens, a situation and variability are normal and that there are no decelera-
called “placental mosaicism,” the test results would be tions of the FHR. In the presence of a reactive NST, fetal
abnormal, even if the fetus were normal. Some authori- well-being is assumed for at least the next week.
ties suggest that CVS performed before 9 weeks’ gesta- If, however, there are no accelerations or less than two
tion can cause fetal limb and digit deformations. occur within 20 minutes, the strip is said to be “nonre-
active.” In this case, the monitoring would continue for
Percutaneous Umbilical Blood another 20 minutes in the hopes of obtaining a reactive
Sampling NST. This is because fetal sleep cycles last for approxi-
Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS), also mately 20 minutes. During fetal sleep, accelerations do
known as cordocentesis, is a procedure similar to amnio- not usually occur, so it is prudent to observe for an ad-
centesis, except that fetal blood is withdrawn rather than ditional 20 minutes. Sometimes the practitioner attempts
amniotic fluid. The woman is prepared in the same man- to stimulate the fetus. She may clap loudly close to the
ner as for amniocentesis and must give informed consent. woman’s abdomen or may manipulate the fetus through
Ultrasound locates the placenta and fetal structures and the abdomen with her hands, or she may give the
confirms gestational age and viability. The practitioner woman something cold to drink. Any of these activities
inserts a thin needle transabdominally under ultrasound might stimulate a sleeping fetus to wake up, and result in
guidance, and withdraws blood from the umbilical cord a reactive tracing. If the tracing remains nonreactive or
close to its insertion with the placenta. Alternatively, the equivocal (results cannot be interpreted), additional
practitioner can obtain blood from the fetal heart or from testing is warranted. In these instances, the practitioner
the umbilical vein within the liver, although these sites are
not commonly chosen. The blood is then sent for testing.
2
Sometimes, PUBS is done specifically to diagnose and In the past, it was very important to monitor the FHR in con-
treat certain diseases of the blood, such as von Wille- junction with fetal movement. Now, it is generally felt that
spontaneous accelerations with or without fetal movement are
brand’s disease, alloimmune thrombocytopenia, and indicative of fetal well-being, so it is not necessary to have the
hemolytic disease. It can also diagnose and treat cases woman track fetal movements, although some practitioners
of fetal infection such as toxoplasmosis, rubella, may prefer this.
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frequently recommends vibroacoustic stimulation or a 10 indicates fetal well-being. A score of 6 correlates with
contraction stress test (CST). possible fetal asphyxia, whereas a score of 4 indicates
probable fetal asphyxia. Scores of 0 to 2 are ominous
Vibroacoustic Stimulation and require immediate delivery of the fetus (Wyatt &
For vibroacoustic stimulation, the practitioner places an Rhoads, 2006).
artificial larynx a centimeter from or directly on the ma-
ternal abdomen. The sound stimulates the fetus to wake
up, and a healthy fetus responds with a reactive NST. Test Yourself
Some practitioners use vibroacoustic stimulation for all
NSTs because it decreases the length of time needed to ✔ How many times should the fetus move in a 2-hour
obtain a reactive tracing and decreases the number of period of time?
false-nonreactive tracings. Other practitioners use vi- ✔ What three tests are included in the triple-marker
broacoustic stimulation as the second step after obtain- screening test?
ing a nonreactive NST. ✔ What tissue is extracted for study when chorionic
villus sampling is used?
Contraction Stress Test
Uterine contractions cause a momentary reduction of
uteroplacental blood flow, which stresses the fetus. A
CST monitors the fetus’ response to contractions to de- THE NURSE’S ROLE IN
termine his or her well-being. The woman is placed on PRENATAL CARE
EFM, as for the NST. There are three ways to obtain
Nurses are in a unique position to influence behaviors of
uterine contractions for a CST. The easiest way is if the
the pregnant woman and to increase the chance she and
woman is having spontaneous Braxton Hicks contrac-
her baby will stay healthy. Through consistent use of the
tions because there is no need to induce contractions. An-
nursing process, you can detect problems early in order
other way is to induce uterine contractions through nip-
to intervene, or assist the PCP to intervene, and support
ple stimulation. Nipple stimulation causes release of
the woman through her pregnancy. Teaching remains the
oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland. The oxy-
primary nursing intervention throughout pregnancy.
tocin then stimulates the uterus to contract. The third
way is to start an intravenous drip of Pitocin (synthetic
oxytocin) to induce contractions. Nursing Process for Prenatal Care
The goal is to have three contractions of at least 40 sec- Assessment
onds’ duration within a 10-minute period. Then the prac- Ongoing assessment and data collection are essential
titioner reviews the fetal monitor strip to determine the re- components of prenatal visits. During the first prenatal
action of the fetus to the stress of the contractions. If there visit, pay close attention to cues the woman may give re-
are no late decelerations (decelerations that occur after the garding her feelings toward the pregnancy. Ambivalence
contractions; see Chapter 10) after any of the contrac- is normal. The woman may express feelings of doubt
tions, the CST is negative, which is a reassuring sign. A about the pregnancy or her ability to be a good parent.
negative CST indicates that the fetus is not suffering from These are normal reactions when a woman first finds out
hypoxia and does not need immediate delivery. An equiv- she is pregnant, and she needs reassurance that her re-
ocal CST occurs when there are late decelerations after sponses are normal. Withdrawal or consistently negative
some, but not all, of the uterine contractions. This result remarks are warning signs. Report these observations to
is suspicious of fetal hypoxia and may cause the physician the registered nurse (RN) or PCP.
to decide to perform a cesarean delivery of the fetus. A If you administer the initial questionnaire, show the
positive CST, late decelerations after every contraction, is woman all the pages and assist her to complete it, if nec-
indicative of fetal hypoxia and requires delivery of the fe- essary. Review the document carefully when she is done
tus. An unsatisfactory CST occurs when there are insuffi- to ensure completeness. Look for answers that indicate
cient contractions. The practitioner may repeat the test the need for further assessment. Alert the RN or the PCP
within 24 hours, or may order a biophysical profile. of possible risk factors identified in the history.
Assess for signs of nervousness and anxiety. The woman
Biophysical Profile may express her nervousness by being restless or tense or
Biophysical profile uses a combination of factors to de- by being quiet and withdrawn. Be attuned to signals she is
termine fetal well-being. Five fetal biophysical variables giving regarding her comfort level. At every visit, inquire
are measured. NST measures FHR acceleration. Then ul- carefully regarding current medications, food supple-
trasound measures breathing, body movements, tone, ments, and over-the-counter remedies she is using.
and amniotic fluid volume. Each variable receives a score Note if the woman has been experiencing nausea and
of 0 (abnormal, absent, or insufficient) or 2 (normal or vomiting. Pay close attention to signs that might indicate
present) for a maximum score of 10. A score of 8 to poor nutritional status. Weight is an obvious clue. If the
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Implementation
Relieving Anxiety
Escort the woman to the examination room. Explain
normal procedure and describe what she can expect dur-
ing the visit. When the woman knows what to expect,
she will be much less anxious. Maintain a calm, confi-
■ Figure 7-7 The nurse listens to fetal heart tones with a dent demeanor while giving care. Protect the woman’s
Doppler device. privacy during invasive examinations.
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Try to understand the woman’s perspective. Note if Other helpful hints are to encourage the woman to eat
her anxiety level increases. Anticipate concern when fe- small amounts frequently throughout the day, instead of
tal testing is required. Solicit questions and correct mis- consuming three heavy meals hours apart, and never to
conceptions the woman may have. Provide information let the stomach become completely empty. It also helps
concerning the treatment plan. Use active listening and to avoid strong odors and spicy and fatty foods. Some-
encourage positive coping behaviors. times it is easier for the woman to eat when someone else
prepares the meal. Brushing the teeth causes salivation,
Relieving the Common Discomforts of Pregnancy which can intensify nausea. In addition, the smell of the
Pregnant women tend to experience similar discomforts toothpaste may cause nausea, so the woman should wait
because of the significant bodily changes they undergo. for 1 hour after eating before brushing her teeth.
Some discomforts tend to occur in early pregnancy, some When the nonpharmacologic interventions described
toward the end, and others continue throughout. Table above do not sufficiently treat the nausea, there are sev-
7-2 lists selected discomforts along with hints for help- eral options. Two alternative therapies that have shown
ing the woman cope. benefit are the herbal supplement ginger, at a dose of 250
mg by mouth 4 times per day or acupressure treatments.
Nasal Stuffiness and Epistaxis. A pregnant woman is Sometimes taking a multivitamin supplement helps.
prone to nasal stuffiness and epistaxis (nosebleeds). Es- Some studies have shown therapeutic benefit of taking
trogen is the hormone most likely culpable for this dis- 25 mg of pyridoxine (vitamin B6) every 8 hours (Badell,
comfort because it contributes to vasocongestion and in- Ramin, & Smith, 2006).
creases the fragility of the nasal mucosa. Sometimes the Persistent vomiting may be a sign of hyperemesis
woman may have symptoms of the common cold that gravidarum, a complication of pregnancy that can lead
persist throughout pregnancy. Menthol applied just be- to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. If the vomit-
low the nostrils before bedtime might help relieve some ing is severe or prolonged, advise the woman to consult
discomfort from congestion. The woman should gener- her PCP. She should call the practitioner if she is unable
ally not use nasal decongestants, other than normal saline to retain any food or fluids for 24 hours (Hunter &
nasal sprays, and should consult her PCP before taking Young, 2007).
any medications, including over-the-counter remedies.
Feeling Faint. Sometimes women feel faint during the
Avoiding vigorous nose blowing may prevent nose-
first few weeks of pregnancy. Postural hypotension could
bleeds. It is also helpful to keep the nasal passages moist.
be the cause. Low blood sugar levels aggravate the situa-
Using a humidifier in the house and staying well hy-
tion. Advise the woman to change positions slowly and
drated can accomplish this. If a nosebleed occurs despite
to avoid abrupt position changes. Eating frequent high-
precautions, instruct the woman to pinch the nostrils
carbohydrate meals helps to keep blood sugar levels up. If
and hold pressure for at least 4 minutes until the bleed-
she feels faint, a walk outside might help. Alternatively, she
ing stops. Ice may help stop the bleeding. If the bleeding
might need to lie down with her feet elevated or sit with
is heavy or does not stop with pressure, instruct the
her head lower than her knees, until the feeling passes.
woman to consult her PCP.
Frequent Urination. Frequent urination can be both-
Nausea. Morning sickness, or nausea, is a common
ersome and interfere with sleep. One cause of frequent
complaint of early pregnancy, occurring in approxi-
urination in the first trimester is the increasing blood vol-
mately 75% to 80% of pregnancies (Badell, Ramin, &
ume and increased glomerular-filtration rate. Frequency
Smith, 2006). Rising levels of hCG are thought to be
usually diminishes during the second trimester, only to
part of the cause, although it is likely many factors that
reappear in the third trimester because of pressure of the
contribute. Although “morning sickness” is the lay term
enlarging uterus on the bladder.
for the nausea of pregnancy, many women experience
nausea at other times during the day, or even throughout Increased Vaginal Discharge. Leukorrhea, or increased
the day. Fortunately, nausea generally subsides by the vaginal discharge, is common during pregnancy. Increased
end of the first trimester. production of cervical glands and vasocongestion of the
Caloric intake during the first trimester is not as cru- pelvic area contribute to the discharge. If the discharge
cial as it is in the second and third trimesters, so nausea causes itching or irritation, or if there is a foul smell noted,
is usually not harmful to the pregnancy. However, severe the woman should contact her PCP because these are
nausea and vomiting can lead to nutritional deficiencies, signs of infection. She should avoid douching because
dehydration, and electrolyte deficiencies, so preventive douching can upset the normal balance of vaginal flora,
measures are important (Hunter & Young, 2007). Some increasing the risk of contracting an infection (Cottrell,
helpful suggestions include advising the woman to place 2006). Sanitary pads may help to absorb the discharge.
a high-carbohydrate, low-fat snack, such as Melba toast Shortness of Breath. Shortness of breath may occur
or saltine crackers, at the bedside before retiring. In the during the first trimester because of the effects of proges-
morning before getting out of bed, she should eat the terone. During the latter half of pregnancy, this symptom
snack. This can help prevent early morning nausea. results from the pressure of the uterus pushing upward
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Bleeding gums Stimulating effects of estrogen on the gums • Visit the dentist
• Use rinses and gargles to freshen the oral
cavity
• Use a soft-bristled toothbrush
Nasal stuffiness Effects of estrogen on the nasal mucosa • Use a cool-air vaporizer
cause vasocongestion and stuffiness. • Try normal saline nasal sprays
• Try to avoid commercial medicated nasal
sprays because initial relief may be fol-
lowed by rebound stuffiness
Nosebleeds The tiny veins of the nasal lining are prone • Avoid vigorous nose blowing
to breaking and causing nosebleeds. Dry • Use a humidifier
nasal passages increase the risk. • Drink plenty of fluids
Breast tenderness Progesterone and estrogen are thought to • Wear a well-fitted support bra
contribute to the tingling or heavy sensa- • Wearing a bra at night might be helpful if
tions in the breasts that come and go breast discomfort is interfering with rest-
throughout pregnancy. ful sleep.
Nausea and nausea Rising levels of hCG probably contribute to • Begin the day with a high-carbohydrate
with vomiting nausea along with other factors. food, such as melba toast, saltines, or
other crackers.
• Change positions slowly, especially when
getting up in the morning.
• Eat small high-protein meals frequently
throughout the day.
• If protein is not well tolerated, try high-
carbohydrate, low-fat snacks to avoid
hypoglycemia.
• Wait at least 1 hour after eating to brush
the teeth.
• Drink small amounts frequently. Include
electrolyte-replenishing liquids, such as
Gatorade and AllSport.
• Avoid noxious odors.
• Take a walk outside in the fresh air.
• Delay iron supplementation until the
second trimester.
Feeling faint Postural hypotension can easily develop with • Change positions slowly.
the hemodynamic changes that occur in a • Avoid abrupt position changes.
normal pregnancy as the blood vessels in • Eat small, frequent, high-carbohydrate
the periphery relax and dilate. meals.
Fatigue Cause is unknown. Progesterone may con- • Plan for daily naps.
tribute. • Take frequent rest breaks throughout the
day.
• Go to bed early.
Shortness of breath In early pregnancy, the effects of progesterone • Sit up straight to increase diameter of the
can create a sense of shortness of breath. chest.
In later pregnancy, the uterus pushes on the • If shortness of breath is interfering with
diaphragm. sleep, prop up with pillows.
Heartburn Relaxation of the LES under the influence of • Eat small, frequent meals
progesterone and increased intra-abdominal • Avoid substances that increase acid pro-
pressure due to the growing uterus cause duction, in particular cigarette smoking.
acid reflux into the lower esophagus. • Avoid substances that cause relaxation of
the LES, such as coffee, chocolate, alco-
hol, and heavy spices.
• Avoid lying down after a meal.
• Avoid lying flat.
Low back pain Changes in the center of gravity and loos- • Avoid gaining too much weight.
ened ligaments • Avoid high-heeled shoes.
• Always bend at the knees, not the waist.
• Avoid standing for too long at one time.
• Keep one foot on a stool when standing.
Frequently change the foot that is resting
on the stool.
(continued)
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Round ligament Sharp, severe pain, usually on the right side • Avoid sudden changes in positions or
pain brought on by stretching of the round sudden movements.
ligaments that support the uterus. • Apply heat.
• Lie on the side opposite the pain.
Leg cramps Not known. • Avoid plantar flexion.
• Rest frequently with the feet elevated.
• When cramps occur, extend the affected
leg and dorsiflex the foot.
• Take magnesium lactate or citrate 5 mmol
in the morning and 10 mmol at night.
Varicose veins Increased pelvic pressure, vasodilation in the • Exercise daily.
lower extremities and vagina, along with • Rest with the legs elevated several times
pooling of blood in the lower extremities daily.
can contribute to varicosities of the legs • Wear compression stockings. Put them on
and vagina. before getting out of bed in the morning.
• Avoid prolonged periods of standing or
sitting. Move around frequently. Stretch
and take small walks.
• When you must stand for a long time,
frequently exercise the leg muscles and
change positions frequently.
• Keep within the recommended weight
range during pregnancy.
Ankle edema Progesterone effects, increased pressure in • Avoid prolonged periods of standing.
the lower extremities, increased capillary • Rest frequently with the feet elevated.
permeability • Soak in a warm pool or bath.
• Avoid constrictive garments on the lower
extremities.
Flatulence Relaxation of the gastrointestinal tract under • Avoid gas-producing foods.
the influence of progesterone, pressure of • Chew foods thoroughly.
the uterus on the intestines, air swallowing • Get plenty of exercise.
• Maintain regular bowel habits.
Constipation and Slowing of the gastrointestinal tract under • Drink at least 8 glasses of noncaffeinated
hemorrhoids the influence of progesterone and beverages per day.
increased blood flow and pressure in the • Eat plenty of fiber.
pelvic area • Get adequate exercise.
• Use a stool softener, if prescribed by the
primary care provider.
• Use topical anesthetic agents to treat the
pain of hemorrhoids.
Trouble sleeping Many discomforts of pregnancy, as well as • Get adequate exercise.
the increase in size of the abdomen, can • Try different positions and use pillows to
all contribute to sleepless nights in the support and wedge.
third trimester. • Try sleeping in a sitting position.
• Drink a glass of warm milk before bed.
• Have a late-night, high-carbohydrate snack.
• Try progressive muscle relaxation or guided
imagery.
on the diaphragm. Advise the woman to take her time tion with fever is a danger sign that indicates the need
and rest frequently. If shortness of breath occurs during for medical intervention.
exercise, she may need to decrease the level of intensity. Heartburn. Heartburn, or pyrosis, is a common com-
During late pregnancy, shortness of breath may interfere plaint occurring in 30% to 50% of pregnancies (Richter,
with sleep. Propping up with pillows can help expand 2005). Several factors contribute to this discomfort.
the chest and decrease the sensation of being unable to Progesterone causes a generalized slowing of the gas-
catch her breath. Shortness of breath accompanied by trointestinal tract and can cause relaxation of the lower
chest pain, coughing up blood, or a smothering sensa- esophageal sphincter (LES). When the LES is relaxed,
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acid content from the stomach can back up into the Round Ligament Pain. The round ligaments support
lower part of the esophagus and cause a burning sensa- the uterus in the abdomen. As the uterus expands during
tion, known as heartburn. The increased pressure in the pregnancy, it applies pressure to the round ligaments,
abdomen from the enlarging uterus contributes to the which respond by stretching and thinning. Because liga-
problem. ments are pain sensitive structures, some women experi-
Prevention is generally the best way to treat heart- ence round ligament pain. The pain most frequently oc-
burn. Several factors aggravate the condition. Smoking curs on the right side and can be severe. The pain can
increases the acid content of the stomach. Certain foods occur at night and awaken the woman from sleep, or ex-
and beverages, such as coffee, chocolate, peppermint, ercise can bring it on.
fatty or fried foods, alcohol, and heavy spices, can con- Helpful hints to treat round ligament pain include the
tribute to LES relaxation and exacerbate heartburn. Ex- application of heat. A heating pad or warm bath might
plain that the woman should avoid the particular sub- be soothing. Sometimes lying on the opposite side can re-
stances that cause her discomfort. The pregnant woman lieve some of the pressure on the ligament and reduce the
should not smoke or drink alcohol because of the harm- pain. Avoiding sudden movements may help prevent
ful effects on the fetus. round ligament pain. If fever, chills, painful urination, or
Advise the woman regarding interventions to help pre- vaginal bleeding accompanies the pain, the woman
vent heartburn or lessen its severity. The woman should should seek emergency care because the pain is likely the
eat smaller meals more frequently and avoid drinking result of a medical condition.
fluids with meals. Filling the stomach with a heavy meal Leg Cramps. Leg cramps are a common occurrence
or with food and fluid increases the pressure and con- during pregnancy, but researchers do not know the
tributes to gastric reflux. It is best if the woman avoids cause. Preventive measures include getting enough rest,
lying down after meals. If she must lie down, suggest resting several times per day with the feet elevated, walk-
that she lie on her left side with her head higher than her ing, wearing low-heeled shoes, and avoiding constrictive
abdomen. Placing 6-in blocks under the head of the bed clothing. Another preventive measure is for the woman
or propping pillows at night to keep the chest higher to avoid plantar flexion (pointing the toes forward). A
than the abdomen may help. Chewing gum can help neu- recent Cochrane Database meta-analysis found that
tralize acid (Richter, 2005). there is little evidence to support supplementation with
If nonpharmacologic interventions are not successful calcium, sodium, or multivitamins to prevent leg
to prevent heartburn, medication may help. However, cramps. The supplement that helps most is magnesium
the woman should not take any over-the-counter med- lactate or citrate. The woman should take 5 mmol in the
ications or remedies without first consulting her PCP be- morning and 10 mmol at night (Young & Jewell, 2007).
cause several commonly used heartburn remedies, such When cramps occur, the woman’s partner can help by as-
as sodium bicarbonate, are not for use in pregnancy. The sisting her to extend her leg, then dorsiflex the foot so
primary care provider may prescribe an antacid. If so, that the toes point toward the woman’s head. If she is
the woman should not take her vitamins within 1 hour alone, she can extend her leg and dorsiflex the foot until
of taking antacids. the cramp resolves.
Backaches. More than two thirds of all pregnant women Constipation and Hemorrhoids. The natural slowing
experience low back pain at some point during pregnancy of the gastrointestinal tract under the influence of hor-
(Pennick & Young, 2007). Obesity and previous history of mones can lead to constipation during pregnancy, and
back pain are risk factors. Softening and loosening of the constipation can lead to hemorrhoids. The best way to
ligaments supporting the joints of the spine and pelvis can treat constipation is to prevent it. The same common
contribute to low back pain, as can the increasing lordosis sense approaches to preventing constipation that are ad-
of pregnancy and the changing center of gravity. visable under normal situations are also helpful during
Teach the woman to prevent low back pain by using pregnancy. These include drinking at least eight glasses
good posture, proper-body mechanics, such as bending of noncaffeinated beverages each day. Advise the woman
the knees to reach something on the floor, rather than to get adequate exercise. Adding fiber to the diet or a
stooping over from the waist. She should also avoid bulk-forming supplement such as Metamucil to the daily
high-heeled shoes. Good pelvic support with a girdle routine are also helpful hints.
might be helpful for some women. Strengthening and Hemorrhoids can become a problem during pregnancy
conditioning exercises may be beneficial. because of the increased blood flow in the rectal veins and
Treatment of mild backache includes heat, ice, aceta- pressure of the uterus that prevents good venous return.
minophen, and massage. If the woman must stand for Elevating the legs and hips intermittently throughout the
prolonged periods, she can put one foot on a stool. She day can help counteract this problem. Hemorrhoids can
should periodically switch the foot that is on the stool cause pain, itching, burning sensation, and occasionally
(Trupin, 2006). Severe back pain is usually associated bleeding. Applying topical anesthetics such as Preparation
with some type of pathology. The woman should consult H or Anusol cream and compresses, such as witch hazel
her PCP for severe pain. pads, can relieve the pain and swelling.
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nipples. These practices are acceptable as long as there is Employment. How long a woman can remain safely
no history of preterm labor because nipple stimulation employed during pregnancy depends on several factors.
can stimulate labor. In general, a woman with a low-risk pregnancy can con-
Clothing. Clothing should be loose and comfortable. tinue working until she goes into labor, unless there are
The woman should not wear garments that constrict the specific hazards associated with her job. Research
waist or legs. If finances are tight, the woman might try demonstrates that women in physically demanding jobs,
borrowing clothes from a friend or relative, rather than such as working in the fields (day laborers), experience a
investing in expensive maternity clothes. She might also higher incidence of low-birth-weight infants, preterm de-
buy used maternity clothes. High heels exacerbate back- livery, and hypertension during pregnancy. A woman
ache and can be a safety hazard for the pregnant woman who is required to stand for long periods as part of her
who has problems with balance. Shoes should fit com- job also is at increased risk for preterm delivery.
fortably. When a woman chooses to work during pregnancy, it
is most helpful if she can take frequent rest periods. If
Sexual Activity. Many couples are fearful that sexual she must stand for prolonged periods, suggest that she
activity during pregnancy might hurt the fetus. Unless shift her weight back and forth, and that she take fre-
there is a history of preterm labor, vaginal bleeding, rup- quent breaks to walk around and to sit with her feet el-
tured membranes, or other medical contraindication, the evated. She should avoid excessive fatigue.
woman and her partner can safely continue intercourse Exposure to teratogens, substances capable of causing
and other sexual activities throughout pregnancy. Many birth defects, is always a concern when a woman works
factors influence the woman’s desire for sexual activity. during pregnancy. Environmental hazards that might put
During the first trimester, she may feel nauseous and the pregnant woman at risk in the work place include
tired, so her interest in sex might be low. During the sec- exposure to chemicals, metals, solvents, pharmaceutical
ond trimester, she often feels better and may have a agents, radiation, extreme heat, second-hand smoke,
heightened interest in sex. The increased blood flow to and infection (Fowler & Culpepper, 2007). The woman
the pelvic area can intensify the sexual experience for the should investigate the type of chemicals or other sub-
pregnant woman. Some women experience orgasm for stances to which she is exposed during the course of her
the first time during work and then work with her employer to limit exposure
pregnancy. During the to harmful substances.
third trimester, fatigue A word of caution:
may reduce her de- If the couple practices Travel. Travel is generally not limited during the first
sire or she might fear anal intercourse, they trimester. The woman can travel safely in the second and
should not proceed
hurting the fetus. to vaginal intercourse third trimesters with careful planning. One concern
The partner’s sex- after engaging in anal when traveling long distances is the chance that labor
ual desire is also de- intercourse. Doing so will occur while the woman is away from her PCP. It is
pendent on several could introduce the bac- advisable for the woman to carry copies of her prenatal
interrelated factors. terium Escherichia coli into records with her when she travels. This practice will in-
the vagina that could
Some men find the cause an ascending infection. crease the odds that she will receive appropriate care if
pregnant body sexu- she must seek health care away from home.
ally appealing and de- When traveling by car, encourage the woman to make
sirable. Others may have trouble adjusting to their part- frequent stops (at least every 2 hours) so that she can
ner’s changing body shape. Some men are afraid of empty her bladder and walk about. Sitting for prolonged
hurting their partner or the unborn child during inter- periods in one position can predispose the woman to clot
course. It may be helpful to have a tactful discussion re- formation. She should not decrease fluid intake to avoid
garding sexual concerns with the woman and the part- having to stop to void. Insufficient fluids can lead to de-
ner. During the third trimester, the male superior hydration and increase the risk for clot formation, con-
position may become difficult to accomplish. A side-ly- stipation, and hemorrhoids. There is no increased risk
ing or woman superior position might be easier. Vaginal with air travel, other than the risk of developing compli-
penetration is less deep with the male facing the cations in an area remote from the help needed.
woman’s back. This position might be more comfortable The greatest risk to the fetus during an automobile crash
for the woman (Trupin, 2006). is death of the mother. Therefore, all pregnant women
Sometimes the woman might be content with kissing, should use three-point seat belt restraints when traveling in
cuddling, and caressing as forms of sexual expression. If the car (Fig. 7-8). Teach the woman to apply the lap belt
her partner needs more release, the woman might stimu- snugly and comfortably. When driving, she should move
late him to ejaculation, or he may prefer to masturbate. the seat as far back as possible from the steering wheel.
The essential ingredient is ongoing respectful communi- The airbag should be engaged with the steering wheel
cation between the partners regarding their sexual needs tilted so that the airbag releases toward the breastbone
and desires. versus the abdomen or the head (Cesario, 2007).
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woman to report all herbal and over-the-counter reme- full-blown case of fetal alcohol syndrome, subtle features
dies to the PCP. Enhance communication by asking of the syndrome might present to include milder forms of
about herbal use in a nonthreatening way (Born & Bar- mental retardation and learning disabilities.
ron, 2005). Marijuana. There is conflicting data about the effects
of marijuana on pregnancy. Some studies suggest that
Teaching About Substance Use and Abuse marijuana use in pregnancy may slow fetal growth and
Substance use is a term that simply refers to use of a sub- possibly increase the risk for premature delivery. Infants
stance, whereas the term substance abuse specifically in- born to women who smoke marijuana during pregnancy
dicates that a person has a problem with the use of the show evidence of stressed nervous systems (March of
substance. Although many substances have the potential Dimes, 2006). These infants tend to have high-pitched
for abuse, this section covers caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, cries, tremulousness, and reduced response to visual
and recreational drug use. Chapter 20 provides more in stimuli. Researchers continue to study the long-term ef-
depth coverage of the fetal/neonatal effects of alcohol fects of marijuana use in pregnancy on the child.
and recreational drug use during pregnancy. Cocaine. Cocaine has many negative effects on preg-
Caffeine. There is controversy and uncertainty re- nancy. Pregnancy increases the cardiovascular dysfunc-
garding the role of caffeine use during pregnancy. Cur- tion associated with cocaine use. This puts the pregnant
rent recommendations are that the pregnant woman woman who uses cocaine at high risk for cardiac dys-
may safely consume coffee and caffeine in moderation. rhythmias and myocardial ischemia and infarction
The March of Dimes (2005) defines moderate as one to (Kuczkowski, 2005). Cocaine use is associated with a
two 8-oz cups of coffee per day. Although there is no de- higher rate of spontaneous abortion and premature la-
finitive proof that caffeine in larger doses causes prob- bor. Infants born to women who use cocaine during
lems in pregnancy, there is some evidence that the pregnancy tend to be small and have a higher incidence
woman who drinks three or more cups of coffee per day of low birth weight. Cocaine use during pregnancy can
may be at increased risk for spontaneous abortion or de- cause the placenta to pull away from the uterine wall
livering a low-birth-weight baby. prematurely (placental abruption), leading to fetal and
Tobacco. Smoking is contraindicated during preg- maternal hemorrhage. These infants exhibit withdrawal
nancy. Smoking increases the risk for low birth weight; behaviors after birth and must receive special treatment
preterm delivery; abortions; stillbirths; sudden infant for the withdrawal (see Chapter 20).
death syndrome; birth defects, such as cleft lip and
palate; and neonatal respiratory disorders, including Maintaining Safety of the Woman and Fetus
asthma. Smoking poisons the fetus with carbon monox- Monitor the pregnant woman at every visit for warning
ide and nicotine, leading to fetal hypoxia. It also affects signs (see Box 7-5). If she reports experiencing any of the
the placenta, causing it to age sooner than normal, a con- warning signs, notify the RN or PCP immediately. If at
dition that reduces blood flow to the fetus, contributing any time during the pregnancy an elevated blood pres-
to hypoxia and stunted growth. Despite these health haz- sure is noted, report this finding immediately to the RN
ards, approximately half a million women in the United or PCP, particularly if it is accompanied by a headache,
States continue to smoke during pregnancy (Chen et al., epigastric pain, or blurred vision.
2006), and these figures may actually be much higher due
to underreporting (Okah, et al., 2005). Although aids to Preparing the Woman for Labor, Birth,
stop smoking, such as nicotine gum and the new drug and Parenthood
varenicline (Chantix), are pregnancy Category C drugs Being prepared for labor, birth, and parenting boosts the
and the transdermal patch is in pregnancy Category D woman’s confidence and increases her use of positive cop-
(see Box 7-7), the risk of injury caused by smoking may ing measures. Many women search the Internet and read
outweigh the risk of harm from these drugs. books that address the birth and parenting experience.
The PCP should also provide lists of resources available in
Alcohol. There is no safe amount of alcohol consump-
the local community. Available resources may include
tion during pregnancy, but one in eight pregnant women
classes on a variety of topics offered by private practice or
consume alcohol (Krulewitch, 2005). A woman should
not-for-profit educational organizations or by hospitals.
not drink any alcoholic beverages during pregnancy be-
cause alcohol is a potent teratogen. Even one drink can Packing for the Hospital or Birthing Center. As the
cause an unborn baby long-term harm (Constantinou, woman prepares for the birth of her baby, she may begin
2005). For years, the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome has to gather items she will need at the hospital or birthing
been linked to the use of large amounts of alcohol during center. She should pack one bag of articles she will need
pregnancy. Characteristics of fetal alcohol syndrome in- for labor and another bag of things for her postpartum
clude microcephaly (a very small cranium), facial defor- stay and the trip home from the hospital (Box 7-8).
mities, growth restriction, and mental retardation. Al- Communicating Expectations About Labor and Birth.
though smaller amounts of alcohol may not lead to a It is important for the woman to feel comfortable
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Box 7-11 ❚ COMMON TOPICS INCLUDED Box 7-12 ❚ SUGGESTED ITEMS FOR THE
IN CHILDBIRTH EDUCATION LAYETTE
CLASSES
Clothes
■ Psychological and emotional aspects of pregnancy ■ 4–6 “onesies”
■ The normal, natural process of labor and birth ■ 3–4 hooded towels
changes resulting from the arrival of the new baby in the Expected Outcomes: The woman
family. The instructor demonstrates basic infant care, ■ verbalizes understanding of how to modify lifestyle
with emphasis on how the child can be included or help to accommodate the changing needs of pregnancy
with the tasks related to baby care. The class usually in- ■ answers questions regarding self-care appropriately
cludes tours of the maternal–child areas of the hospital. ■ asks informed questions
The instructor shares suggestions with parents on ways
Goal: The woman and fetus remain free from
to help the older siblings accept changes in the house-
preventable injury throughout the pregnancy.
hold after the baby arrives.
Expected Outcomes: The woman
In hospitals that allow siblings to attend births, sib-
■ schedules and attends prenatal visits
lings’ classes may include information on how to help
■ describes warning signs to report
prepare the older child for being present at delivery.
■ calls with questions and concerns
Most hospitals require an adult to be responsible for
■ calls if warning signs are experienced
children at birth, in addition to the partner who is car-
ing for the laboring woman. Goal: The woman will express confidence in her abil-
ity to go through the labor and birth experience
and assume the parenting role.
Evaluation: Goals and Expected Outcomes Expected Outcomes: The woman
Goal: The woman’s anxiety is reduced.
■ expresses realistic expectations regarding plans for
Expected Outcomes: The woman
labor and birth
■ verbalizes a reduction in anxiety ■ schedules and attends childbirth education and/or
■ names at least two outlets for dealing with her parenting classes
anxiety ■ prepares the home for arrival of the baby
KEY POINTS
➤ The goal of early prenatal care is to increase the ➤ The most common laboratory assessments (in addi-
chances that the fetus and the mother will remain tion to the Pap test) done on the first prenatal visit
healthy throughout pregnancy and delivery. include a complete blood count, blood type and
➤ The main goals of the first prenatal visit are to con- screen, hepatitis B, HIV, syphilis, gonorrhea,
firm a diagnosis of pregnancy, identify risk factors, Chlamydia, rubella titer, and a urine culture.
determine the due date, and provide education ➤ To calculate the estimated due date by Nagele’s
regarding self-care and danger signs of pregnancy. rule, add 7 days from the first day of the last men-
➤ The history at the first prenatal visit includes chief strual period, then subtract 3 months to obtain the
complaint, reproductive history, medical–surgical due date. Other methods for estimating the due
history, family history, and social history. The date use uterus size, landmarks in the pregnancy,
reproductive history includes the obstetric history, and ultrasonographic measurement of fetal
which looks at previous pregnancies and their out- structures.
comes. Determining the gravida and parity of the ➤ Any abnormal part of the history, physical
woman is an important part of the obstetric history. examination, or lab work can put the pregnancy at
The parity is usually further subdivided into the risk. A history of difficult pregnancy or pregnancy
number of term deliveries, preterm deliveries, abor- complications puts subsequent pregnancies at risk.
tions (spontaneous or induced), and living children. ➤ Subsequent prenatal visits are shorter and focus on
➤ A complete physical examination will be done dur- the weight, blood pressure, urine protein and
ing the first visit to include a breast exam, a specu- glucose measurements, fetal heart rate, and fundal
lum examination with a Pap test, and a bimanual height. Inquiry is made regarding the danger signals
examination of the uterus. of pregnancy at each prenatal visit.
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➤ Fetal kick counts are done by the woman at the same ➤ Vibroacoustic stimulation is a method by which
time each day. It should not take longer than 2 hours an artificial larynx is activated over the pregnant
to get to 10 counts. If it does, the woman should call abdomen to stimulate the fetus to move. This is
her primary care provider. done in conjunction with an equivocal nonstress
➤ Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to test.
visualize fetal and maternal structures. Ultrasound is ➤ CST is a test done to determine how well the fetus
done to determine or confirm gestational age, can handle the stress of contractions. Three
observe the fetus, and diagnose fetal and placental contractions are needed within a 20-minute period.
abnormalities. These can occur spontaneously or they may be in-
➤ Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein testing is duced by nipple stimulation or oxytocin infusion. A
recommended for every pregnant woman between 16 “negative” (desired) result occurs when there are no
and 18 weeks. Elevated levels are associated with var- decelerations during the test. If decelerations occur
ious defects, in particular fetal spinal defects. with one half or more of the contractions, this is a
➤ Triple-marker screening involves a blood test to deter- “positive” (undesirable) result.
mine levels of three hormones, maternal serum alpha- ➤ The biophysical profile combines the NST and sev-
fetoprotein, hCG, and unconjugated estriol. This test eral ultrasound measures, breathing, movements,
screens for chromosomal abnormalities, but an tone, and amniotic fluid volume to predict fetal
abnormal result does not mean that something is defi- well-being.
nitely wrong with the fetus. Further tests are needed. ➤ Common nursing diagnoses during the pregnancy
➤ Amniocentesis involves aspiration of amniotic fluid are anxiety, health-seeking behaviors, risk for
through the abdominal wall to obtain fetal cells for injury, and deficient knowledge.
chromosomal analysis. Amniocentesis is usually done ➤ Nursing interventions are tailored to the needs of
between 15 and 20 weeks’ gestation. the individual woman and are focused on relieving
➤ Chorionic villus sampling is similar to amniocentesis, anxiety and the common discomforts of pregnancy.
but it can be performed earlier, usually at 10 to 12 Interventions include assisting the woman to main-
weeks. Placental tissue is aspirated through a catheter tain a balanced nutritional intake, monitoring the
that is introduced into the cervix. blood pressure and weight and inquiring regarding
➤ Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) is sim- the danger signals at each visit, teaching throughout
ilar to an amniocentesis; however, fetal blood is with- the pregnancy, and helping the woman prepare for
drawn from the umbilical cord for testing, rather than labor, birth, and parenting. Refer the woman to
amniotic fluid. community resources, such as childbirth education
➤ The nonstress test measures fetal heart rate accelera- or sibling classes.
tion patterns. A reactive NST is reassuring. The CST ➤ Nursing care has been successful if the woman is
exposes the fetus to the stress of uterine contractions. less anxious, reports that pregnancy discomforts are
A negative CST is reassuring. A positive CST tolerable, consumes a balanced diet, and verbalizes
indicates probable hypoxia or fetal asphyxia. an understanding of self-care.
Nutrition Medications
www.mypyramid.gov www.cc.nih.gov/phar/updates
Childbirth
www.childbirth.org
www.lamaze.org
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